3

METAL-FORMING MACHINES

The production term 'metal forming' implies the forming of a component through plastic
deformation of the raw material in the solid state. During the process, there is no significant
change in mass or volume of the material The processes involved are classified according to
the main stresses experienced by the material during forming (Fig. 3.1). In most cases,
however, a number of stresses are experienced simultaneously.
A different classification criterion is the forming temperature. The differentiation lies between
cold and hot forming. In cold forming, the work is formed at room temperature, whereas in hot
forming, the process takes place
at a temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the work material. The resulting
increase in ductility demands a lesser forming energy and consequently a relatively lower
forming force. The resistance to deformation of C15 steel in relation to temperature is
illustrated in Fig. 3.2. The heat resistance of the forming dies, the grain growth of the material
and the costs of energy are the limiting factors for temperature when hot forming.

METAL FORMING

Compression Tension Tension Bending Thrust

forming compression forming forming
forming

Fig. 3.1 Classification of metal forming

34
Fig. 3.2 Relationship between forming stress (kf) and temperature (T)

35
3.1 Functional principles of metal-forming machines

The required forces and energy for the forming of the component are generated by the
machine and transmitted to the material with the aid of suitably formed dies. The frictional
resistance to the material flow within the dies must also be overcome.
Figure 3.3 gives an insight into the broad classification of the functional principles of metal-
forming machines. As a first division, machines are classified according to the dominating
criteria: energy-constrained, motion-constrained or force-constrained machines.
Drop hammers and screw presses are machines whose work capacities represent the
characterizing features. The metal-forming process is completed when the potential or kinetic
energy is converted into work on the component as a result of the straight line or rotary motion
of masses (energy-constrained machines, Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3 Functional principles of forming machines

In the case of excentric, crankshaft, toggle and wedge presses, the movement of the ram,
which is determined by the dead centre of the crank, is a description of its capacity (motion-
constrained machines). Included in this group are rolling mills in which the limiting capacity is
the amount of possible movement of the rolls (Fig. 3.3).
For hydraulic presses, the over-riding capacity limitations arise from the force available in the
line of movement of the ram, which results from the pressure in the system and the are a of the
piston (force-constrained machines, Fig. 3.3).

36
When selecting a machine for a specific metal-forming operation, a whole range of criteria
must be considered. A few of the more important ones are as follows:
Bending process
Die-forging process (onto a plane or onto volume)
Die-cutting process
Wire and bar drawing process
Extruding process under heat
Spinning process
Cold-rolling process
Embossing process etc.

An insight into the interdependence of the respective influences of component, dies, machine
and the position of the machine in the factory (environment) is shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Action sequence and characteristics of the process-tool-component-machine elements

37
3.2 Hammers

Generally, hammers are used for die forging. The high forming speeds used permit the forging
of components with relatively thin webs. Hammers belong to the energy-constrained group of
machines, i.e. during pure plastic deformation, the ram or tup of the hammer comes to rest
when the kinetic energy is totally absorbed by the forming action. The time required for this
transformation is dependent upon the resistance to plastic flow of the material within the die.
On the point of impact, when the die halves make contact with the forging ram, high peaks of
force are evident. A part of the energy is used to distort the tup and the lower support of the
hammer, the reaction of which causes the tup to be pushed upwards (elastic thrust).
For the drive of the upper tup, or in some cases the lower tup, a wide variety of constructive
design s have been applied. About 90% of all die forging in Germany is by drop hammers,
(Fig. 3.5). These are distinguished by the feature that the upper tup, to which the upper die is
fixed, is raised to a pre-determined height, and is allowed to drop under the force of gravity.
The varying drive mechanisms used to raise the tup give the various type s their particular
name, such as belt-driven, board, chain, or drap hammers with hydraulic drives (Fig. 3.6). If
the tup is given some additional driving force during its downward movement (steam or
compressed air), then such devices are known as pressure hammers. With such additional
forces, the work capacity of the hammer is increased, or for a given work capacity, the machine
height (and therefore drop height) may be reduced.
A further increase in the capacity of the hammer (i.e. its power and forming capacity) can be
achieved by arranging for the upper and lower tup to travel at the same velocity towards each
other. This kind of motion, of the dual-action drop hammer, has a further advantage in that
theoretically there are no reactive forces in the machine base of the l5-ind which are normally
present in ordinary drop-forging hammers.
Floor vibrations caused by drop hammers can have a highly detrimental effect on the
environment of the rest of the factory and its neighbours. As a result, great attention must
normally be paid to mount the machines on suitable foundations, so that the vibrations may be
restricted to acceptable proportions. A number of possible solutions to the problem of reducing
vibrations using different foundations is shown in Fig. 3.7.

