CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certify that she has read and hereby recommends for the acceptance by the

University of Dodoma a dissertation entitled investigation on the “Challenges Facing Open

and Distance learning Students: Experiences from Students of the Open University of

Tanzania ” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Education of the University of Dodoma.

-------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Elinami Swai

(SUPERVISOR)

Date----------------------------------------------

i
 DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT

I, Raymond Mutasingwa Bitegeko, declare that this is my own original work and that it

has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University for a similar or any

other degree award.

Signature--------------------------------------

COPYRIGHT

No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University

of Dodoma.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the people who have contributed to this dissertation. To begin

with I thank my supervisor, Dr. Elinami Swai, in addition to her valuable expertise in ODL

and higher education research; she made my experience of undertaking this research a

joyous and rewarding one. Her dedication and professionalism were and will continue to be

an inspiration to me.

I am indebted to my family for their continued support and understanding. Special thanks

should go to my mother, Mrs.Avestina Kokuletage; to my young brothers, Johanes

Rwelamira and Aristides Mutalemwa, and to my loved sister, Fortunata Nyangoma. Their

support brought light into hours of my darkness.

I would also like to thank my colleague, Mr.Moses Mangasa, who provided support when

times were difficult. Likewise, I express my sincere thanks to all my friends; for all that

have been sustenance and inspiration to me.

Lastly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all respondents for the time and

enthusiasm, which they gladly contributed to my research. Sharing their personal

experiences and perspectives made this study possible.

iii
 DEDICATION

In loving memory of my father, Francis Mutagaywa

iv
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate and document the challenges facing Open and

Distance Learning students at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT). The study was conducted

at OUT-Kagera Regional Centre where it involved a sample of 61 respondents including an

academic staff, 39 continuing students and 21 former OUT students.

The study employed stratified random and purposive sampling techniques. The stratified random

sampling was used to choose the respondents from two groups namely, continuing and former

students. Whereas, purposive sampling was used to select students and the academic staff who

were subjected to interviews. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches. A

predominantly descriptive design was employed in the study. The main data collection techniques

were questionnaires and structured interviews, supplemented by documentary review. Tables,

frequencies and percentages were the key descriptive statistics used to analyze and present the

findings.

The results showed that distances learners were challenged with a range of obstacles in their

course of studies. The most reported challenges were lack of sufficient time for self study,

difficulties in access and use of ICT, ineffective feedback and lack of study materials.

It was recommended that, OUT should strive to achieve effective and balanced teaching and

learning system that satisfies the desire of the learners to the extent that they would wish to come

back to the institution for further studies and feel proud to recommend the institution to others

who are seeking for knowledge. Finally, areas for further research have been identified.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION............................................................................................................................i
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT...........................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES..............................................................................................ix
LIST OF APPENDICES..................................................................................................................x
ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................1
1.1 The Problem and its Context---------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem.....................................................................................10
1.3 The Purpose of the Study.....................................................................................................11
1.4 The General Objectives of the Study.......................................................................................11
1.5 Specific Objectives..............................................................................................................11
1.6 Research Questions..............................................................................................................11
1.7 Scope of the Study...............................................................................................................12
1.8 Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................12
1.9. Research Constraints..........................................................................................................12
1.10. Definitions of Key Terms.................................................................................................13
1.11 Chapter Summary..............................................................................................................14
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................15
LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................15
2.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................15
2.1 The Theoretical Framework................................................................................................15
2.1.1 Bean and Metzner’s (1985) Student Attrition Theory.................................................15
2.1.2 Transactional Distance Theory.....................................................................................17
2.2 Challenges Facing ODL Students........................................................................................19
2.2.1 Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students..................................................21

vi
 2.2.2 Instructional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students............................................26
2.2.3 Institutional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students...............................................29
2.2.4 Summary of Challenges Facing ODL Students............................................................33
2.3 Research Gap.......................................................................................................................34
2.4 Conceptual Framework........................................................................................................34
2.5 Chapter Summary................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................35
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................36
3.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................36
3.1 Design of the Study.............................................................................................................36
3.2 Research Approach..............................................................................................................37
3.3 Study Area...........................................................................................................................38
3.4 The Study Population..........................................................................................................39
3.5 Sampling and Sampling Procedures....................................................................................39
3.5.1 Stratified Random Sampling Technique.......................................................................39
3.5.2 Stratified Purposive Sampling Technique....................................................................40
3.6 Data Collection Instruments................................................................................................40
3.6.1 Questionnaires..............................................................................................................41
3.6.2 Interviews.....................................................................................................................42
3.6.3 Documentary Review...................................................................................................44
3.8 Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................47
3.8.1 Validity.........................................................................................................................47
3.8. 2 Reliability....................................................................................................................47
3.9 Ethical Issues.......................................................................................................................47
3.10. Chapter Summary.............................................................................................................48
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................49
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.....................................................49
4.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................49
4.1 Sample Descriptions and Scene Setting..............................................................................49
4.1.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents.......................................................50
4.1.2 Setting the Scene...........................................................................................................52
4.2. Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students........................................................53
4.3 Instructional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students.....................................................63
4.4 Institutional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students....................................................70

vii
 4.7 Summary of Chapter Four...................................................................................................81
CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................84
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................84
5.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................84
5.1 Over view of the Study........................................................................................................84
5.3 Conclusions..........................................................................................................................85
5.3 Recommendations................................................................................................................87
5.5 Implications for Further Research.......................................................................................89
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................91
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................................100

viii
 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1a: Estimated Enrollments in Selected ODL Institutions in Africa--------- 2
Table 1.1b: OUT Enrollments and Graduation in Degree Programs 2000-2009-- - 3
Table 4.1a: Gender Distributions of the Respondents----------------------------------- 50
Table 4.1b: Age Group of Respondents--------------------------------------------------- 50
Table 4.2a: Responses on Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students 53
Table 4.2b: Computer Ownership and Application Skills---------------------------- 56
Table 4.3a: Responses on Selected Instructional Related Challenges---------- - 63
Table 4.3b: Responses on Feedback Timing -------------------------------------- 64
Table 4.3c: Responses on Lost Assignments /Timed Test Scripts ------------ 65
Table 4.4a: Responses on Rating Selected Institutional Related Challenges-- 70
Table 4.4b: Timing of Study Materials at Regional Centre- ------------------- 72
Table 4.4c: Effectiveness of Administrative Staff in Services Delivering ------- 78
Table 4.5d: Attendance of Orientations Sessions -------------------------------------- 80

LIST OF AT BLES AND FIGURES

Figure 2.6: Conceptual Framework--------------------------------------------------------- 34

Figure 4.5: The Conceptual Map Illustrating the Consequences of Lack of Study
Materials-- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74

ix
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Questionnaire for Continuing Students ----------------- 100

Appendix B: Interview Schedule for OUT Regional Director/

Representative Staff ------------------------------------------------------ 106

Appendix C: Interview Guide for Continuing and Former Student- 107

Appendix D: Work Plan ------------------------------------------------- 108

x
 ABBREVIATIONS

CD-ROMs Compact Disc- Read Only Memory

CES-UNAM Centers of External Studies at University of Namibia
DL Distance Learning
DRC Director of Regional Centre
ICT Information and Communications Technologies
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OL Open Learning
OUT Open University of Tanzania
RC Regional Centre
SARIS Student Academic Results Information System
TDT Transactional Distance Theory
UDSM University of Dar es Salaam
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
US United States

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

Considering the global challenges of higher education, it is not surprising that Open

and Distance Learning (ODL) is an important strategy towards resolving problems

of access, quality and equity (UNESCO, 2004). Adopting ODL in Universities is

both the matter of responding to global demands and providing opportunities to

individual who wish to fulfill their education potential. Mushi (2001) reminded

Tanzania’s universities that, in order to remain locally and internationally

competitive, they should look for possibilities of combining traditional residential

and distance learning.

However, in the implementation of a distance-learning programme, there are unique

problems that stand against achieving programme goals. Of all problems, the key

ones are high rate student drop-out and late completion. Drop-out rates vary between

countries. Carr (2000) indicated that in the United States, drop-out rates range from

20% to 50%. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

(2000) reported that drop-out ranges from 20% in the United Kingdom to 45% or

more in Austria, France, Portugal and Turkey; and 35% in Italy. In Africa, it is

estimated that attrition rates toll 50% (Daniel, 2005). Further, among the distance

learners who survive from drop-out take a long time to complete their studies than it

was anticipated (Mbukusa, 2009; Bhalalusesa, 1999; Daniel, 2005; Tyler-Smith,

2006)

xii
Such high drop-out and late completion are the signs that, there are several

underlying challenges facing the ODL students (Senanayake & Dadigamuwa, 2005;

Tyler--Smith, 2006). The challenges facing distance learners fall into several

categories such as situational, attitudinal psychological, and pedagogical (Berge et

al., 2002); and institutional and socio-cultural related challenges (Zirnkle, 2001).

Regardless of these categorizations, these challenges emerge from three particular

levels: Individual student, instructional and institutional. As ODL is a dynamic field,

it is imperative to construct knowledge as students narrate challenges that

overwhelm them when attempting to access learning opportunities.

1.1 The Problem and its Context

The establishment of Open and Distance Learning institutions around the world is to

address the education and re-educational needs of individual learners and workforce

(Pierrakeas et al., 2004). Open Universities in particular typically develop

educational activities underpinned by an educational philosophy fundamentally

different from those held by conventional educational systems. The main aspect of

this philosophy is to promote “lifelong education” and to provide an individual with

the best alternative mode of accessing higher education (Keegan, 1996).

At the present age of global knowledge based economy, ODL is increasingly

dominating global educational systems. Pethokouk (2002) and Thomas (2001)

documented the growth of ODL in United States and indicated that, there were 1.6

xiii
million distance learners with 17% growth rate. The recent statistics reveal that

about 4.6 millions students are enrolled in ODL courses in US (Allen and Seaman,

2010). In India, 22% of the total number of students enrolled in India’s higher

education system are distance learners (Forzdar & Kannan, 2006). Meanwhile as in

2006 in China, 1.4 million or 24.4% of its 5.8 million students in higher education

were studying through ODL (Forzdar,& Kannan, 2006). According to Perryer

(2004), in England more than 2.4 million students were enrolled in ODL and it is

estimated that there are about 1.6 distance learners in Turkey. Further, Perryer

reported that in 2000, about 94,000 students (14%) of all University students in

Australia were enrolled in open and distance learning.

In Africa, there are few stands alone Open Universities that include University of

South Africa, the oldest Open University in the world established in 1946. Others are

Open University of Tanzania, the National Open University of Nigeria and

Zimbabwe Open University. The estimated enrollment of these universities and

other selected ODL institution in Africa by year 2009 are shown in the following

table.

Table1.1a: Estimated Enrollments of the Selected ODL Institutions in Africa

Name of Institution Country Enrollments

National Open University of Nigeria 39,000
Nigeria
The university of South Africa South Africa 65,000
The Open university of Tanzania Tanzania 40146
The University of Pretoria South Africa 30,000
Zimbabwe Open University. Zimbabwe 39,400
The University of Namibia Namibia 27,805

xiv
 Sources: Researcher’s own compilation from various sources

It is obvious that, developed and developing countries recognize the need to offer

distance education to meet the demands of students in the 21st century. As a result,

many educational institutions especially in developed countries are shifting from

purely a campus-centered model of higher education to ODL model using

information and communication technologies (Howell et al., 2003). Consequently,

more Universities are increasingly offering some type of distance learning courses.

Like other developing countries, Tanzania acknowledges the potential of ODL in

increasing the access to higher education. In 1992, the parliament endorsed the

establishment of the Open University of Tanzania (OUT). OUT was the first

university in the country to offer the educational programmes through the ODL

mode and took off in 1994 with the first 766 students. By 2010, OUT had already

admitted 56,889 students (OUT, 2011). However, the data show that enrollment has

been on the increase but completion rate is very low, though on the increase trend.

Between 2000 to 2009, OUT had admitted 24602 students in various degree

programmes, however, in the same period only 3519 students had managed to

graduate (OUT, 2011)

Table 1.1b: OUT Enrollments and Graduation in Degree Programmes 2000-

2009

Gr
Y En ad
S e rol ua
/ a lm nd
N r ent s
1 2 67 47

xv
 0
0
0 5
2
0
0 12
2 1 09 71
2
0
0 13
3 2 40 68
2
0
0 15 19
4 3 67 2
2
0
0 19 21
5 4 20 0
2
0
0 26 38
6 5 92 0
2
0
0 34 29
7 6 60 6
2
0
0 56 53
8 7 68 0
2
0
0 25 46
9 8 65 6
2
0
1 0 35 12
0 9 06 59
T
O
T 24
A 60 35
  L 2 19

xvi
 Source: OUT, 2011

Such low completion rate is a sign that distance learners at OUT do experience

obstacles on their educational journey. Apart from OUT, the University of Dar es

Salaam (UDSM) is currently offering postgraduate diploma in education and

engineering fields by online distance learning mode. Moreover, the University of

Dodoma is underway to offer modern ODL programmes.

The potential benefits of ODL related to its flexibility, accessibility, affordability

and life based education are numerous. ODL could enable an expansion of tertiary

enrollments at less cost per student than under the traditional residential campus

system (Pityana, 2004), since it allows the training of more people. Greater

flexibility enables ODL courses to adapt to specific student needs or work

requirements, thereby enabling greater relevance (Saint, 1999). ODL also

accommodates the growing demand for lifelong learning more easily than do

residential programmes. Moreover, ODL can effectively reach those learners who

have been denied access to higher education, for example, women who are unable to

attend traditional educational programs because of household responsibilities or

cultural constraints, economically marginalized groups, and the imprisoned

(Rumble, 2000)

Despite the expanding growth of ODL and its perceived benefits, students who

enroll with ODL have been shown to face many challenges related to individual,

institutional and instructional (Bhalalusesa, 1998, 1999; Cosmas & Mbwette, 2009;

xvii
Mbukusa, 2009; Mushi, 2001). Cross (1981) identified three distinct categories of

challenges facing ODL students: Situational, institutional and dispositional.

According to Cross, situational challenges include job and home responsibilities that

reduce time for study. Institutional related challenges include poor logistics system

or a lack of appropriate advising; hence learners may be more likely to experience

isolation and alienation from the institution due to the lack of proper organizational

support (Kruger & Casey, 2000). Dispositional challenges are related to learners’

own attitudes and feelings, for example, distance learner may be apprehensive or

fearful of new educational opportunities, especially if their earlier educational

experiences were not the positive ones.