38
 Fig. 3.5 Belt-operated drop hammer

Fig. 3.6 Forms of drop-forging hammer construction

39
 Fig. 3.7 Vibration insulations for forming machines

Figure 3.8 shows a pressure hammer with a solid cast-steel hammer body. Hammers are
built for forging work up to 1000 kNm and up to 240 strokes per minute. Contact speed up to
20 m/s are achievable.

Fig. 3.8 Drop-forge hammers

40
3.3 Screw presses

Screw presses are energy-constrained forming machines which obtain their work capacity from
a rotating mass (flywheel). Figure 3.9 shows a variety of flywheel drives. The rotary motion of
the flywheel is converted into the linear motion of the ram in the machine frame by the use of a
lead screw and nut drive. The drive for the flywheel is normally arranged with a triple-disc
friction drive, which is fitted above the machine, together with its electric motor (Fig. 3.9a). The
flywheel has a fixed connection with the lead screw, which usually has a three-start thread. The
nut is fixed at the head of the machine frame and the lead screw, together with its flywheel,
travels in the nut in a vertical direction. During the downward motion, the radius of contact of
the driving disc increases. A desirable increase in flywheel speed results, although the driving
disc rotates at constant speed. On the return movement of the ram, the opposite driving disc is
in contact with the flywheel, but the transmission relationships are disadvantageous. Whilst the
contact is at the maximum diameter of the driving disc, the flywheel must be accelerated from a
near-stationary state. Consequently, there is a great deal of slipping and consequent wear of
the friction surfaces. With more-complicated drives, e.g. those shown in Fig. 3.9b and 3.9c,
this disadvantage of the conventional triple-disc drive is avoided.

Fig. 3.9 Flywheel drives for screw presses

Figure 3.10 illustrates a screw press of recent design, in which the rotor of the drive motor is
directly connected to the flywheel and lead screw. The machine frame, which is in two main
sections, is pre-stressed with tie bars. The pre-stress force, as well as the forming force, is

41
transmitted through the nuts from the machine frame to the tie bar, and the nuts are designed
as safety devices to prevent overloads on the thread.
The maximum working capacities of modem screw presses are of the range of 2450 kNm,
resulting in working forces up to 120 MN, and maximum speeds up to 30 strokes per minute
are achieved. As a result of their short, sharp and heavy blows (which are in between the
action of hammers and crank presses), screw presses are preferable for large and heavy
forging work.

Fig. 3.10 Screw press

42
3.4 Eccentric and crank presses

Eccentric and crank presses belong to the inertia-conversion type of metal-forming machines,
which are distinguished by the use of a crank mechanism. In the case of eccentric presses, the
ram is activated by means of an eccentric cam as in Fig. 3.11. In the case of crank presses,
the stroke of the ram is fixed in accordance with the 'throw' of the crank shaft. However, these
very simple definitions are not always respected by either press manufacturers or press users.
In general, eccentric presses have a considerably smaller ram stroke when compared with
crank presses of similar physical size.

Fig. 3.11 Inclinable eccentric press with variable stroke

Crank presses are used for metal farming, requiring farces up to approximately 1000 kN and
for the so-called high-speed presses (up to approximately 1200 strokes per minute). This
means that a variable stroke is sacrificed for the sake of simple construction and greater rigidity
of the crank drive. Eccentric presses are mainly used for blanking from sheet metal as well as
for some bending and coining where a smaller stroke is adequate.