Other scholars like Berge et al (2002) classified challenges to distance learners as

situational, epistemological, philosophical, psychological, pedagogical, technical,

social, and/or cultural related challenges. Whereas Zirnkle (2001) identified specific

challenges facing distance learners like program costs, lack of equipment and

infrastructure, instructional concerns and poor technical assistance. Other challenges

documented by Zirnkle are inadequate feedback and poor teacher contact, alienation

and isolation, and poor student support services.

An ethnographic study in England conducted by Garland (2007) identified some

situational challenges for students to persistence in distance learning. These include

poor learning environment and lack of time, for example, students felt that the

course took more time than anticipated because they failed to judge the demands of

xviii
work, home and school. Previously, Kember (1989) also argued that poor time

management leads to challenges such as learners’ inability to integrate the demands

of off campus study with family, work and social commitments.

A study by Ukpo (2005) in Nigeria showed that teachers enrolled in the ODL face

challenges related to failure of trainees to receive training materials on time, students

engagement in other economic activities to supplement their family incomes, and

poor learner support services especially where study centre are under resourced and

overstretched. Likewise, Kamau (2007) in Kenya found that, without an effective

learners’ support services system that provides on site face to face, timely feedback

on student performance and access to library services, student achievement will

inevitably be undermined and drop out rates and procrastination will increase, while

the advantages of distance education including cost effectiveness, will be

undermined.

Furthermore, ODL presents new challenges in information dissemination especially

in developing countries. Two types of skills namely, technical competence and

information literacy (Mossberger et al., 2003) that people need in order to have

effective access to contemporary ICT is a challenge to distance learners.

Accordingly, technical competence refers to the skills needed to operate the

hardware and software of ICT, including the skills of using networked systems to

access and share information. Collectively, these skills have been referred to as

‘computer literacy” (Warschauner, 2003). Lack of these skills is a critical challenge

xix
as learner may fail to use the various physical, digital and human resources involved

ICT.

In the study conducted at OUT to determine the challenges of learning, teaching and

managing learning at a distance as experienced by students, tutors and managers in

their different roles, it was revealed that the university has done little to support

learning (Bhalalusesa,1998).The recent study on views on higher distance education

delivery in Tanzania from students and staff at OUT by Cosmas and Mbwete (2009)

shows that, lack of or limited knowledge of ICT by academic staff and students and

the high workload of staff at OUT is claimed to have proliferated the problems on

how to manage students’ records. It further revealed that, OUT students claimed

having received inadequate students’ services support especially during face-to-face

session. However, the study did not explore critical challenges that are likely to face

ODL students in Tanzania. These challenges are those related to factors such as

conflicting work and family commitments, financial strains, predisposition and

readiness for independent learning. Other challenges are such as easy of contact and

approachability of academic staff and level of motivations and commitment to study

(Bird & Morgan, 2003; Zirnkle, 2004).

These challenges obviously prompt many problems to distance learners. Among

these problems are high rate of students’ drop-out and late completion. High attrition

in ODL is regarded as a dilemma for which appropriate solutions as yet to be found.

Drop-out rates vary between countries. In US, Carr (2000) indicated that drop-out

xx
rates ranged from 20% to 50%. OECD (2000) indicated that the drop out rates range

from 20% in the United Kingdom to 45% or more in Austria, France, and Portugal .

In Australia, the distance learners statistics indicates that it range from 35% to over

55% (Fozdar et al., 2006). It is estimated that in Nigeria and South Africa and other

African countries the drop-out rate is much higher topping 50% and above (Daniel,

2005). Tanzania has no exception to students’ attrition problem, although official

statistics is lacking.

Such high drop out rate not only leads to financial loss to both the students and the

institution, but also leads to student’s psychological distress as they fail to reach their

ambitions. Some fragile students may feel they have personally failed, when in

reality it is the system that may have made them fail (Fozdar et al.,2006). Further, in

an increasingly competitive educational environment, measures such as retention and

completion form the basis for institution and student performance (Tyler-Smith,

2006). Therefore, high drop out rates can be associated with poor institutional

performance; consequently, the quality of education provided can be questionable.

It is widely accepted that several individual dispositions such as self-motivation,

ability to manage learning, personal preferences and independent learning, and early

formal learning experiences are key contributing factors for influencing students’

ability to learn at a distance and remain in the programme (Levine, 2001;

Bhalalusesa,1998). However, even if distance learning is essentially self-directing,

supports to students from immediate social environment within which learning is

xxi
pursued and from the educational institution offering distance education is essential.

Lack of such support may bring more challenges to distance learners and may hinder

their ambitions of reaping the benefits of ODL. It is on that context, this study

intended to explore and document challenges encountered by distance learners at

OUT as they attempt to access available ODL educational opportunities.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

ODL has potential benefits which include greater flexibility, relevance and its ability

to accommodate the growing demand of lifelong learning education (Daniel, 2005;

Pityana, 2004), and is a venue to those who have previous have been denied access

to higher education to earn their degrees. Yet, a number of studies reported several

challenges facing ODL students which lead to the high drop out and late completion

(Allen & Seaman, 2010; Frankola, 2001; Zirnkle, 2004)

Previous studies have attempted to document the challenges facing distance learners

in Tanzania (Bhalalusesa, 1998, 1999; Cosmas &Mbettwe, 2009; Mushi, 2001).

What is common in these studies is that, the issues have been lumped together

without considering how distance learners challenges emerge from individual,

instructional and institutional levels.

It is argued that, investigating challenges facing distance learners from individual,

instructional and institutional levels could yield more insights as socio-cultural and

transactional distance (physical and psychological gaps) related challenges can be

xxii
easily revealed. Therefore, it was in this line, this study was conducted as the mean

of building upon the existing knowledge and to document emerging challenges.

1.3 The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine and document the challenges facing ODL

students in Tanzania from OUT students’ perspectives and experiences.

1.4 The General Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study was to examine challenges related to individual,

instructional and institutional levels facing students of Open University of Tanzania,

as perceived by students through their experiences.

1.5 Specific Objectives

Specifically, the study wanted:

i. To examine the individual related challenges facing ODL students.

ii. To examine the instructional related challenges that hinder ODL

students’ success in their studies.

iii. To explore the institutional related challenges facing ODL students.

1.6 Research Questions

xxiii
The study seeks to find answers to the under listed research questions:

i. What are individual related challenges facing ODL students?

ii. What are instructional related challenges facing ODL students?

iii. How do students appraise the level of students service support given by

the Open University of Tanzania?

1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study was to identify the challenges facing ODL students, where

the current undergraduate students and graduates /former students from Open

University of Tanzania at Kagera Regional Centre were used as the level of analysis.

1.8 Significance of the Study

It was the researcher’s expectations that, the findings from this study would be

beneficial to the ODL stakeholders and public at large in the following ways. First,

would help to explain the challenges facing ODL students that would be the

steppingstone towards its solutions. Secondly, would provide useful information to

policy make and ODL planners, that would be useful for formulating actionable

ODL polices in Tanzania. Third, it would contribute to the exiting body of

knowledge and better understanding of challenges facing ODL students.

1.9. Research Constraints

xxiv
Constraints are bound to occur in any research activity. First, like other self-

sponsored study, the researcher had no exception to account for the lack of fund

to cover various expenses including travelling and stationeries. Secondly ,

financial and time constraints also limited the scope and coverage of the study,

because it is the researcher’s belief that a broader scope would have painted a better

picture of the situation. Finally, during the field study, some targeted responses

were not ready to give required information.

1.10. Definitions of Key Terms

i. Open Learning (OL): refers to the philosophical construct that seeks to

remove barrier and constrains that may prevent authentic learners from

accessing and succeeding in quality lifelong learning education (UNESCO,

2004). In Open Learning, learners have some control regarding how they

learn, where they learn, when they learn, what they learn and the pace at

which they learn.

ii. Distance Learning: An educational or learning process or system in which

the teacher is separated geographically and time from students, and in which

the student is separated from other students (Senanayake & Dadigamuwa,

2005). Open learning which takes place at a distance from the education

provider such as Open Universities

xxv
 iii. Open and Distance Learning (ODL): refers to the educational delivery

system and philosophical construct aimed at promoting educational

opportunities to all people who need it and promotion of social justice

(UNESCO, 2004 ). ODL is a potential means for providing higher education

to all who need to realize their ambitions and fulfill their potential in this

globalized world where competition for knowledge is a key factor for

success.

iv. Open and Distance Learning Students: For the purpose of this study, they

will refer to past (alumni) students and currently enrolled students at Open

University of Tanzania.

v. Challenges: For the purpose of this study, they are any impediment and

barriers that may hinders students’ progress in ODL programmes.

1.11 Chapter Summary

In chapter one the researcher has discussed the problem of the study and objectives

of the study. The chapter also stated the problem for investigations against the

background of the challenges facing open and distance learners. This followed by an

outline of purpose, objectives and scope of the study. The chapter further discussed

the significance and constraints of the study. Lastly, the terms pertaining to the

subject of this study have been briefly defined to effect further delimitation of the

field of the study.

xxvi
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature on the challenges facing ODL students. The

chapter commences with the discussion of theoretical framework from which the

study is based. Next, challenges identified from the literature as facing ODL students

are examined and categorized as individual, instructional and institutional related

challenges. The chapter also outlines the gap emerging from the literature. Lastly,

the conceptual framework is presented as an attempt to integrate the theoretical

framework; key issues emerged from the literature and the research

questions/objectives.

2.1 The Theoretical Framework

xxvii
This section draws on the knowledge of two theories of distance education: Bean

and Metzner’s (1985) Student Attrition Theory, and Transactional Distance Theory.

The followings parts briefly explain how these theories affect open and distance

learners. In addition, variables from these theories that formed the focus of this study

are simultaneous examined.

2.1.1 Bean and Metzner’s (1985) Student Attrition Theory

Bean and Metzner (1985) proposed student attrition theory to explain attrition of

non-traditional students that include also distance learners. They identified four

factors that affect persistence: (a) academic variables such as study habits and course

availability; (b) background and defining variables such as age, educational goals,

ethnicity; (c) environmental variables such as finances, hours of employment, family

responsibilities, and outside encouragement; and (d) academic and psychological

outcomes while at the college (Rovai, 2003). These variables, many of which are out

of control of the educational institution, can challenge students and push them out of

the educational institution by putting too much pressure on their time, resources, and

sense of well being.

Henry and Smith (1993) as cited in Rovai (2003) interpreted this theory as follows:

When both academic and environmental variables are favorable, students should

persist. When both variables are unfavorable, students are likely to drop-out. When

academic variables are positive, but environmental variables are negative, the

favorable effects of academic variables on student goal attainment are suppressed or

attenuated. Students may drop-out of college despite strong academic performance if

xxviii
they perceive low levels of utility, satisfaction, or goal commitment, or if they

experience high levels of stress.

Parker (1999) further reported the importance of environmental and academic

variables that, in order of importance, financial problems, followed by family

complications, work schedule conflicts, and poor academic performance were the

most important challenges that explained why students did not persist. Distance

learners are therefore highly influenced by environmental variables at home, work

place and the community at large. It is particularly important to examine the

environmental factors in distance learning environments because it is where the

communication process is mediated and social climates are created (Mbukusa,

2009). For example, environmental variables can determine the technologies use;

hence affect technology based distance learning. Therefore, what matters most in

distance learning is the environmental social context such as students’ family and

work obligations, learning environment and social services infrastructures needed to

facilitate student service support delivery.

Bean and Metzner (1985) further argued that, distance education students have

different support structures than on campus students. Since they have limited

interaction with other groups within the college community they draw more support

from outside the academic environment because their reference group of peers,

friends, family, and employers exists outside the institution (Rovai, 2003).

Therefore, lack of support from their peers can be regarded as a challenge to ODL

xxix
students. This is in contrast to traditional students, where on-campus students and

faculty represent their most important support group.

From Bean and Metzner student attrition theory (1985) as elaborated in this sub

section, environmental, academic, and psychological outcomes variables were the

focus of this study. For example, environmental variables such as financial

problems, family complications, and work schedule conflicts fit with the specific

objective one of this study.

2.1.2 Transactional Distance Theory

Transactional Distance theory (TDT) refers to the theory of cognitive space between

instructors and learners in a distance educational setting. According to Moore

(1980), distance education is not simply a geographic separation of learners and

teachers, but it is a pedagogical concept. The essence of TDT is that distance that

learner encounter is not merely a geographical issue but more important is a

pedagogical issue.

There are three key interactive elements that have to work together to shorten the

transactional distance and provide for a meaningful learning experience (Martindale,

2002). These components are: dialogue, or interaction between learners and

instructors, structure of the instructional programs, and learners’ autonomy or the

degree of self-directedness of the learner.

xxx
Structure, accordingly, refers to the actual design of the course, the organization of

the instruction and the use of various media of communications (Martindale, 2002).

It expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the programme's educational objectives,

teaching strategies, and evaluation methods (Moore, 1980). It is essential that when

designing distance education courses, the lecturers anticipate that the future learners

may never meet the instructor face to face. Therefore, poor course structure can

trigger instructional related challenges to distance learners.

Dialogue refers to the nature and extent of interactions in distance education. It is a

concept that signifies the interplay among the environment, people involved and the

patterns of behavior in the situation (Mbukusa, 2009) .It is not location that

determines the effect of instruction; rather it is the interaction between student and

instructor. Interactions are determined by the philosophy of course designers, the

personalities of teacher and learner, the subject matter of the course, and the

environmental factor (Martindale, 2002). Again, poor course structure, inappropriate

media of communications, and ineffective feedback can limit the interactional

process in ODL, hence negative effects on teaching/learning experiences.

The last variable from TDT is learner autonomy. This refers to the extent to which in

the teaching/learning relationship the learner rather than the teacher determines the

goals, the learning experiences, and the evaluation decisions of the learning

programme (Moore,1993). Learner autonomy is essential because in ODL students

depend on their own sense of personal responsibility and self-directness. The

xxxi
learner’s capacity has a lot to do with personality, learning styles, prior experience,

and other factors, including the content to be taught (Garrison, 2002). However,

under some circumstances, structure and dialogue variables can limit learners’

autonomy. For example, rigid course structure and inappropriate media of

communication can negatively affect learner’s self-directedness.

It can therefore be assumed that, what determines the success in distance teaching

and learning is the extent to which the institution and the individual instructor are

able to provide the appropriate opportunity for, and quality of, dialogue between

teacher and learner, as well as appropriately structured learning materials. Otherwise,

the transactional gap will be widened: This will obviously generate instructional and

institutional related challenges and consequently affect learner’s self- directedness.

All three elements of TDT as elaborated above also formed the focus of this study.

2.2 Challenges Facing ODL Students

Open and distance leaning is a dynamic field that calls for construction of new

knowledge as students narrate challenges that overwhelm them when attempting to

access learning opportunities. The term barriers, obstacles, and constrains have been

used interchangeably in distance learning literatures (Bird & Morgan, 2003; Juutien

& Saariluoma, 2006; Mbukusa,2009;Tresman,2002) to refer to the challenges and

problems facing the distance learners. However, to review the challenges facing

distance learners, it is the literature of student attrition that is most helpful (Bird &

xxxii
Morgan, 2003).This makes a sense that, it is unfortunate we must wait until students

drop out before exploring their needs.

A prominent contributor to the model of challenges to distance learner was Cross

(1981) who described three distinct types of challenges: situational, institutional and

dispositional. According to Zirnkle (2004), situational barriers can be derived from

personal factors, such as job and home responsibilities that inhibit participations.

The institutional barriers include: poor logistics system and lack of appropriate

advising services .Dispositional barriers are related to learners’ own attitudes and

feelings. For instance, distance learners may be anxious or fearful of new

educational opportunities, especially if their earlier educational experiences were not

the positive ones (Zirnkle, 2004).

Another distance education scholar, Stammen (1996), categorized barriers to

distance learning as technical, relating to access to technology; structural, involving

budgeting, training, and technical support; and attitudinal, including reluctance to

use technological tools. Other scholars such as Berge et al (2002) grouped barriers to

distance education as situational, epistemological, philosophical, psychological,

pedagogical, technical, social, and/or cultural. Whereas Zirnkle (2001) condensed

Cross’s (1981) earlier discussion on three categories of barriers into two:

institutional barriers and individual student barriers.

xxxiii
Further, Bird and Morgan (2003) adopted the prior research works and listed the

following as challenges to distance learners; conflicting work and family

commitments, financial strain, and concerns about predisposition and readiness for

independent learning. Others are lack of appropriate learning support, unsuitability

of program content or its design and delivery methods, low level of motivation and

commitment to study and low access to and confidence with computers and other

necessary technology.

What is common from these categorization and lists of challenges or obstacles to

distance learners is that all challenges are emerging from three interdependent levels

namely, individual leaner, instructional, and institutional which compress students,

instructors and administrators respectively.

Putting into consideration the proposed theoretical framework, the challenges facing

distance learners will be reviewed at the individual, instructional and institutional

levels. It is argued that this approach will not only attempt to reveal where

challenges occur but also who may be the causative of the challenges in question.

2.2.1 Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

One of the most cited challenge facing distance learners is lack of time. A study by

Rao and Giuli (2010) to certain the success and challenges for distance learners in

United States (US) concluded that, most students reported difficulty keeping up with

deadlines and completing coursework. Similarly, data survey at the Open University

xxxiv
UK from 1998–2000 suggest that Open University students perceived “lack of time”

as the most significant factor influencing their decision to withdraw (Tresman 2002).

Other researchers have encountered similar findings regarding the problem of time,

for example, Vergids and Penagiotakooulos (2002) at Hellenic Open University in

Greece found that, fluctuations in the time available for study affected by changes in

work and family environments, coupled with an underestimation of the actual effort

and time necessary for studies made many students (47%) abandon their studies.

Whereas Diran and Yoon, (2009) in Jordan found similar results; they documented

that students’ failure to balance time for studying and other family and job

obligations is a single most cited barrier by distance learners.

Further, lack of time is documented in other studies conducted in Africa. A 2005

study by Ukpo in Nigeria showed that failure rates for teachers enrolled in the ODL

program were highly attributed to students’ failure to balance time for study and

engagement in other socio- economic activities. On the same vein, a study by

Sikwibele and Mungoo (2009) in Botswana, cited inadequate study time as one of

the drawbacks facing ODL students because of students’ juggled family and job

commitments. Moreover, lack of time as a challenge facing ODL students is a key

theme which emerged from other studies conducted elsewhere in Africa such as

Mbukusa (2009) in Namibia, Ojo and Olakulehin (2006) in Nigeria, and Basaza et al

(2010) in Uganda. Taking the above literature into consideration, it is obvious that

ODL students fail to appreciate the fact that, studying by distance mode demands

equal time as traditional mode if not more. Studies at Open University require hard

xxxv
work and student must devote plenty of time to studying the realistic demands that

most of the students fail to realize prior to enrollment.

As ODL institutions are increasingly adopting information and communication

technologies (ICT) in their course delivery, a significant challenge to individual

student to access is lack of experience and/or training with instructional technology

(Juutinen & Saariluoma 2006 ;Zirnkle,2004). In US, where it is anticipated that

distance education technology is widely used, distance learners reported being

frustrated, confused and their interest in learning was reduced due to the lack of

experience in technology applications in ODL (Galusha, 1998, Zirnkle, 2004).

Related to technology, are reported computer vision syndrome, finger joint pain,

backaches, headaches, and dizziness due to occasional long periods of computer use

to compensate for limited access (Sharma et al., 2002). Further, in India, it was

revealed that students might have wanted to be browsing web pages but some of

them indicated that they did not know how to operate a computer (Hussein, 2005).

Moreover, it became evident that students did not even know how to use a keyboard.

While technology applications at individual level is still a challenge in developed

countries where technology is far better than in the developing countries, the

situation in developing countries is much worse. Distance learners in developing

countries are not only challenged by lack of experience in the application of

technology but also, scarce or apparent absent of them (Basaza et al., 2010;Mbukusa,

2009;UNESCO, 2004). In poor nations where the concern of most people is meeting

xxxvi
their basic need for food, clothing, and shelter, access to ICT, especially the most

modern ones is very low on their list of priorities. Therefore, it is hard to imagine

that these technologies can have a positive influence on the education of learners

who lack basic living resources and live with an underdeveloped educational

infrastructure (Gulati, 2008).

In Tanzania, a study at OUT by Cosmas and Mbetwe (2009) shows that, among

other issues, students were reluctant to change ,i.e to adopt new changes especially

those related to the use of information and communication technologies. Also, lack

of or limited knowledge of ICT by students was noted as a challenge. However, in

most of the developing countries where Tanzania is not an exception, the issues

related to experiences of modern educational technologies is more of a vision than

reality. How can we blame the students that are reluctant to change while the

institutions themselves are ill-prepared to lead these changes? How about

inadequate socio economic infrastructures such as unreliable power supply and lack

of internet services that hinder accessibility of ICT services to most of the rural

dwellers? All these are cross-sectoral issues that inevitably affect individual

student’s attitudes and perceptions towards ICT applications.

Mushi (2001) documented the following as the barriers of distance learning: problem

of transport, greater distance to study center, poor financial capacity and lack of

encouragement from family. These findings are in accordance with results from

other studies, for example, Pierrakes and Xenos (2004) postulated that traveling

xxxvii
costs and other socio economic problems account for 27% of the reasons for

students’ attrition at Hellenic Open University. Likewise, Mbukusa (2009) listed the

long distance from the study center and lack of family support as sub-themes of

barriers cited by distance learners at Namibia University. However, these studies did

not indicate whether those challenges were individual or institutional. For example,

problem related to transport to and from the ODL study center, who is supposed to

cover, an individual or the institution providing ODL? This question is more

complicated than it looks.

While the contribution from these studies in Tanzania and elsewhere are recognized

especially in the generation of knowledge and contribution to literature, it has been

noted that its focus has mainly been on documenting the challenges facing ODL

system in general. It is argued that, approaching the distance learners challenges

from at an individual level can yield more insights on the nature of these challenges

Generally, individual related challenges are those related to time constrains like

balance of study time versus work and family obligations (Kamau, 2007;

Mbukusa,2009; Rao & Giuli 2010; Sikwibele & Mungoo 2009, Tresman 2002;etc).

Second, is lack of experience and/or training with instructional technology (Juutinen

& Saariluoma, 2006, Zirnkle,2004). Other challenges includes problem of transport,

greater distance to study center, poor financial capacity and lack of encouragement

from family (Mbukusa,2009; Mushi, 2001; Pierrakes & Xenos, 2004). It is obvious

xxxviii
that, most of these individual related challenges emerge from environmental

variables as depicted in the proposed theoretical framework.

2.2.2 Instructional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

Open and Distance Learning is generally based on an indirect teaching relationship,

using fundamentally self-teaching methods, with the instructor acting as a catalyst to

activate the skills and situations needed for self-education (Juma, 2005). Competent

instructors are therefore, the foundation stone upon which all other distance

education activities are erected. In addition, ODL instructors require more

knowledge about distance learning teaching, as they must use teaching methods

which differ from those used in traditional teaching (Bonk et al., 2004).

Unfortunately, some distance-learning instructors do not fit into the above ideal

qualities. For example, a survey of distance learning experience in Senegal and

Kenya found that unqualified personnel (Chale & Michaud, 2002) provided many

distance-learning services, including student instruction. The same survey revealed

that, unqualified instructors were perceived as the cause of ineffective feedback.

These findings support Tresman’s (2002) claim that tutors’ quality is a significant

issue in distance learning even in well-established ODL institutions like Open

University UK. For example, at the Open University UK, 18 per cent of students

described themselves as “very dissatisfied” with their tutors. Six per cent stated that

they dropped out because they were not happy with their tutors (Tresman, 2002).

xxxix
Further, the problem of unqualified personnel in ODL institutions has been

repeatedly cited in other studies (Mbukusa, 2009 & Pierrakes et al., 2004). Indeed,

academicians in distance education institutions need a qualitatively extra dimension.

They must have a passion for and commitment to distance education as a mode of

learning delivery, empathy with their learners and skills to participate in a learning

mode that demands just as much in terms of creativity and professional expertise

from the academic as it does from the student.

The immediate consequence of unqualified instructors is poor course material

design. Researches show that most distance courses have poor instructional design

(Fatma et al., 2002; Merril, 2006;Pierrakes & Xenos,2004), which can adversely

frustrate learners and affect learning outcomes. Vergids and Penagiotakoulos (2002)

study at Greek Open University reported that 20% of the respondents noted that

instructional materials were poorly designed to the extent were difficult or extremely

difficult to use, suggesting that, consequently learners especially beginners may get

confused and frustrated. Accordingly, poor quality of educational materials is

reported in previous studies as an important factor leading to student drop-out

(Galusha,1998 &Woodrow,1996). Distance education materials should ‘talk’ to

students in the absence of the lecturers regardless of where students find themselves

during their study period (Moore, 2005). The demand therefore is that, the learner

must receive the learning material in a manner that will engage her/him and with

which the learner can interact creatively.

xl
Further, Senanayake and Dadigamuwa (2005) at the Open University of Sri Lanka

cited instructional challenges faced such as “unhelpful” course information, lack of

direction and dissatisfaction with tutorials and tutors. Such absence of lecturers and

lack of immediate support could force students to drop-out or take too long to

complete their studies. Lack of direction by the teachers has been proved to be one

of the major factors contributing to students’ dilemma. Because there is no frequent

contact with teachers, and therefore students may have trouble in self-evaluation

(Keegan, 1996).

Moreover, Sikwibele and Mungoo’s (2009) study in Botswana, students cited

instructional related issues that such as too difficult course assignments, unclear

directions of assignments and unhelpful classroom. Aderinoye (2001) in Nigeria

found lack of facilitator/tutor contact with the learners significantly affecting the

learners’ rate of retention and failure in their distance learning programme.

Similarly, in Uganda inadequacy expertise in instruction was reflected in the lack of

quality instruction, the lack of quality distance learning materials, and the lack of

student support (Basaza et al., 2010).

Juma (2005) reported poor teaching practice in Kenya when he stated that, most of

the existing ODL programmes had adopted behavioral patterns on traditional

education delivery, which is not appropriate for ODL type of education. He further

asserted that, Kenyatta University programmes were of very second-rate quality and

xli
students were certainly not getting the value of their money they paid for their

education.

Moiduser et al (2000) found that many distance especially online teaching did not

exhibit evidence of innovative pedagogical approaches, such as using constructivist-

learning principles. Vygotsky’s social construction theory states that learning is a

social, active, and interactive process, and the theory highlights the needs for

actively incorporating principles of collaborative and cooperative learning (Perryer,

2004). Dirani and Yoon (2009) at Arab Open University of Jordan revealed that,

students were demoralized with low engagement in distance teaching. Failure of the

instructors to meet these learners’ needs could adversely affect not only their

creativity but also their initial motivations and eventual build mistrust and

frustrations.

Other studies asserted that due to a few number of academic staff, student academic

support was inadequate (Cosmas & Mbwete 2009; Mushi, 2001). According to OUT

(2009) by 2008, there were 207 full time academic staff and up to 200 part time staff

whereas 40146 students were admitted including 4164 postgraduates: With a ratio of

1:214 instructor/student. Where instructors are unqualified and incompetent, the

evident is that distance learners will not be adequately served.

In summary, the instructional related challenges include: unqualified personnel and

poor course material design (Chale & Michaud 2002; Merril, 2006; Pierrakes &

xlii
 Xenos, 2004; Tresman 2002) .Unhelpful course information, lack of direction and

dissatisfaction with tutors and difficult course assignments (Senanayake &

Dadigamuwa 2005; Juma 2005; Keegan, 1996). Other challenges are such as low

students engagement in teaching and learning process (Dirani &Yoon, 2009;Vergids

& Penagiotakoulos ,2002).

2.2.3 Institutional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

All effective distance-learning programs depend upon the “three legs” of good

learning materials, effective student support, and efficient logistics (Daniel, 2005).

Principally, the distance learning institution should ‘engineer’ all these ‘three legs’

for effective students’ learning. However, there is evidence from research that the

Open Universities may be causing, or at least contributing, to their own students’

sense of burden (Tresman, 2002, Carnwell, 2000). Institutional barriers are

constructed by educational institutions with or sometime without their knowledge

(Zernke,2004).This include difficulty in registering and paying for classes or a lack

of appropriate advice provided under the umbrella of students services support

(Bruening et al., 2001).

One of the institutional related factors found to explain challenges facing distance

education student in England is general higher lack of guidance and information

prior to enrolment (Pierrakeas et al., 2004; Tresman, 2002). Students reported that

the course in which they enrolled took more time, or it was too dense in terms of the

pace of programmes, than they had expected. Many students enroll to distance

xliii
learning with preconceived ideas and expectations, which may be based on prior

educational experiences. Thus, guidance and information can be seen as a way to

‘help students reframe their expectations, attitudes, and feelings about the next step

in their educational journey’ (Moxley et al., 2001:78). In addition, data survey at

British Open University reveals unrealistic expectations on behalf of students, in

terms of what they can actually accomplish in the time available for course

completion (Tresman, 2002)

The lack of an effective institutional network of technical assistance is another

significant challenge (Berge et al., 2002). In US it was found that, distance learners

who had difficulties logging into videoconferences or Internet course sites and were

unable to obtain assistance would not remain tolerant for long (Zirnkle,2004).