43
Crank presses are preferred for metal forming where the velocity during the stroke does not
need to be constant, i.e. extrusion, deep drawing, bending and swaging.
The maximum load capabilities are mainly determined by the design of the drive for the crank.
The constructional details of eccentric and crank presses are substantially similar, with the
exception of the stroke adjustment of the eccentric drum. The electric motor drives the
eccentric or crank shaft through a belt or gear drive, in turn operating the connecting rod which
is attached to the usually vertically moving ram (Fig. 3.12).

Fig. 3.12 Schematic lay-out of drive for a crank press

Far deep drawing, double-acting presses are required. While the punch of the drawing tool,
which is attached to the press ram, pushes the blank through the drawing die, the outer rim of
the blank must have a pressure applied to it through a pressure pad to prevent the 'crimping'
of the undrawn material. The material is allowed to slip under the pressure pad into the die as
the punch advances.
Figure 3.13 shows the principle of operation of a mechanical pressure-plate mechanism. An
auxiliary slide is activated by the crank in a vertical movement of opposite direction to that of

44
the drawing ram. The movement is transmitted to the pressure ram through the rocker lever
and pressure rod. The pressure ram remains in a constant position during the actual deep-
drawing stroke of the drawing punch as a result of the setting of positive stops on the drive
mechanism. The pressure mechanism, the lever and the pressure rod start their reverse
movement at about the same time.

Fig. 3.13 Drive for a double-acting deep-drawing press

There are two basic forms of construction: the open 'C' construction and the closed 'O'
construction, as shown in Fig. 3.14. The 'C' construction suffers from the disadvantage that the
frame tends to, open during the forming operation. This may cause misalignment of the two
halves of the tool. There is, however, the advantage of maximum accessibility to the working
space from three sides. Closed-construction machines are preferred whenever the tools
require careful alignment while the forces generated by the forming operation are acting.

45
The ram is contained in plain or roller slides. The eccentric drum or the crankshaft is situated in
the head of the machine structure. In the case of the much rarer up-stroke presses, the
crankshaft and its drive are placed under the work space.

Fig. 3.14 Forms of press frame construction

3.5 Toggle presses

The difference between toggle presses and crank or eccentric presses (section 3.4) lies in the
principle of their drives. The forming forces are mainly transmitted through the toggle to the
ram and the upper section of the machine structure. The toggle is activated by the use of
hydraulic piston/cylinder systems or a crank drive as in Fig. 3.15. As a result of the great
efficiency with which the toggle can transmit power, only a fraction of the forming force is
transmitted to stressed parts of the drive units such as the pressure rod and crankshaft and its
bearings.
Toggle presses enable the use of considerably higher forming forces than eccentric and crank
presses. Their disadvantage. is the very short distance of the ram stroke over which the rated
machine power is available. Hence presses with an adjustable, crank-operated toggle action
are used for preference in metal-forming operations, where a large force is required over a
short distance (e.g. coining, and impact extrusion of tubes).

46
 Fig. 3.15 Press with knee-toggle action

The productivity is mainly dependent upon the number of strokes per minute. An increase
of the number of strokes per minute is generally restricted by technological factors. Generally,
an increase in the speed of forming brings about higher maximum forces. In addition,
unacceptably high dynamic vibrations may be experienced by the tool, which would lead to
excessive wear rates. An increase in the number of strokes per minute is only possible when
the speed of the non-productive movements can be increased (e.g. return stroke and rapid
approach of the ram), while the actual working part of the stroke is relatively slow. This would
require careful design of the drive mechanism, (the lay-out of a forming machine having these
characteristics is shown in Fig. 3.16). The power is transmitted from the electric motor to a
stepless drive unit and through the clutch to the worm drive, which drives both synchronized
crankshafts by means of spur gears. The two crankshafts have unequal throws and generate
sine curve movements of equal frequency but different amplitude. The dead centres are

47
relatively displaced, so that for this double knee-toggle mechanism, the characteristic ram
displacement diagram shown in Fig. 3.16 (right) applies.
The velocity of the working ram remains low and almost constant during its working distance
over a relatively large rotational angle of the crankshaft, whilst the approach and the return of
the ram is in relation quite rapid.

Fig. 3.16 Double knee-toggle mechanism

3.6 Wedge presses

A wedge press is a mechanically or hydraulically operated press able to exert high forces. The
ram is moved by using a wide wedge which is placed between the upper part of the frame and
the ram as shown in Fig. 3.17. The wedge has an angle of approximately 30°. Afte r allowing
for some frictional losses, there remains a force transmission ratio between the force available
from the ram and the input force on the wedge of about 2: 1. In a mechanical wedge press, the
wedge is moved by a crank mechanism, which is situated on the rear of the press (Fig. 3.18).
The large area of contact between the wedge and the ram, as well as the massive structure of
the press frame, makes this type of press particularly suitable for off-centre and unevenly
distributed loads. The ram will not tilt under load, and hence wedge presses are highly suitable
for die forging of precision forgings and for work which induces unavoidable off-centre and

48
unevenly distributed machine loads. The height of wedge presses is lower than those of
comparable crank presses as a result of the side mounting of the drive.

Fig. 3.17 Forging press with wedge motion

Fig. 3.18 Wedge press

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Special drive elements suitable for mechanical wedge presses are shown in Fig. 3.19.
Mechanical wedge presses are available in a range of ratings from 20 to 120 MN and speeds
of 30-70 strokes per minute. Hydraulic wedge presses can produce forces up to 800 MN.

Fig. 3.19 Drive elements of a wedge press

3.7 Hydraulic presses

Hydraulic presses belong to the force-constrained type of forming machines. Their main use is
found in those areas of forming technology where the force along the path of the ram must
remain constant or under accurate control. The drive mechanism of piston and cylinder acts in
a linear manner and is directly connected to the ram. The form of frame construction of
hydraulic presses (Fig. 3.20) is largely similar to that of mechanical presses. The hydraulic
drive units are easily accommodated in the machine frame. Consequently, several hydraulic
drives can readily be built into a single machine for complicated forming and cutting operations
(drawing, extruding, cutting, swaging, etc.), and the required motions may be easily co-
ordinated.

50
 Fig. 3.20 Hydraulic press

For example, the fine blanking process requiring a triple-action press is illustrated in Fig.
3.21. The power input starts with the electric motor through an axial crank pump to the
pressurized storage cylinder. The pressurized oil advances through a control valve into the
working cylinder. To obtain the fast closing movement, oil is directed from the pressurized
storage cylinder into the rapid-closing cylinder, so that the main operating crank draws oil from
the tank: The cutting stroke requires the diversion of the pressurized oil into the main cylinder.
The rate of flow from the pump is used to govern the required ram speed. On reaching the top
of its stroke, the ram contacts a dead stop. The load is removed from the main crank and the
rapid-closing crank, and they are switched to activate the return stroke. The force acting on the
circular indentation and the reacting force are also provided hydraulically, and must be able to
be regulated independently. The individual functions of the tool and machine in a single ram
stroke are illustrated in Fig. 3.22. These interdependent movements and power applications
are easily controlled in multi-acting hydraulic presses.

51
 Fig. 3.21 Hydraulic circuit of a fine-blanking press

Fig. 3.22 Working sequence of a fine-blanking press tool

52
The advantages of the controllable hydraulic press drive are also used for manual forging.
However, for cutting, blanking and automatic metal forming requiring high stroke rates (up to
1400 strokes per minute), mechanical operation is far superior.