Having technical assistance resources in place and maintained is a key to any

successful distance education program (Cho & Berge, 2002)

Galusha (1998) found that, lack of support services such as counseling and faculty

assistance, are among the insecurities that beset distance learners, and that this lack

of support might affect motivation. Academic support, emotional support and

practical support are all types of support needs that Carnwell (2000) strongly

recommended for distance education practitioners. Students learning at a distance

need special support to strengthen their motivation, to help them develop effective

study skills, and assist them in tackling numerous personal, social, and academic

problems in their learning journey.

xliv
With a system of support available to students, the sense of isolation can be

minimized, otherwise, the lack of effective system support may hinder timely

feedback to students on their performance. Ineffective feedback has effects on

students as they are likely to develop fear that they will not finish their programmes

on time (Zirnkle,2004) This fear of the unknown or that which they do not

comprehend make students perform poorly in exams, school and even in real

life(Mbukusa,2009). Moreover, ineffective student services supports will not only

demoralize distance learners but also can eliminate any advantages of cost-

effectiveness for distance teaching (Saint, 1999). Lamer (2009) found that, advising

and counseling distance learners is the first critical strategy in reducing the feeling of

isolation that leads to lower retention rates for distance learners.

Mbukusa (2009) at Centers of External Studies at the University of Namibia (CES-

UNAM) found that, administrative barriers facing students included study materials

that were either late or were not available at the time that students needed them most.

Other cited barriers were lost assignments, files and other documents. Eventually,

previously motivated learners can drop-out from the system. Drop-out is not only

painful and expensive for a student, but also discouraging for instructors involved,

and injurious to an institution’s reputation (Johnson, 2000).

In a study at OUT in Tanzania carried out by Bhalalusesa, (1998) to determine the

challenges of teaching and learning, it was revealed that, one of institutional related

xlv
challenges was inappropriate learning materials. The same study reported that some

study materials especially in education courses were borrowed from Kenyatta

University. These materials would hold Kenyan cultural context, hence unfit in the

Tanzanian cultural context. The same problem was reported by Vergids and

Penagiotakoulos (2002) at Hellenic Open University where the materials were

adopted for equivalent courses offered by Open University UK. While it seems is a

common practice for an Open University to borrow course materials from other

universities, it is necessary for the OUT to move towards the improvement of its

educational materials, more specifically writing appropriate education course content

that reflects current Tanzanian reality.

Although up to- date OUT management has put much efforts to make ODL a reality

in Tanzania, still students face institutional related challenges (Cosmas & Mbwette,

2009). Logistics problems such as delayed study materials at regional centre, poor

record keeping and inadequate provision of other students’ administrative support

are mostly cited barriers (Bhalalusesa, 1999; Mushi, 2001). As it is already pointed

out, the ODL literature from Tanzania are scarce. However, what can be revealed

from these available studies is that, ODL challenges have been studied as whole.

This gives a little room for researchers to go further deep to ascertain the challenges

facing ODL students from various levels.

Therefore, institutional related challenges includes difficulty in administrative

services such as registering and paying fees, and lack of appropriate advice provided

xlvi
under the umbrella of students services support. Others are lack of guidance and

information prior to enrolment (Bruening, et al., 2001; Galusha, 1998 Tresman,

2002;etc) ;lack of an effective institutional network of technical assistance, and

effective feedback (Berge, et.al., 2002; Lamer 2009;Zernke,2004). Other cited

challenges are those concerned with poor logistics, inappropriate and delayed study

materials at regional centers, lost assignments and other important documents

(Bhalalusesa, 1999; Mbukusa, 2009; Mushi, 2001).

2.2.4 Summary of Challenges Facing ODL Students

The classification of challenges facing ODL students (section 2.2) were identified

from the literature, explored and categorized as being individual related challenges

(Section 2.2.1), instructional related challenges (Section 2.2.2) and institutional

related challenges (Section 2.2.3). As it is already noted, the brief summary of these

challenges are given at each end of these mentioned sub sections.

2.3 Research Gap

Most of the pieces information concerning challenges facing distance learners has

been collected from dropped out students, as Bird & Morgan (2003) pointed out that,

to review the challenges facing distance learners, it is the literature of student

attrition that is most helpful. The information collected from active students could

much be helpful as a balance between those students who have dropped out and

those still continuing. Further, the practitioners’/actors’ approach is lacking, instead

the challenges have been studied as whole. In such approach, it is not easy to reveal

at what level a particular challenge occurs and who (practitioner) is the causative of

xlvii
 the particular challenge. Because ODL is relatively new and it is a dynamic field,

new challenges are likely to emerge. For example, as young learners are increasing

joining ODL, they can encounter new technological challenges rather than classic

ODL challenges such as lack of studying time and family related problems.

2.4 Conceptual Framework

A review of the literature has revealed a number of challenges facing ODL students.

The following conceptual framework in the next page attempts to integrate the

research specific objectives/ questions, theoretical framework, and the key issues

from empirical studies.

Research key question: What are challenges facing ODL students?

Sub -questions Students’ Attrition Transactional OUTCOMES
Theory Distance Education
Theory
1.What are -Poor time management -low autonomy /lack Confusion and
individual related - Family & work of self directedness frustrations
challenges facing obligations -Isolation -Slow study pace
ODL students? -Lack of external supports -Withdraw/late
-Poor infrastructure & lack completion
of experience and/or
training with instructional
technology
2.What are -Inadequate and delayed - poor structured & -Incompetent
instructional related feedback poor course material learners,
challenges facing -loss of assignments/test design -Confusion,
ODL students? scripts -low interactions frustration, and
-incompetent instructors -Incompetent stress.
instructors

xlviii
3. What are -poor student service -Poor organizational -late completion
institutional related supports structure -drop-out, lack
challenges facing -lack of technical assistance -inadequate and of confidence
ODL students? irrelevant course with ODL
materials, etc institution, etc
-poor logistics -Waste of
resources
Source: Developed for this Research

2.5 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, first the researcher highlighted the theoretical framework for this

study, where Bean and Metzner (1985) Attrition Theory and Transactional Distance

Theory were adopted. Next the research attempted to discuss various classifications

of challenges facing distance learners. This was followed by the review of challenges

facing ODL students to place in context the problem of the study, namely individual,

instructional and institutional related challenges facing ODL students at the Open

University of Tanzania. The chapter also presented a conceptual framework as an

attempt to integrate the research specific objectives/ questions, theoretical

framework, and the key issues from empirical studies.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter commences with a description of research design and research

approach. The justifications for adopting descriptive research design and mixed

research approach are subsequently explained. Next, other components of research

methodology are described throughout the chapter. These components include study

area, population and sampling techniques, methods of data collection, methods of

xlix
data analysis and presentation. Finally, the issues of validity and reliability, and

ethical issues that were considered in this study are discussed.

3.1 Design of the Study

Mouton (2003) defined a research design as a plan or blue print of how a researcher

intends to conduct a research. This study adopted descriptive research design.

Descriptive research design is a scientific method, which involves observing and

describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way. It is used to

obtain information concerning the status of the phenomena to describe, "what exists"

with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. Since the main purpose of this

study was to identify and document the challenges facing ODL students, descriptive

research design deemed appropriate.

3.2 Research Approach

This study adopted a mixed methods approach, which is a procedure for collecting,

analyzing and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative data at some stage of the

research process within a single study, to understand a research problem more

completely (Creswell, 2002 & Ivankova,2005). The validation for mixing approach

is that neither quantitative nor qualitative methods are sufficient by themselves to

l
capture the trends and details of the situation, such as difficult issues pertaining to

challenges facing learners in distance learning environment.

The combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches complemented each

other and allowed complete analysis. Quantitative and qualitative methods are

compatible. Thus, both numerical and text data, collected sequentially or

concurrently, can help better understanding of the research problem.

Three issues (priority, implementation and integration) in mixed research approach

were observed (Creswel et al., 2003). First, qualitative methods were given more

emphasis /priority than quantitative methods in this study. Because qualitative

approach focuses on the verbal data collections and analysis of the written

comments, it was anticipated that it could provide a much richer, more detailed, and

more accurate representation of the students’ knowledge and perception on the

research questions (Rourke & Anderson, 2004). Secondly, during implementation,

quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis come concurrently. Third,

putting into consideration the integration issue, the study adopted mixing integration

where quantitative and qualitative data where integrated during the discussion of the

outcomes of the whole study. Thus, quantitative measures along with the qualitative

measures were blended together not only during field survey but also during the

discussion of the outcomes of the whole study.

3.3 Study Area

li
The study took place at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT), the only ODL

single mode University in Tanzania, established 1992. OUT operates through over

27 Regional Centers scattered all over the country. One Regional Center -Kagera

was selected as a specific area for this study. Kagera Region Centre is located in

Bukoba Municipality, the headquarters of Kagera region. The region is found at the

extreme North West Conner of Tanzania. It was purposely selected as an area for the

study because of its familiarity to the researcher who has been a distance learner at

the Centre. Such familiarity advantage enabled the researcher to have general

understanding on challenges facing ODL students at the centre. Choosing regions

other than Kagera would take the researcher more time to get familiar with a new

area; a situation that would extend the research process and make the data collection

plan difficult to execute.

Despite its accessibility by the researcher, the study area is one of the furthest

regions (about 1500 Kilometers) from Dar es Salaam- OUT head quarters. Thus, it

was anticipated that information collected from the area would yield more insights

on challenges facing ODL students particularly those related to geographical

distance.

3.4 The Study Population

The study population refers to members, individuals, groups or elements involved in

the study. The population of this study consisted of undergraduate students who

lii
were enrolled in various degree programs offered by OUT, ex-OUT graduate, and

OUT staff at Kagera Regional Centre. The samples were obtained from that

population.

3.5 Sampling and Sampling Procedures

Kothari (2004) defined sampling techniques as the procedures that a researcher

would adapt in selecting items for the sample. Because respondents in this study

were drawn from a number of different categories (i.e. continuing students, former

students and OUT staff), the sampling design may be best described as stratified

sampling (Patton 1990).However, elements of simple random sampling were

involved at some stages. Hence, two sampling techniques namely, stratified random

sampling and purposive sampling was employed to obtain the sample for the present

study.

3.5.1 Stratified Random Sampling Technique

Stratified sampling is a strategy whereby members of a sample are selected in such a

way as to guarantee appropriate numbers of subjects from each subgroup for the case

of non-homogeneous population (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). Stratified

sampling results in a more reliable and detailed information (Kothari, 2004). In order

to ensure the representative sample from both continuing and former ODL students,

the present research adopted stratified random sampling.

liii
The targeted population was stratified into two main sub-groups; continuing and

former distance learners. Then, selection of the sample from each sub-group was

subjected to simple random sampling. Further, a sample of male and female students

was selected so that any gender challenges impacting upon students’ progression

could be identified. Through these sampling techniques the key sample framework

of 61 respondents was obtained.

3.5.2 Purposive Sampling Technique

The purposive sampling implies intentionally selecting individuals to learn to

understand the central phenomenon (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). Purpose

sampling was used to recruit respondents from continuing and former students, and

an academic staff for interviews. Nine (9) respondents were purposely selected: Four

(4) were continuing students, the other four (4) were former students and one (1) an

academic staff. The idea was to select respondents purposely, who would best

answer the research questions and who were “information-rich” persons (Patton,

1990).

3.6 Data Collection Instruments

According to Enon (1998), data collection refers to the process of gathering

information to serve or to prove some facts. For the purpose of this study, data

collection refers to gathering specific information aimed at answering the key

research question: What are challenges facing OUT ODL students? Data collection

instruments for this research included combination of various techniques namely:

liv
questionnaire, interview and documentary review. The use of more than one

technique was considered as an appropriate way for ensuring reliable and valid data

through triangulation. Triangulation refers to the application of several different

sources of information in research, which serves to enhance the credibility of the

gathered information. Multiple sources of evidence essentially provide multiple

measures of the same phenomenon (Yin, 2003).

3.6.1 Questionnaires

The primary instrument for data collection was self-developed questionnaire,

containing items of different formats, such as dichotomous answers like “Yes” and

“No”, self-assessment items, measured on the likert scale type, and open-ended

questions. Two sets of questionnaires with almost the same contents were employed

to obtain information from the respondents (continuing and former distance learners)

to answer the research questions. Each questionnaire contained 28 questions

distributed into four sections. The first section aimed at gathering quantitative data

concerning respondents’ demographic characteristics. The rest sections of the

questionnaire aimed at gathering both qualitative and qualitative data concerning

related challenges facing ODL students at three levels: individual level (section B),

instructional level (section C), and institutional level, (section D).The development

of questionnaires was guided by the key construct from the literature provided in the

conceptual framework.

lv
The questionnaire was self-administered. In most cases, the respondents were

courageous enough to spare time and fill in the questionnaires as soon as it was

handed to them by the researcher. In such cases, the researcher had an opportunity to

provide any clarifications whatever needed. Further, it was a unique opportunity for

a researcher to take notes from informal verbal conversations. In other cases,

questionnaires were left to respondents, filled in and collected by the researcher on

the agreed time. Most questionnaires were collected within the agreed time. Close

follow-up, and the respondents’ cooperation minimized the non-return cases. The

original number of questionnaires was 65, the five questionnaires were meant to

cover those respondents who were likely not to return their questionnaires. Sixty-two

questionnaires were returned, however two questionnaires were very partially filled

in hence, were omitted, thus 60 questionnaires were utilized for final analysis.

3.6.2 Interviews

The face-to-face semi structured interviews were used as a second tool to get deeper

understanding of the study and supplement the main data gathering technique

(questionnaire). This method can yield a great deal of useful information and allow

the researcher to use verbal and non-verbal cues to adapt their questions as

necessary, clarify doubts and ensure that the interviewee’s responses are clearly

understood by repeating or rephrasing their answers to questions (Leedy & Ormrod

2005). Thus, it enables the researcher to have access to “what a person thinks”

(attitudes and beliefs) .Consequently ‘any discomfort, stress or problems that the

lvi
interviewee experiences can be detected through frowns, nervous tapping and other

body language unconsciously exhibited by the interviewee.

These semi-structured interviews were designed to gather qualitative information

about the challenges facing ODL students in their studies. The interview guide

provided a few themes that had to be covered during the interview. A sub sample of

continuing and former students from the main research sample framework and one

academic staff were interviewed. Prompts and probes were used and final notes were

taken during the interview. Upon completion of each interview, each answer was

transcribed, and subjected to content analysis in order to categorize participants’

responses.

During the interview session, the interviewer determined to cover the specific list of

themes where timing, precise wording and time allocated to each question were left

to the interviewer’s judgment and thus allowed for interviewees to make open-ended

responses (Krathwohl, 1998). As a result, it ensured that the research question and

issues for this study were addressed, while remaining flexible enough (Carroll,

2008).

Before the commencement of each interview session, the researcher tried his level

best to explain the purpose of the interview and the anticipated benefits of the study

and also assured the interviewees of complete confidentiality and anonymity.

Initially, arrangements were made in advance, each potential interviewee was

lvii
contacted in person in order to seek their participation in the study. After potential

interviewees had given their consent to participate in the study, a suitable location,

date and time for the interview were arranged with the interviewee. In all cases, the

location for the interviews was a mutually convenient place agreed upon by the

potential interviewee and the researcher. The interviews typically lasted

approximately 25 minutes, although the maximum duration of several interviews

was about 35 minutes.

3.6.3 Documentary Review

Various documents including OUT official documents, students’ enrollment records,

study materials stocked at the Regional Centre, students’ academic progressive

reports were reviewed. Merriam (1988; 108) as cited in Mhehe (2002) acknowledged

the use of documents as data in qualitative research:

“The data found in document can be used in the same

way as data from interviews or observations. The data
can furnish descriptive information, verify emerging
hypothesis, advance new categories and hypothesis,
offer historical understanding, track change and
development”.

Further, documentary review adhered to the Scott’s (1990) quality control criteria for

handling documentary sources. These are authenticity, credibility, representativeness

and meaning. Authenticity refers to whether the evidence is genuine and from

impeccable sources; credibility refers to whether the evidence is typical of its kind:

representativeness refers to whether the documents consulted are representative of

lviii
the totality of the relevant documents, and meaning refers to whether the evidence is

clear and comprehensible (Mogalakwe, 2006).

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures

Data analysis and interpretation followed data collection. Bogdan and Biklein (1992)

defined data analysis as working with data, organizing them, searching for patterns,

to identify what is important and what should be learned as well as deciding what the

researcher will report. In accordance with the employed research approach, data

analysis process blended both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Literature

suggests that the combination of these two types of data analysis is necessary in

order to remove each method’s shortcomings in the research field (Rourke &

Anderson, 2004).

The questionnaires yield qualitative and quantitative data, therefore while analyzing

data from the questionnaire the researcher involved qualitative content analysis for

open responses and descriptive statistics for quantitative data. The qualitative aspect

focused on the verbal data analysis, where attention was paid, in order to provide

much richer, more detailed, and more accurate information from the respondents

(Rourke & Anderson, 2004). Quantitative descriptive measures such as frequencies

and percentages helped to reduce the subjectiveness of qualitative analysis.

Further, during qualitative data analysis collected through questionnaires, the

following steps were observed: (1) preliminary exploration of the data by reading

lix
through the transcripts and writing memos; (2) coding the data by segmenting and

labeling the text; (3) using codes to develop themes by aggregating similar codes

together; (4) connecting and interrelating themes; and (5) constructing a narrative

(Creswell, 2002).

Data collected through interview were subjected to Kvele’s (1992) five step

approach of qualitative data analysis. The information was first read by the

researcher, second the data were placed in sub-topics of the study, for example, all

information that seeks to give answer to research specific objective one; individual

related challenges were placed in one category. Third, common patterns in each

category were identified and decisions were reached concerning which to take and

which to leave. The fourth, step was to write narrates in each category using quotes

from interviewees. The fifth step was to interpret narrates from the respondents to

gain meaning of it. Further the data from documents were used to improve the

construct validity of the research through triangulation of multiple sources of data

(Yin, 2003).

In sum, analysis of data involved the identification of key factors or themes in the

data, guided by the key constructs outlined in the research conceptual framework,

i.e. individual, instructional and institutional related challenges. Moreover, data

analysis was based on the values that participants perceive for their world;

challenges facing ODL students. Ultimately, it produced an understanding of the

problem based on multiple contextual factors (Miller, 2000).

lx
Descriptive statistics involving frequencies, tables, and percentages were employed

to analyze the quantitative data. Tables and charts indicating frequencies and

percentages were used to display the data. Computer micro soft excel package was

used to enrich data analysis processes.

3.8 Validity and Reliability

3.8.1 Validity

Validity determines whether the research truly measures that which it was intended

to measure or how truthful the research results are (Golafshani, 2003). It implies that

the researcher want to measure what he/she is supposed to measure. The data

collection instruments were tested on a small sample at OUT Dodoma Regional

centre. The response from that pre-test became the basis for reviewing questions that

provided useful answers.

3.8. 2 Reliability

Reliability addresses the question of consistence of the research procedures and

results. It implies the research process and its ultimate outcomes and it is the degree

of consistence demonstrated in a study. In order to ensure reliability for this study,

lxi
the following strategies as proposed by McMillan & Schumacher (2006) were taken

into consideration: multiple data collection strategies, participant review, and

mechanical data recording. Other considered strategies were; participant language

verbatim accounts and prolonged and persistent field work which allowed interim

data analysis and corroboration to ensure they match with what participants said.

3.9 Ethical Issues

In the first step towards ensuring ethical issues, the researcher requested clearance

and approval letters from respective offices starting with the office of Director of

Post Graduate Studies of the University of Dodoma. Secondly, prior to the main

study all respondents were informed about the purpose of the study and were

assured that confidentiality will be maintained and that information collected was

for academic purpose only. Further, in the final report the anonymity issues were

observed by assigning abbreviations and numbers for respondents instead of their

real names and place/or positions.

3.10. Chapter Summary

In this chapter, the researcher outlined the research design he had used in the study,

namely descriptive research which adopted both qualitative and quantitative

approaches. Data collection techniques namely, questionnaires, semi-structured

interviews and documentary reviews were presented. It was also posted that, sixty

continuing undergraduate and former OUT students as well as an academic staff

lxii
were selected to participate in the study. Lastly, the validity and reliability issues

were described.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the findings of the study on

challenges facing distance learners studying at the Open University of Tanzania.

The data presented in this chapter were collected from a sample representing

continuing undergraduate students, former students and academic staff at OUT-

Kagera Regional Centre. The results presented in this chapter have been organized

by the objectives of the study in parallel with research questions.

lxiii
The chapter begins with the descriptions of the sample and setting the scene (Section

4.1). Section 4.2 presents the findings on individual related challenges, while section

4.3 presents data related to instructional challenges, and section 4.4 presents data

related to institutional challenges. The final section is a summary of chapter.

4.1 Sample Descriptions and Scene Setting

In this section, demographic characteristics of the respondents are described first

with reference to the selected variables that include, gender, age, employment,

distance travelled to regional centre and year of study. Secondly, the scene is set

where participants are assigned with reference codes for purpose of reporting and

maintaining the anonymity.

4.1.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

The responses rate to the questionnaires was 95.4% (n=62). Of these 62 responses,

only two were unusable due to incomplete data, thus yielding 60 valid

questionnaires. The respondents to interviews were also sampled from this main

sample framework, and one academic staff was added. Furthermore, of these

respondents, 47% were female and 53% were male. Moreover, 65% (n=39) of the

respondents to the questionnaire were undergraduate continuing students while 35%

(n=21) were former ODL students graduated (2006-2011) in various degree

programmes offered by OUT. Out of 39 continuing students, 20 respondents were

female while 19 were male, whereas in former students category of 21 respondents 8

were female and 13 were male. Table 4.1a further summarizes these gender

characteristics of the respondents.

lxiv
Table 4.1a: Gender Distributions of the Respondents

FEMALE MALE
N % N % N %
Continuing ODL Students 20 33.3 19 31.7 39 65%
Former ODL Students 8 13.3 13 21.7 21 35%
TOTAL 28 47% 32 53% 60 100%

Source: Field data, 2011

Respondents were asked to select the age group in which they were belonging. The

highest percentage, 37% (n=22), belonged to 40-49 age group, followed by 32%

(n=19) in 30-39 age group. The 20-29 and 50-59 age groups took up 15.5% each.

Category wise, majority of the respondents from continuing students fell into 30-39

(28.2%) and 40-49 (46.2%) age groups. Tables 4.2b below summarize the age

groups of respondents

Table 4.1b: Age Group of Respondents

AGE
GRO FREQUEN
UP CIES %
1
5
.
20-29 9 5
3
30-39 20 2
3
40-49 22 7
1
5
.
50-59 9 5
TOT 60 1

lxv
 0
AL 0

Source: Field data, 2011

Further, the findings show that of 39 respondents from continuing respondents’

category, 29 (74.4%) had age between 30-49 age, and 7 (17.7%) belonged to 20-29

age group. The remaining 50+ age group took up small percentage, i.e three

respondents (7.8%). Regardless of a small sample involved, these findings are

aligned with Angelino et al (2007) that typically distance learners are 22 – 50 years

of age. Mbukusa (2009) also found that most of the distance learning students are

within 35 to 50 years of age and some are more or less. In contrast, Dabbagh and

Bannan-Ritland, (2005) and Dabbagh (2007) documented that, the profile of the

distance learner population is changing to one that is dynamic, tentative, younger,

and responsive to rapid technological changes.

About 95% (n=57) of all respondents were employed. Of continuing students’

category, only two respondents reported that they were unemployed. It is evident

that most of the distance learners are employed seeking to upgrade their

qualifications (Mbukusa, 2009; Angelino et al 2007 & Carr, 2000). Others are

lifelong learners and seek to improve themselves (Rowtree, 2008).

Further, there was a great variation in distance from the Regional Center (1-150

kilometers) among the respondents .The mean distance from the regional center was

23.6 kilometers, and about one third (19 respondents) were travelling above the

lxvi
mean distance to regional centre. As it will be revealed in the subsequent section, the

long distance from regional centre was among the reported challenges facing

distance learners.

Respondents either were graduated or registered students in programmes such as

Bachelor of education, B.A Sociology, Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of

commerce. Most continuing students (66.7%) were enrolled into education related

programmes. In prior studies, Mbukusa (2009) in Zimbabwe; Kamau (2007) in

Kenya ;Ukpo (2005) in Nigeria and Basaza (2006) in Uganda maintained that

teachers consist of a large segment of distance learners whose goal is to upgrade

their teaching qualifications

4.1.2 Setting the Scene

The data for this study were mainly obtained from questionnaires administered to 60

respondents; 39 being undergraduate continuing students and 21 graduates s. For

reporting in this study, these students will be referred to as ‘continuing students’ and

‘former students’ respectively. For the sake of referring to the specific responses

from the questionnaires while maintaining anonymity, continuing students are coded

QC1 through QC39, and former students QF1 through QF21.

Secondly, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 4 continuing students, 4

former students, and one academic staff. Where the responses of specific interviewee

are given in this chapter, each interviewee is identified by the following reference

lxvii
code;IC1 through IC4, IG1 through IG4 ,and IS1 for continuing students, former

students and academic staff respectively.

4.2. Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

One specific objective of this research was to determine the individual related

challenges facing ODL students as experienced by continuing and former ODL

students. This objective was guided by the research question, ‘what are individual

related challenges facing ODL students?’. The information for this objective was

drawn from section B of the questionnaires and supplemented by interviews.

In the questionnaire, respondents were asked to rate seven selected individual related

challenges in a likert scale format. These selected challenges were reviewed from the

literature as most cited individual related challenges facing distance learners. The

following table, 4.2a, presents the results and the discussion follows in turn.

lxviii
 Table 4.2a:Responses on Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students
T

  RESPONSES
Strongly Agre NA/
Selected Individual Agree e Not Decline
Related Challenges Agree d
  f % f % f % f %
               
Lack of sufficient 13.
time for study 24 40 28 46.7 8 3 0 0
Study from home to 48.
the regional centre. 15 25 10 16.7 29 3 6 10
Financial constrains 17 28.3 28 46.7 15 25 0 0
Lack of support from
family, employer,
friends, etc. 15 25 30 50 15 25 0 0
Unfavorable home
learning environment,
e.g. absence of
studying space. 20 33.3 25 41.7 15 25 0 0
Difficulties in
learning complex
and/ or technically
demanding material
by distance 30 50 21 35 6 10 3 5
Lack of experience
and/or training with
instructional 18. 1.
technologies 27 45 21 35 11 3 1 7
Conflicts between
family /Work and 2
study schedule 2 36.7 20 33.3 18 30 0 0

able 4.2a

SourSource: Field data, 2011

Over 80% of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed with three individual

related challenges facing them. These challenges were lack of sufficient time for

study (86.7%); difficulties in learning complex and/or technically demanding

lxix
materials (85%); and information and communication technologies barriers (80%).

Other highly rated challenges by either strongly agree or agreed were: Financial

constrains (75%); lack of supports from peers (75%) and unfavorable home learning

environment. Distance to the regional centre was least rated, 41.7%.

These higher rating responses to individual related challenges can be interpreted on

the basses of Bean and Metzner (1985) attrition theory. That, environmental (socio

cultural) variables such as finances, hours of employment, family responsibilities,

outside encouragement, and social services infrastructures can determine the

succeeding or withdraw of distance learners.

Results from open responses revealed that students were challenged by lack of

enough time for self-study. They reported failing to balance time for self-study, to

attend work responsibilities and other social obligations. One respondent (QC16)

who was a teacher commented that, ‘high teaching load left me with little time for

self study’. Another respondent QC5 posted that, ‘it is not easy studying while

working’. Many other statements indicated that respondents were constrained with

time management.

The findings from interviews also revealed that employment pressure had impact on

individual learner learning progress. One interviewee (IC3) stated that; ‘the major

problem facing me is lack of time, as most of the day time is dedicated to work’.

lxx
While another interviewee (IC2) who was recently appointed as the head of school

stated that:

“As the head of school I have a numbers of daily administrative responsibilities to

attend. This leaves me with very little time to deal with self-study, put aside other
family responsibilities. I need to reframe my schedule otherwise I won’t do it”.

Another interviewee ‘former student’-IG4 agreed that together with other factors,

lack of time was the key factor making him to take longer time to graduate. His

comment was, ‘it took me 8 years to get a degree due to insufficient time and

workload’. Time management problem among the distance learners is not new. Nash

(2005) in USA found that the “number one” challenge facing distance learners was

time management. In another study, Rao and Giuli (2010) concluded that most of the

DL students face difficult in keeping up with deadline and completing coursework.