3.8 Rolling metal machines

Rolling is defined as constant or rhythmic pressurized metal forming, using one or more
revolving tools (rolls). The power is normally transmitted to the driving rolls and 1ess commonly
to the work, so that it drives the rolls. Cast ingots are reduced to the desired profile (sheet, T-,
U- and I-section joists) by hot rolling. Bright sheet is cold rolled, using hot-rolled pickled black
sheet.
The c1assification of rolling mills depends on the number and arrangement of rolls which are
contained in a single rolling mill, as shown in Fig. 3.23. Small roll diameters allow for large
reductions per pass with relatively low rolling power. Large support rolls absorb the thrust of
rolling when small rolls are in use. The rolls have a curved profile to compensate for the bowing
tendencies of the work.
As it is frequently not possible to achieve the desired reduction in a single pass, the rolls are
reversed for discontinuous rolling or several rolling mil1s are placed in line in do se proximity
for continuous rolling.
Figure 3.24 illustrates the arrangement of a stretch rolling mill for stepped metal forming. The
tools are easily interchangeable rolling segments. Normally stretch mills utilize a reversing roll
principle, i.e. the work, which is mainly hand fed, is rolled in one rotation and then passed back.
If necessary, the work is then passed through a pair of adjacent rolls, which are more closely
spaced. The individual rolls on modem machines are driven by variable speed DC motors as
these are highly suitable for the heavy duties demanded by this forming process. Automatic
programmed controls using a process computer are used in heavy-duty rolling mills to
determine the optimum conditions in accordance with all the input factors (rate of reduction of
area, temperature, rolling speed, etc.)

53
Fig. 3.23 Forms of construction of rolling mills

Fig. 3.24 Stretch-rolling mills

54
3.9 Wire and rod-drawing machines

Wire and rod are produced by hot rolling down to minimum diameters of about 8 mm. Further
working to diameters down to 0.01 mm is achieved by drawing in wire-drawing machines. This
process results in the work hardening of the material, a very good surface finish and good
accuracies in form and size. The forming action takes place in the drawing die, which is made
of carbides for large to medium diameters, and diamond for small diameters (Fig. 3.25). The
wire is reduced in diameter at the beginning to enable it to pass through the die to serve as a
pulling lead. After passing it through the die, it is attached to a tension drum, which applies the
force to pull the wire through and rolls up the drawn wire. As the maximum reduction in cross-
sectional area at each stage must not exceed given proportions, several dies must be
employed to produce small diameters.

Fig. 3.25 Multiple wire-drawing machine

In a similar manner, the diameter of tubes and rods may be reduced by drawing. Figure 3.26
shows the arrangement for a continuous drawing machine for tubes and rods. The two drawing
carriages move in opposite directions on the draw bank. They are synchronized in such a
manner that as one draw carriage is connected to the tube or rod and is drawing it through the
die, the other carriage is free and returning. The second carriage takes up the drawing function
shortly before the first one has reached the end of its travel. In order that the take-over of one

55
carriage from the other occurs without shock, the speed of the two carriages is carefully
synchronized.

Fig. 3.26 Tube-drawing machine and rod-drawing machine

3.10 Spinning machines

Spinning machines are suitable for metal spinning as well as for spin rolling. Spinning produces
round hollow components, which are symmetrical about their axis, from sheet-metal discs,
without an intentional reduction in wall thickness. When spin rolling as in Fig. 3.27, wall
thinning can be introduced by an increase in the rolling pressure.

Fig. 3.27 Numerically controlled spinning machine

56
Both techniques can be performed on machines which are similar in basic construction to
lathes. On a spinning machine, the place of a chuck on the end of the spindle is taken by a
pattern of the required interior of the work. The spinning tool is supported on the toolpost. The
sheet-metal blank or the preformed component is gripped between the rotating pattern (or
former) and the tail stock. Large machines of this type permit the working of blanks up to 80
mm in thickness, and to diameters up to 6 m. Similarly, stainless steels up to 20 mm in
thickness may be spun. The metal-forming process of spinning requires a number of passes by
the spinning tool, which gradually approaches the final form. The control of the movement of
the spinning tool is carried out by using cams or by numerical control.
Because of the low tooling costs involved, spinning and spin rolling lend themselves
particularly well to 'one off' and small-batch production, especially as it is frequently possible to
carry out cutting, stiffening, grooving and flanging operations on the same machine.