Similarly, Sikwibele and Mungoo (2009) cited ‘inadequate time’ as one of the

drawbacks facing distance learners.

In contrast, two interviewees demonstrated that time management to distance

learners is not the matter of being fully employed or not but its depends on personal

commitments and dedications. Interviewee -IG3 mentioned that ‘I successfully

completed my degree within three years while teaching (working)’.Another

interviewee disclosed that ‘studying while fully employed is a matter of personal

decision’. The same interviewee continued to highlight that ‘always time is a scarce

resource, is difficult to graduate from OUT, it needs sacrifice and extra efforts’. This

is in line with Tresman’s (2002) findings that students who are able to devote extra

efforts in studying are likely to succeed in their academic endeavor. Studying by

lxxi
distance is an independent endeavor; it demand individual commitments, dedications

and self-discipline. Distance learners must devote plenty of time to studying. These

are realistic demands that most of the students fail to realize.

Further, respondents indicated their concerns on challenges related to the application

of 2information and communication technologies. Apart from being rated high

(table, 4.2a), according to the results, 58.3% of the respondents had no

computer/laptop and 36% were computer illiterate. Numerous previous studies also

had documented that, distance learners in developing countries are not only

challenged with the lack of experience in the application of technology but also,

scarce or apparent absence of them (UNESCO, 2004; Mbukusa,2009; Basaza et al.,

2010). Table 4.2b summarizes the results on computer own ship and operation skills

Table 4.2b: Computer Ownership and Application Skills

OWNER SHIP COMPUTER LITERACY

RESPONSES RESPONSES
Responses' YES NO YES NO
category f % f % f % f %
Continuing 2
Students 15 5 24 40 22 36.7 17 28.3
Former 1
Students 10 6.6 11 18.3 16 26.7 5 8.3
4
TOTAL 25 1.7 35 58.3 38 63.3 22 36.7

Source: Field data, 2011

Moreover, questionnaires open responses and interviews showed the magnitude of

these challenges related ICT to applications as illustrated in the following

statements:

lxxii
“Cannot access SARIS unless I seek help from someone”- QC4

“Difficulties in accessing /using internet” –QC21

“With little computer operation skills, to get what you pay for from the internet café

is a difficult task”-QC8

“I cannot search from the internet to supplement my coursework materials”-QC1

“I used a computer owned by my employer; it was often difficult to use it at

convenient time. Working hours are very limited to attend my work duties and for

self- study”-IG3

“My doubt is the ongoing OUT transformation of learning materials media into soft

copies. My concern is whether students from remote areas will cope with these

changes” -IC2

These findings are evident and concur with Mossberger et al (2003), that to distance

learners who are not well versed with technical competence and skills of information

literacy, the use of an electronic medium in distance learning can inadvertently

exclude them or be problematic in their education undertakings. Other prior studies,

for example, (Galusha ,1998;Mbukusa, 2009) further found that barriers related to

applications of technologies in ODL is a cross sectoral issue, but most of the affected

are individual students. Galusha further insisted that, if distance learning is to be

successful, technical barriers to student success must be removed.

Despite all these difficulties, ICT is incidentally the hallmark of ODL. Application

of ICT in DL is not a matter of choice, but a must at the present digital age.

lxxiii
(Cosmas, & Mbwete, 2009). The researcher observed the modern computer

laboratory at Kagera Regional Centre connected to internet. It was further revealed

from the interview with interviwee-IS1 that computer courses are offered and the

OUT is assisting students to buy laptops at reasonable prices through arrangement

already made with one company in Dar es Salaam. It is therefore fair to anticipate

that, though under circumstances some students are unable to access ICT facilities

offered by the university, others might be lagging behind time simply because are

reluctant to change.

Concerning financial constrains, it was expected that because most of the distance

learners are adults with family obligations that need money, financial constraints in

their studies would be obvious. Almost, all respondents reported being self-financing

their studies. One respondent-IC11 commented that “I once postponed registering

for tests and examinations because I was unable to pay fees on time”. Another

respondent said that ‘true, it is difficult to meet my education expenses and to sustain

my family from my monthly salary’-IC2. Further, it was gathered from the interview

with IS1 that, the University had very limited financial assistance scheme for

students. He added that, students are supposed to take their own initiatives to seek

financial assistance elsewhere. These findings concur with those of Parker and

Greenlee (1997) who commented that financial problem is the most constraint facing

distance learners.

lxxiv
Although respondents identified lack of support from employers as a challenge

facing them, with statements such as, “denial of permission from employer to attend

exams”, “my boss does not recognize my effort in advancing my qualifications,” etc.

Many indicated that they were self-sponsored, an indication of self-motivation in

learning. Brien (1992) and Reamer 1990) asserted that distance learners who are self

motivated with “never give up” attitude are more likely to persist, even more under

the most adverse circumstances, such as lack of support from employers and

financial constraints. Similarly, Knowles (1997) described the need for self-

motivation and self-direction as important attributes for overcoming obstacles and

successful course completion. In his study, Rovai (2003) found that distance learners

draw more support from outside the academic environment because their reference

group of peers exists outside the institution. However, Henry and Smith (1993)

assert that lack of support from the community including employers has negative

effects on students’ academic goal attainment. According to Henry and Smith

(1993), when academic variables are positive, such as self motivation but

environmental variables such as community support are negative, the favorable

effects of academic variables are suppressed or attenuated. Supportive community

can provide students with a sense of belonging, membership, and engagement

(Rovai, 2003).

Furthermore, the study intended to establish the relationship between home

environment and learners’ motivation to learn. According to Mushi (2001); Pierrakes

&Xenos (2004); and Mbukusa, (2009), unfavorable home learning environment is

lxxv
among the barriers that have routinely impeded ODL students. As seen from table

4.2a, about 75% of the respondents strongly agreed that unfavorable home

environment was a challenge facing them. However, analysis of open responses

from the informal interviews and discussion showed that respondents were less

concerned with unfavorable home learning environment as a challenge facing them,

and instead, insisted on isolation and difficulties in creating learning communities

(study groups) with their fellow students. The respondents informed the researcher

that, even if they formed study groups, they did not last longer, as members had

varied interests and commitments. One interviewee said “we were seven in our study

group, gradually four members dropped, and now we are only three.” Carroll (2008)

asserted that distance learners have many challenges to overcome such as physical

separation, feeling of isolation, and feeling disconnected. Failure to form voluntary

study groups has negative impacts to distance learners as these groups could lessen

isolation nature of distance learning. Rovai (2003) stated that study groups cannot

only enhance flow of information among all learners, but may also increase

availability of support, commitment to group goals, cooperation among members

and satisfaction with group efforts. Rovai observes that, study groups are a venue

that can enhance social and academic interactions among distance learners and

suggests that, students should create active learning communities and develop

relationships with members, thus reducing isolation and disconnectedness.

Moreover, the study wanted to find out whether distance from home to Regional

center had any impact on learning. The respondents were asked to indicate the

lxxvi
distance from home to regional centre and to comment on how the distance to

Regional Centre was a challenge to them. The findings revealed that, the mean

distance from the Regional center was 23.6 kilometers, and about one third (19

respondents) were travelling above the mean distance to the Regional Centre. Nearly

half of the respondents (48.3%) did not agree that distance from home to Regional

Centre was a challenge. Such responses may be attributed to the fact that most of the

respondents were residing within Bukoba urban township. Some of those who saw

distance as a challenge had this to say:

“Because of taking care of my little baby, I was forced to travel back and forth to

regional center for the all days during exams. My home is about 40 kilometers away,

then you can imagine how it cost and risks”. -IG2

“I have to incur travelling cost to regional center and sometimes could not get

expected services.”- QG21

“It was heavily raining and I arrived late at regional center and missed the exam”-

QG16

“I had to lodge during the exams and tests, in spite of being expensive, the lodging

environment was not friendly for studies”- IC1

From these responses, it was concluded that, distance from home to regional center

was among the challenges to distance learners, where many students were forced to

lodge especially during examinations, tests and face-to-face sessions. Similarly, prior

studies documented the problems related to travelling distance, for example, Mushi

(2001) reported problems of transport and greater distance to regional centre as

lxxvii
among the challenges facing ODL students in Tanzania. Pierrakes and Xenos (2004)

postulated that traveling costs and other socio economic problems account for 27%

of the reasons for students’ attrition at Hellenic Open University.

In this section (4.2), the results on individual related challenges have been presented.

Lack of time for self study emerged as the key challenge as the majority of the

respondents indicated that employment pressure and family obligation left them with

limited time for self study. However, few respondents reported being excelling well

as they were able to merge employment and study. Other most reported challenges

were: incompetence with ICT applications, lack of support from employers and

unconducive home environment for studying. Other challenges reported include

distance to regional centre especially during examinations and timed tests sessions.

4.3 Instructional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

This part presents the data gathered to achieve research objective two, which was

concerned with determining the instructional related challenges facing ODL

students. The information for this objective was gathered from questionnaires

followed by interviews. In the first stance, the questionnaire presented instructional

related challenges as perceived from the literature. The respondents were asked to

rate them in likert scale containing six items. The results are displayed in table 4.2a

below

Table 4.3a: Responses on Selected Instructional Related Challenges

STRONGLY AGREE NOT NA/declined

lxxviii
 Selected Challenges AGEE AGREE
f % f % f % f %
Delayed/ineffective
feedback from the
Instructors 17 28.3 33 55 7 11.7 3 5
Lack of instructor’s
contact and
inadequate
academic support 18 30 27 45 8 13.3 7 11.7
Difficulty in
attending face to
face 6 10 28 47 8 13.3 18 30
Difficulty in
attending science
practical 6 10 16 27 10 16.7 28 46.7
Poor course
material design/
inappropriate
learning materials 8 13.3 28 47 24 40 0 0
Unhelpful course
information and
lack of direction 11 18.3 21 35 24 40 4 6.67

Source: Field data, 2011

Of the six items presented as the individual related challenges facing ODL students,

over two third of the respondents agreed to all the suggested challenges. In item

number one, 83.3% of the respondents agreed that delayed or ineffective feedback

was a challenge; 75% agreed that lack of instructor’s contact and /or inadequate

academic support was a challenge. Poor course design/inappropriate learning

materials were identified by 60% of the respondents as a challenge facing them.

Furthermore, the respondents strongly agreed or agreed with other two challenges;

difficulties in attending face- to-face and unhelpful course information and lack of

direction, 57% and 53% respectively. The only item that was not a challenge to the

lxxix
 majority of the learners was field practical, which only 46.7% indicated it as a

challenge. Further, findings revealed that, many respondents experienced delays with

the instructors’ feedback on the marked assignments, and timed tests as a

discouraging factor to their studies success. One respondent revealed that, ‘if you do

not know the results from what you did, it becomes difficult to progress’. Meanwhile

an interviewee (IC1) remarked that:

“I received feedback on my first year assignments

and timed tests scripts on the following year when I
had already sat for annual examinations. It was if
these assessments were used for grading not for
individual student academic growth”.

Respondents’ experience on timing of feedback showed that (table 4.4b) there was

no fixed time for instructors to send feedback to students. Some indicated a few

months, (0-3 month and some over the year.

Table 4.3b: Responses on Feedback Timing

N 0-3 4-6 months 7-9 10-12 1year +

  months Months months
Continuing
Students 20 15 1 2 0 2
Former Students 15 3 5 0 3 4

TOTAL 35 18 6 2 3 6

Source: Field data 2011

If students’ feedbacks are delayed, they may contribute negatively to students’ future

learning. It is difficult for students when they do not receive timely feedback as they

may find it hard to move on to new content. Hara and Kling (2001) found that

students reported confusion, anxiety, and frustration due to perceived lack of prompt

lxxx
or clear feedback from the instructors. Thus, delayed and ineffective feedback can

widen the transactional distance gap, and add burden to learners who are struggling

with isolation and remoteness nature of distance learning.

The timing of feedback is significantly important to student learning as highlighted

by Simonson, et al (2000): Good and timely feedback taps on the students’ potential

for development and helps establish stronger interactions between the instructors and

students, which is a key element to student success and transfer of knowledge.

Feedback is essentially a major part of the learning cycle (Weaver, 2006 cited in

Mbukusa, 2009). Interaction being the one of the key elements in teaching and

learning, it can be enriched by effective and timely feedback and helps build a

student-teacher relationship. Feedback between learner and teacher is necessary for

education to develop and improve (Acker & McCain, 1993).

Another related observation was that of lost assignments and timed test scripts.

Respondents were asked if they had already encountered the problem of their

assignments or timed test scripts getting lost. As displayed in table 4.4c below, the

most affected group was former students.

Table 4.3c: Responses on Lost Assignments /Timed Test Scripts

Responses'
Category RESPONSES
  YES NO
  f % f %
Continuing Students 11 18.3  28  46
Former Students 17  29 04  6.7

lxxxi
  2  47.  3  52.
TOTAL 8 3 2 7

Source: Field data, 2011

Open-ended responses and the discussions which the researcher had with the

interviewees, it became evident that the, problem of scripts getting lost frustrated,

discouraged and brought many discomforts to students. One respondent (IG1)

remarked that; “I lost so many scripts which I had to repeat, not easy to explain”.

The same respondent continued showing the magnitude of the problem when he

commented “I repeated some assignments and timed tests, again did not get the

results” .The researcher was interested to probe further how that respondent

managed to graduate in such situations. It was disclosed that he once travelled to Dar

es Salaam (OUT headquarters) to make follow-up and it took him a year to clear the

gaps that were not of his fault.

Other several respondents indicated that lost scripts and unrecorded grades costs

them a lot, for they were forced to travel to Dar-es-Salaam to make a follow up, and

in many cases, they had to pay more fees to sit for the missing grades. Responses

expressing these views are as follows:

“It affected me a lot either I was supposed to delete the affected course and start

afresh or in order to remove incomplete in my examination records I had to accept

zero as if I failed. This affected my grade”- IC16

“I had to do them for the second time. It mean I lost my time and money”-QC21

lxxxii
“I was supposed to graduate in 2009 but I came to graduate in 2011, because some

of my academic records were missing I repeated three courses in 2011”. –QG5

“In some cases, my assignments got lost and never recovered. This resulted in losing

marks and time”-QG16

The findings confirm what Mbukusa (2009) pointed out that, more money and time

was lost when students repeated courses several times due to ineffective and poor

students’ records keeping. Tests and assignments in any educational institutions is

the means for course assessments as well as giving students feedback on their

progress. In an ODL setting where learners are isolated, accurate ways of students’

grades recording and ensuring that instructors give regular feedback is of great

importance not only for learners’ satisfactions, but also for institution’s reputation.

It is imperative, however, to note some acknowledgments submitted by respondents

on improvement made by OUT so far. Commenting on those improvements, one

interviewee said, ‘there are remarkable improvements in students’ scripts handling

and marks recording. For the time being, I do not have serious problems compared

to the past. Documentary analysis revealed that following the establishment of

Examinations Syndicate, coupled with the revival of the marking panel sessions

(OUT, 2011), students’ academic progressive records handling has improved.

Concerning difficulties in face -to -face and science practical, the respondents

revealed the challenges that are socio- economic in nature such as travelling distance

and its accompanied expenses. Further, as researcher listened to the interview

lxxxiii
discussions and the notes he had already written down, most responses centered on

dissatisfied academic support provided through face- to- face. The respondents

hinted that, during face- to -face the available limited time is used to deals with

portfolios instead of actual teaching in areas of difficulties in a particular course as

used to be. As one participant responded, “although it is compulsory to attend face-

to- face, we end up with presenting portfolios which do not contribute any marks to

the final grades”. However, the work done in portfolio is the evidence that a student

has done what is required for him/her to sit for tests and examinations.

The fact remain that face- to- face should provide opportunities to students to talk to

their tutors and peers around content that seems difficult for them while on their

own. Such contact times create many opportunities for students to learn and obtain

encouragement from their peers (Keegan, 1996; Mbukusa, 2009). Therefore, face-to-

face sessions are unique opportunity for isolated learners to be engaged physically in

teaching and learning. However, the face-to-face sessions are further constrained by

shortage of qualified staff in the respective discipline as well as the limited financial

resources (OUT, 2011).

Lastly, commenting on the effectiveness of their instructors, different comments

were provided ranging from ‘very effective’ to ‘poor’ and it would be unfair to

make any conclusion from these comments as it failed to provide any base from

which judgment could be drawn. These variations might be attributed to the fact that

respondents were not much conversant with the role of instructors versus the role of

lxxxiv
learners in ODL enterprises. For example, one respondent fumed that “Student like

me who is fresh from school needs many lectures, but we had never received any.

OUT lecturers are paid for nothing-(they don’t teach)”. This reflects the lack of

understanding of what distance learning entails. Consequently, students failed to

understand not only their teachers’ role but also their roles as distance learners. As it

was once suggested by Tresman (2002) that distance ODL curriculum should

include an introductory course aimed at improving students’ ODL knowledge and

skills, as means of helping them to cope with changes to non-traditional education.

Generally, this section presented the results on instructional related challenges. The

analysis of multiple data shows that ODL students are mostly challenged with

ineffective and delayed feedback in terms of returned marked assignments and timed

tests and lost scripts/un recorded grades. These barriers consequently discourage and

de-motivate students, and lose their resources as they are sometimes compelled to

repeat the courses unnecessarily. In addition, respondents were dissatisfied with the

way in which face to face sessions were conduced. They hinted that instructors spent

more time dealing with portfolios instead of helping them in areas of difficulties as

used to be. Lastly, respondents provided diverse comments on the effectiveness of

instructors that coincidentally established that they were lacking understanding about

the roles of instructors in ODL enterprises.

4.4 Institutional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students

lxxxv
 This part presents the findings for objective three, which aimed at determining the

institutional related challenges facing ODL students. This was accomplished through

data collected from questionnaires, interviews and supplemented with documentary

review. In the questionnaires, these challenges were also identified using likert-type

scale containing six statements (Table 4.4a) followed by open-ended questions

Table 4.4a: Responses on Rating Selected Institutional Related Challenges

  RESPONSES
Strongly Agree
Agree Not
Selected Challenges Agree NA/Declined
  f % f % f % f %
Delayed study materials at 28.
regional centers 17 3 15 25 9 15 19 31.7

lxxxvi
Difficulty in administrative
services such as registering 6.6 2
and paying fee 4 7 12 20 6 43.3 18 30
Lack of appropriate advice
provided under the umbrella 1
of students services support 12 20 19 31.7 0 16.7 19 31.7
Lack of an effective
institutional network of 23.
technical assistance 14 3 15 25 8 13.3 23 38.3
Lack of responsiveness from
regional center/OUT
headquarter administrative 1
staff 15 25 17 28.3 4 23.3 14 23.3
Lack/delayed of important 18. 1
information 11 3 17 28.3 3 21.7 19 31.7

Source: Field data 2011

As shown in table 4.4a above, of six presented challenges, over 50% of the

respondents identified the major three challenges by strongly agreed or agreed.

These were delayed study materials at regional centers (53.3%), lack of

responsiveness from regional center/OUT headquarter administrative staff (53.3%),

and lack of appropriate students services support (51.7%).

Other challenges of which nearly half of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed

were; lack of an effective institutional network of technical assistance (46.6%), and

lack or delayed important information (48.3%). Finally, less than one-third of the

respondents, (26.7%), strongly agreed or agreed that accessing administrative

services was a challenge. Further findings and analysis of these challenges follow in

the subsequent paragraphs.

lxxxvii
Follow -up question through interview and questionnaires open ended questions

produced the following responses:

“Study materials are not provided”- QC22

“I have taken long to finish because each time there are no study materials”-QG9

“Some courses never receive materials for the entire year”-QC30

“Most of us are getting tired with the situation of study materials”-QC9

“I failed to get study materials in some registered courses”-QC5.

Further, participants were asked to indicate how long it get take to receive course

materials after course registration. The results are presented in table 4.4b

Table 4.4b: Timing of Study Materials at Regional Centre

Duration 1-2 3-4 2-3 Not at all

weeks weeks months

Responses (n=58) 5 18 21 14
Percentages 8.6% 31.1% 36.2% 24.1%

Source: Field data, 2011

The findings show that most of the respondents (over 50%) received study materials

late or never got them. Barriers related to study materials in ODL were also reported

in previous studies. Bhalalusesa (1999) and Mushi (2001) reported logistics

problems that lead to delayed study materials at regional centers. Basaza et al (2010)

also found that lack of study materials was a challenge hindering distance learners in

Uganda.

lxxxviii
After going through open-ended responses from the questionnaires and notes taken

during interviews, the researcher noted that, delayed and /or apparent absence of

study materials was the most identified challenge by majority of the respondents.

Whether the problem is caused by OUT or by individual learners, for example, due

to lack of technological devices necessary to access study materials in electronic

format , the last consumer (student) is the one who suffer most. To facilitate the

understanding, the researcher drew the mind map to conceptualize how delayed and

apparent absence of study materials affect students in open and distance learning.

Figure 4.4: Conceptual Map Illustrating the Consequences of Lack of Study

Delayed/l
Materials ack of
study
materials

lxxxix
 Plagiari Wastage of
sm time and
&rote lose pace
learning Lack of
confidence
& feeling
of
insecurity
Weak Fear,
work, -poor anxiety,
performanc frustrati
e, -failure ons,
-Late Stress
completion
-Public
embarrass
ment
-Apparent
drop out

Questio
nable
ODL
Quality

Source: Developed for this research report

From the conceptual mind map above, the researcher concluded that students are

affected academically, psychologically, and financially as the consequences of

delayed and lack of study materials. Looking at the mind map above, towards the left

side, lack of study materials may force students to plagiarize and attempt rote

learning from few study materials available. As a result, students submit assignments

that are not properly written and are not well prepared for timed tests and

xc
examinations. Consequently, they perform poorly. Unfortunately, such poor

performance may not be the true reflection of their academic abilities. Having

experienced all this bad weather in their academic journey, those who are

courageous enough may persist at slow pace, hence late completion. Others do

withdraw from studies. The public including employers can start to question the

individual student’s academic abilities on the ground that why does it take him /her

long to graduate or drop out, hence embarrassment. Lastly, the quality education

provided through ODL is questionable.

On the right side of the above mind map, delayed or lack of study materials may

affect students economically as they waste resources in terms of money and time;

patiently waiting for the arrival of study materials and sometimes travelling to

regional centre to make follow- up, but find nothing. Psychological repercussion

come next as bad experience with unavailability of study materials can rise fear,

anxiety and frustrations because their planned education endeavors are threatened.

Similarly, some may cope with those bad situations and others may withdraw from

studies. Both groups are likely not to escape the public embarrassment. Finally, late

graduation or drop out due to the lack of study materials does not only bring the

negative effects to students but also to institutions reputations (Johnson,2000)

OUT acknowledge that ‘the shortage of study materials has been a genuine problem

for the University and impacts negatively on students’ overall performance’ (OUT,

2011:26). However, the status of development of new study materials is not

xci
impressive. According to OUT (2011) starting 2006 to 2010, only 80 new study

materials have been produced. This is inadequate when you compare with the current

courses on offer. As a result, OUT continues to use study materials from other

Universities that are outdated and some do not reflect the Tanzanian context. In the

present study, the respondents argued that some study materials (example OED 101-

History of Education course material) reflect Kenyan context and have nothing to do

with our own educational history.

Similarly, participants showed their concerns on the minimal flexibility in learning

associated with the use of study materials delivered through electronic media. They

said that it was a very tiresome exercise when required to do “screen reading” where

some of them had little computer skills and do not own computer. Transforming

study materials into softcopy is inevitable as ODL cannot remain static in the present

age of new technologies, however, lack of access to computer and other ICT devices

bar students from accessing the required materials (Zirnkle,2004). McIsaac (1993)

warned that materials and services that are transferred without attention being paid to

the social and technological settings of the recipients could affect technology based

distance learning.

Therefore, it is reasonable to predict that while it is inevitable to adapt modern

technologies in delivering study materials, printed sources will remain central in

ODL for the unforeseeable future because of their flexibility, user friendliness and

cost advantages (Kamala, 2007).

xcii
Inadequate academic support and poor contacts between the instructors and students

were also the issues which emerged during the interviews. Respondents complained

about the low instructors’ responses to their problems and inadequate or apparent

absence of academic advice at the regional centre. The respondent IC3 had this to

say, ” We are doing things in our own ways; there is an acute shortage of instructors

at the Regional Centre who can assist us, even the few available are not supportive

enough”. This was supported by another interviewee IC4 who stated that, ‘there is

nothing like that (academic support); it is better you fight for yourself instead of

wasting time looking for nothing’. Lack of direction from instructors has been

proved to be one of the major factors contributing to students’ dilemma, as there is

no frequent contact with instructors, students are likely to have trouble in self-

evaluation (Keegan, 1996). Other studies also suggest that, students often have

difficulty when they do not have direct and ongoing contact with academic advising

services from their instructors (Basaza et al, 2010; Juma 2005; Senanayake

&Dadigamua, 2005).

In addition, interviewee IS1 confessed difficulties facing students related to lack of

academic advice due to the shortage of academic staff at the centre. He further

postulated that, they are doing whatever possible to help those who are on their

reach. Again, inadequate academic advice can discourage students and diminish

interactions between learners and teachers, hence widen transactional gap. This is in

opposite with the framework of Transactional Distance Theory (Moore, 1993). The

xciii
more interaction students have with their instructors or the institution that gives them

support the higher the success rate.

Another institutional related challenge that was identified by respondents in the

present study is lack of adequate student services support in area of guidance and

counseling. Lack of adequate guidance and counseling is considered as a setback,

since if adequately provided can strength students’ motivation, and assist them in

tackling numerous personal, social, and academic problems in the learning process

(Tresman, 2002).

Further, the importance of student service support including guidance and

counseling in ODL is well documented as it is the heart of institutions using ODL

(Nunan et al, 2000) and is a central and integral to learning (Simpson, 2004). In

another study, Lamer (2009) found that, advising and counseling distance learners is

the first critical strategy in reducing the feeling of isolation that leads to lower

retention rates.

Related to student support is effectiveness of administrative staff in delivering

services to students. As displayed in table 4.4c the majority (50%) of the respondents

rated the provision of services as good and 41% rated it as fair.

Table 4.4c: Effectiveness of Administrative Staff in Services Delivering

xciv
 POOR FAIR GOOD EXCELLENT
Responses’ Rate (N) 2 23 28 3
Percentage 3.6% 41% 50% 5.4%

Source: Field data, 2011

However, the voice of interviewees sounded differently with the above rating.

Majority of them claimed that some administrative personnel are not supportive

enough. They reported abusive language, inconsiderate and failure of regional centre

administrative team to attend to their problems accordingly. “They are lacking

customer care skills” one interviewee claimed. A statement like that sounds simple

but it has big implications on todays’ ODL enterprises. What matters most in the

case of ODL institution like OUT is the presence of staff personnel who pay

attention to students' problems and who help students feel that they are supported

(Daniel, 2005).

Moreover, it was noted that some students’ queries were not attended promptly

because the director of regional centre (DRC) does not have mandate to solve some

of the problems, especially those related to academic progress records. As one

interviewee commented, “DRC should be given mandate to solve the academic

problem rather than referring it to head quarters”. Provided communication break

down between the regional centre and HQS and acute shortage of staff it takes

longer to settle the students’ problems. However, academic issues especially those

pertaining to examinations are sensitive and not easily decentralized.

xcv
Lastly, through the questionnaires, respondents were asked to comment on the

provision of orientations upon admission. As shown in table 4.4d below, the

majority (82%) attended the orientations at the beginning of their academic year and

so forth. Interview with IS1 established that OUT normally conducts orientations at

every beginning of academic year for both continuing and fresh students.

Table 4.4d: Attendance of Orientations Sessions

N YES NO
f % f %
Continuing
Students 35 28 47 7 12
Former
students 17 21 35 4 6
TOTAL 60 49 82 11 18
Source: Field data, 2011

Further, the orientation speeches from OUT top administrators can be accessed from

the university web site and are normally displayed in noticeboard in all OUT

regional centers. These findings suggest that majority of students at OUT are not

constrained with lack of orientations programmes. These findings are in contrast

with prior research which proposed that distance learners were constrained with lack

of guidance and information during admission time (Tresman, 2002 & Pierrakeas et

al2 004). Effective student orientations could assist with establishing rapport

between students and university staff, reinforcing the value of the learning

community and establishing a sense of belonging to the university (Carroll, 2008;

Lesht & Shaik 2005). Orientation is the means of giving students a head-start with

the academic aspect of their degree programmes (Carroll, 2008).

xcvi
In summary, Delayed or apparent lack of study materials emerged as a key

institutional related challenge facing ODL students. Results demonstrated that,

students receive study materials late or never got them, also they were challenged

with inflexibility of study materials found in electronic media. The researcher drew a

conceptual map as an attempt to illustrate the escalation of those challenges to

distance learners (cf. figure 4.4).