3.11 Cold-rolling machines

Cold-rolling techniques are applied when the aim is either to improve the surface finish,
dimensional accuracy and the surface hardness of the work or to add a profile to the external
surface of a round symmetrical workpiece. Cold-rolling machines as shown in Fig. 3.28 also
resemble lathes in their general construction, but the generation of much higher forces,
resulting from rolling as opposed to turning, require much larger machine components.

Fig. 3.28 Cold-rolling machine

57
If the main purpose is simply to improve the surface finish, the term plain rolling may be
applied. In contrast, size rolling makes an attempt to change the shape and/or control the size
of the component. When cold rolling a profile, residual compressive stresses are raised at
stress-raising section-change points, which considerably improve fatigue strength. The three
forms of cold rolling referred to are mainly differentiated by the degree of pressure which the
rolls impart to the work. Profiles such as splines and gear teeth up to about module 4 may be
rolled on to the periphery of circular blanks (see Chapter 9). Rolled threads have an advantage
over cut threads as a result of the reduction of material required to produce them as well as the
uninterrupted grain-structure flow, which results in a considerable increase of tensile strength.

3.12 Extrusion machines

Extrusion machines belong to the area of heavy-duty metal forming. The process entails the
use of material which has been heated above its recrystallization temperature, placed in a
container and then pressed through a profiled orifice in an extrusion die. By this means, bars
and tubes of regular and irregular profiles may be produced. A distinction is made between
direct and indirect extrusion as illustrated in Fig. 3.29.

Fig. 3.29 Extrusion machine

58
The extrusion machine in Fig. 3.29 is of the horizontal type. Fundamentally, it consists of the
following main machine components; the power unit (i.e. the cylinder mounting with, pressure
cylinder and piston to which the ram is attached), the movable ingot container, the thrust strut
(on which the extrusion die is mounted) and the machine base. Two or four tension pillars
absorb the high forces exerted between cylinder and thrust block. The container mount is
adjustable on the frame to extract the unused end slug.
Materials used for extension range from the easily extruded pure aluminium through a variety
of different materials, to very difficulty-extrude, highly alloyed steels. Extrusion temperatures
vary from 400 to 1500º K according to the material.

3.13 Briquetting and pelleting machines

Developing trends in waste treatment has been oriented towards to briquetting and peletting
technology. The principle of this technology leads for compressing of the solid organic waste in
order to obtain energy utilisation. Effectiveness of briquetting and pelleting processes depends
on machine design applied Fig. 3.30 shows the briquetting machine with exchangeable tools (
pressing effectors ) for producing the briquetts or pellets. Fig. 3.31 illustrates the machine
design of the two-chamber press. Advantages of this design is in no doubt.
Fig. 3.32 shows the concept of pelleting machine. This concept can be utilised in a lot of
modifications concerning pressed material, form and size of pellets and drive power, etc.

Fig. 3.30 Briquetting machine Fig. 3.31 Two-chamber press

59
 Fig. 3.32 Pelleting machine

3.14 Bending machines

Bending machines for sheet-metal work are divided into machines with straight-line tool
motions and those with rotating tool motions.
Figure 3.33 shows a die-bending machine (linear drive) which is capable of bending sheet-
metal blanks in an open die with a sharp comer or a given radius.

Fig. 3.33 Straight-line bending machine

60
Figure 3.34 illustrates a bending machine for pivot bending, i.e. a bending process where the
tool has rotating motion. The work, consisting of a suitably shaped sheet-metal blank, is
securely clamped between the top and bottom clamping bar and bent through the desired
angle by the bending beam. The bending beam is operated manually, but for metal thicknesses
greater than 2.5 mm or longer bending length, a motorized drive is used.

Fig. 3.34 Pivoted bending machine

For the manufacture of cylindrical containers, rotary rolling machines may be used. In general,
three rollers are arranged as in Fig. 3.35, two of which are driven. The asymmetric
arrangement ensures that the component is bent right up to its end; if the arrangement was
symmetrical, the ends would remain straight. The upper roller is in a fixed position, and is not
driven; the lower rollers are driven and adjusted in accordance with the required bending radius
and the metal thickness. To extract the finished component, one of the bearing housings of the
upper roller is opened.

Fig. 3.35 Rotary rolling machine

61
3.15 Safety devices for metal-forming machines

Metal-forming machines are fitted with mechanical and electronic devices which are intended
to prevent injury to an operator, as well as overload and damage to the machine, tool and
workpiece, and to guard against undue interference with the immediate and the more remote
environment. These safety provisions should not cause more than absolutely unavoidable
interference with the actual operation and not make the production process uneconomic.
To prevent injury to the operator, the work space is made inaccessible during the working
stroke of the machine by the use of guards. Such invisible devices as photo-electric cells and
light curtains are suitable for preventing inadvertent operation of the machine during the
manual loading of the work by the operator. Suitable legislation has been enacted with the help
of the main trade unions involved.
A further protection for the operator, although not always adequate, is the two-handed
control system of metal-forming machines. In this case, the initiation of the working stroke is
only possible when the controls are activated with both hands simultaneously. The controls
have to be held in this way throughout the whole of the forming process. The next working
stroke after the machine has been reloaded can only be activated after the controls have been
released and operated again with both hands.
For overload protection of metal-forming machines, mechanical fracture plates have proved
successful, as may be seen in the example shown in Fig. 3.36. Here a circular ring-shaped
safety plate is sheared if the nominal maximum load of the press is exceeded.
The tools may be damaged if, for example, the finished components do not freely clear the
working space of the tool before the next workpiece is loaded. To safeguard the working area,
mechanical or electronic sensors are frequently built into the tools.
Another possibility for tool guarding is the constant monitoring of the forces present. An
unplanned (e.g. premature) increase in load, as a result of uncleared finished work, has the
effect of immediately bringing the tool motion to rest through the activation of fast-operating
clutches and brakes.
Interference and detrimental effects on the environment from metal-forming machines are
mainly caused by vibrations and noise emissions. These interferences on the surrounding
areas are minimized by the use of damping devices, sound proofing, vibration-isolating
machine mounts and special technological techniques applied to the foundations and noise
emission.

62
 Fig. 3.36 Mechanical overload protections in press rams

Fig. 3.37 Hydraulic overload safety device for mechanical presses

63
In addition to mechanical overload-protection devices, hydraulic safety devices are employed
in eccentric and crank presses as shown in Fig. 3.37. The underside of the valve plate, which
is supported by the valve seating against the housing, is fed with pressurized oil. The operating
force is transmitted through the connecting rod, pressure casting and adjusting sleeve to the
valve plate. If the force exceeds the pre-set force which can be controlled by means of the oil
pressure, then the valve plate will be lifted from its seating. This breaks the force transmission
between the connecting rod and the ram, and the oil flows at atmospheric pressure over the
valve plate into the free space above it. A pressure switch will then stop the machine.
The hydraulic overload safety unit has an advantage over its mechanical counterpart in that the
maximum operating force can be easily set by adjusting the oil pressure. After the overload
device has operated, the press may be re-set to its operating condition within a few minutes.

Questions :

1. Could you draw up a relationship between forming force vs driven part path at the basic
forming processes ( Forming characteristics of the metal-forming process)?

2. What is a die-forging process ? Draw up a drop-forging hammer sketch?

3. Can you carry out the schemes of drive kinematic units for : screw press, excentric and
crank presses, toggle press, wedge press, hydraulic press and compare it to rolling metal
machines and wire and rod-drawing machine, spinning machine and bending machines?

4. Could you draw up a scheme of work at an extrusion process to a briquetting and

pelleting processes?

5. How you can elliminate noice and vibrations of material-forming machines?

6. What control systems can be applied in forming / forging machines?

64