Other identified institutional related challenges were: Lack of guidance and

counseling, lack of academic support and inadequate administrative services at

regional centre. However, there were variations between questionnaires’ responses

appraisal on the effectiveness of administrative staff and those gathered from

interviews. In contrast to the literature (Bruening et al, 2001; Galusha,

1998:Tresman, 2002 ), orientation programme did not appear as a challenge in the

present study, since majority reported having attended orientation sessions and

orientations speech are easily available.

4.7 Summary of Chapter Four

This chapter commenced with descriptions on the demographic characteristics of the

respondents (Section 4.1). The results showed the responses rate to the

questionnaires was 95.4% (n=62).Of these, 47% were female and 53% were male.

Majority of the respondents, 37% (n=22), belonged to 40-49 age group followed by

32% (n=19) in 30-39 age group. About 95% of all respondents were employed. The

xcvii
distance traveled by respondents’ from home to Regional Centre varied greatly (1-

150 kilometers), the average distance was 23.6 kilometers and about one third of the

respondents reported that they were traveling above the average distance to the

Regional Centre.

Section 4.2 presented the results on individual related challenges facing ODL

students. Among other challenges, lack of time for self study emerged as the key

challenge, as the majority of respondents indicated that employment pressure and

family obligation left them with limited time for self study. Other most reported

challenges in order of their magnitude were: information and communication

technologies barriers, financial constraints, lack of supports from employers and

students’ failure to form reliable study groups .Lastly, respondents reported

occasional obstacles resulting from travelling distance from home to the Regional

Centre especially during examinations sessions.

Section 4.3 presented the results on instructional related challenges. Ineffective and

delayed feedbacks in terms of returned marked assignments and timed tests and lost

scripts/un recorded grades emerged as key challenges. Respondents also

demonstrated dissatisfaction with the way in which face- to -face was being

conducted. They hinted that instructors spent more time dealing with portfolios

instead, of helping them in areas of difficulties as used to be. Lastly, respondents

provided diverse comments on the effectiveness of instructors that coincidentally

xcviii
established that they were lacking understanding about the roles of instructors in

ODL enterprises.

Lastly, section 4.4 dealt with presentation and analysis of data concerning

institutional related challenges. Delayed or apparent lack of study materials emerged

as a key challenges facing ODL students. It was also revealed that respondents were

challenged with inflexibility of study materials found in electronic media. The

researcher drew a conceptual map as an attempt to illustrate the escalation of those

challenges to distance learners (figure 4.4). Other identified institutional related

challenges were; lack of guidance and counseling, lack of academic support and

inadequate administrative services at the Regional Centre.

xcix
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter provides a summary of the study and the conclusions derived from the

findings. The chapter also presents implications and recommendations based on the

research findings on the challenges facing ODL students at the Open University of

Tanzania. The last part of the chapter is recommendations for future research.

5.1 Over view of the Study

The intention of this research was to investigate and document the challenges facing

ODL students as experienced by both continuing and former students at the Open

University of Tanzania. In chapter one the researcher has discussed the problem of

the study and objectives of the study. The problem of the study was the challenges

facing open and distance learners.

In chapter two, related literature were reviewed on the challenges facing ODL

students to place in context the problem of the study, namely, individual,

instructional and institutional related challenges facing ODL students at the Open

University of Tanzania. Chapter three is an outline of the research design adapted in

this study. This is descriptive design using qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and documentary reviews were the

c
methods used to collect data. It was also posted that, sixty continuing undergraduate

and former OUT students as well as an academic staff were selected to participate in

the study.

The conclusions and recommendations described in the subsequent sections are

centered on the experiences of respondents, based on the objectives of the study and

the summary of key issues that emerged from data presented in chapter four.

5.3 Conclusions

The findings of the research show that there are several challenges that OUT

students face. These include individual, instructional and institutional related

challenges. Those challenges from individual category include; (1) lack of sufficient

time for study, (2) problems related to the access and use of ICT, (3) financial

constraints, (4) lack of support from employers, and (5) occasional obstacles

resulting from travelling distance from home to Regional Centre especially during

face to face and examinations sessions. Much of the causes of the individual

challenges emanate from students’ failure to manage time for self study and to attend

other social and work obligations, and lack of computer and competence skills in

ICT. Other causes are low income, negative employers’ mind -set to ODL and long

distance from the Regional Centre.

Instructional related challenges facing the OUT students include: Ineffective and

delayed feedback of students’ assignments and examinations results, lost scripts and

ci
unrecorded grades. These challenges contributed negatively to students’ learning

because most of them find it difficult to move on to new content. Instructional

challenges widen the transactional distance gap, and add burden to learners most of

whom are struggling to learn in isolation while not knowing the fate of their

education.

Another revealed instructional related challenge was respondents’ dissatisfaction

with the way in which face –to- face sessions were conducted. Lastly, respondents

provided diverse comments on the effectiveness of instructors that coincidentally

established that they lacked understanding about the roles of instructors in ODL

enterprises.

Institutional related challenges that OUT students face include; delayed or lack of

study materials. In relation to this most of students could not access electronic media

due to lack of ICT devices and absence of technological infrastructures within their

localities. Other identified institutional related challenges as lack of students

support services in areas of guidance and counseling, and inadequate academic

support and administrative services at Regional Centre.

It can therefore be concluded that concluded that a number of challenges emerged at

individual, instructional and institutional levels which hindered students’ smooth

learning progresses. Of these challenges, lack of sufficient time for self-study,

ineffective/absence feedback and lack of study materials are critical at these three

cii
levels respectively. If the potentials of ODL are to be fully utilized, measures should

be taken to reduce or alleviate these challenges. The next section presents

recommendation for further considerations.

5.3 Recommendations

The first recommendation from this study is that, although studying through ODL

mode is an independent endeavor, OUT should equip students with independent

study skills. This could help distance learners to balance time and merge work,

social life and their studies. Specifically, OUT should strengthen its initiatives of

compulsory introduction to ODL course with a focus to improving students’ ODL

knowledge and skills, as means of helping them to cope with changes to non-

traditional education.

Secondly, although ICT is crucial for effective and efficient delivery of ODL

courses, due to limited and expensive access to up-steam facilities for ICT use,

students cannot use ICT viably. OUT should continuously establish necessary

infrastructure for ICT at its Regional Centre and provide students with access to

ICTs facilities such as audio –visual conferencing facilities, computers and CD-

ROMs. More important, those students who are reluctant to change their mind set

towards ICT should be oriented to ICT.

ciii
Thirdly, although students travel a long distance, a common occurrence in distance

education to reach their regional centre, OUT should plan for hostel services at the

Regional Centre with permanent buildings. Hostel services would not only create

revenue to OUT, but also provide safe place to students and cuts the cost and risks

related to lodging environment during the examinations and face to face sessions.

Fourthly, OUT should continue to recruit academicians who are committed and have

passion to ODL as mode of education delivery. Orientations courses to ODL should

be provided to faculty members as the means of equipping them with ODL teaching

and learning skills. All these will strengthen instructional at OUT. Consequently, this

will lessen instructional related challenges such as delayed feedbacks. OUT should

strengthen and improve the operations of face- to- face sessions. The face- to- face

sessions should provide opportunities to students to talk to their instructors and peers

around content that seems difficult for them while on their own.

Fifthly, attention should be paid to improving administrative services at the Regional

Centres by appointing right personnel. Students’ services should include counseling

and guidance as most students are compounded by various problems. Without proper

support, students often develop a sense of helplessness which in turn acts as a de-

motivator to learning.

civ
Next, OUT must ensure on-time production and delivery of study materials. It is not

proper in ODL when study materials are not available, as study materials form the

basis of teaching and learning. Delay in production and delivery of study materials

discourages students to pursue their programmes. OUT authority has to give extra

efforts to make all the study materials ready before the academic year starts.

Generally, OUT should strive to achieve effective and balanced teaching and

learning system. This means provision of high quality education that satisfies the

desire of the learners to the extent that they would wish to come back to the

institution for further studies and to feel proud of their institution to recommend it to

others who are seeking for knowledge.

5.5 Implications for Further Research

In this section, there are four implications for further research. Each of these is

addressed in turn. First, replication of this research should be conducted in order to

determine if the challenges identified through this study at OUT are similar to other

ODL providers in the country. Replicating this research in other contexts would also

have key theoretical implications, as it would provide additional insights to the

literature on the challenges facing ODL students.

Secondly, a study should be conducted to determine how instructors perceive and

construct feedbacks to determine if distance learners are satisfied with their

instructors’ feedback. Research on instructors-students interaction in distance

learning environment in Tanzania context should be carried out.

cv
Thirdly, a study should be conducted to focus on distance learning students’

satisfaction with application of ICT in course delivery and administrative

services .This is important as the mean of arriving at improvements and

modifications in course delivery methodology and as well as in improving

administrative services.

Lastly, a study should be undertaken to determine how self study groups as a form of

interactions to distance learners can affect motivation towards successful leaning.

The results from these suggested researches would positively impact on the planning

of academic and administration of ODL at OUT and other educational institutional

practicing Open and Distance Learning.

cvi
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APPENDICES

cxvi
 Appendix A:

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CONTINUING STUDENTS

SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION

Kindly complete the following personal information by putting a cross (X) in the
appropriate box.

1. Gender

Femal
e
Male

2. Age

Range in 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

years

3. Are you employed?

YE
S
NO

4. Distance from home to regional/study center (in kilometers)

-------------------------------------------------------

5. To which category does your degree program belongs?

Category
Education eg. B.ed
Arts eg. BA.Sociology,
Science, Bsc Biology
Business, eg B.Com
Others

cxvii
6. Indicate your year of Study

Year of 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th +

study
Respons
e

SECTION B: INDIVIDUAL RELATED CHALLENGES

7. Please basing on your experience as ODL student; rate the following individual
related challenges in the given scale. Put a cross (X) in an appropriate box.

Challenges RESPONSES
1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Not agree N/A
agree
Lack of sufficient time for study
Study centre too far from home
Financial constrains
Lack of support from peers- family,
employer,
Unfavorable home learning
environment, e.g. absence of studying
space, lack of electricity, etc.
Difficulties in learning complex and
or technically demanding material by
distance.
Absence/low interaction with other
students, i.e isolation.
Lack of experience and/or training
with instructional technology e.g.
computer illiterate.
Conflicts between family /work and
study schedule.

8. How is a distance to the regional center a challenge to you?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
9. Do you have any financial difficulties concerning your studies?

cxviii
 YE
S
NO

If “YES” please explain these difficulties

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------

10. Do you have training/ experience with basic computer operations?

YE
S
NO

If “NO”, to what extent, is this a challenge to you as an ODL student?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------

11.Please, indicate any other challenges, which you may have encountered as an
individual ODL student
i)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
ii)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
iii)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
iv)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
v)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---

SECTION C: INSTRUCTIONAL RELATED CHALLENGES

12. Please, basing on your experience as an ODL student, rate the following
instructional related challenges in the given scale. Put a cross (X) in an appropriate
box.
Challenges RESPONSES

cxix
 1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Not agree Not
agree applicable
Delayed/ineffective feedback
from the instructors
Lack of instructor’s contact and
inadequate academic support
Difficulty in attending science
practical
Poor course material design/
inappropriate learning materials
Unhelpful course information
and lack of direction
Confusion between text and
supplemental material provided

13. Are there any academic advising services available to you?

YE
S
NO

14. How long does it take to get feedback on your assessment such as assignments,
timed tests and final exams? Put a cross as appropriate.

Time range 0-3 months 4-6 months 7-9 Months 10-12 months 1year +
Responses

15. Are the instructional practices at OUT supportive to your learning?

YES NO

Please explain
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------

16. In your years as OUT student have you ever been encountered with the problem
of your assignments or timed test scripts got lost

YE
S
NO

cxx
If “YES” please explain how such situation (s) affected your academic progress
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------

17. Is your degree programme containing science/field practical components?

YE
S
NO
If NO skip to question 18
-Can you indicate the challenges you are facing when attending science / field
practical?

i)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----

ii)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------

iii)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------

iv)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----

18. Please, indicate any problems or errors, which you may have encountered with
course
materials-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----

SECTION D: INSTITUTIONAL RELATED CHALLENGES

19 .Please, basing on your experiences as an ODL student, rate the following
selected institutional related challenges in the given scale. Put a cross ( X) in an
appropriate box.

cxxi
 Challenges RESPONSES
1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Not Not
agree agree applicable
Delayed study materials at regional
centers
Non-receipt of: course material,
assignments
Difficulty in administrative services such
as registering and paying fee
Lack of appropriate advice provided
under the umbrella of students services
support
Lack of an effective institutional network
of technical assistance
Lost assignments scripts and other
important documents

Lack of responsiveness from regional

center/OUT headquarter administrative
staff
Lack/delayed important information

20. Were you given necessary advice (orientation) upon admission?

cxxii
 YE
S
NO
If your answer is “NO” please explain how this affects your progress as an OUT
student

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------

21.After course registration how long did it take to receive all course materials for
the registered courses?

Time range 0-2 weeks 3-4 weeks 2-3 Months Not at all
Responses

23. How well does necessary information get to you?

Rarely Ofte Always

n

24. Have it ever happened that you delayed getting necessary information from
OUT? If yes, please explain.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
25. How do you rate the administrative staff in terms of the services they provide?

Poo Fair Good Excellent

r

26. Please, indicate any other problems, which you may have encountered within the
administrative and operational student services areas

cxxiii
 i)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
ii)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
iii)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
iv)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
v)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----

Appendix B:

INTERVIEW SCHEDULES FOR OUT REGIONAL DIRECTOR/

REPRESENTATIVE STAFF

Please, feel free to give your opinions and give as much information as possible

for each question.

1. What difficulties and constrains do you students experience while studying at the

OUT?

Probes

a) Individual related difficulties

b) Instructional related difficulties

c) Institutional related difficulties

2. In your opinion what do you think are OUT operational arrangements that prevent

students from participating regarding to course expectations and completion rate?

3. Kindly, comment on the fee charged for the programme provided by OUT. Is

there any fund provided for learners who struggle financially? If “YES,” what

cxxiv
information is made available to learner on this? If “NO” ,what is the authority

doing about this?

4. How is the use of information and communication technologies a challenge to

course delivery and to administrative activities at your center and OUT at large

Appendix C:

Interview guide for Continuing and Former students

1.What difficulties and constrains do you experience(d) while studying at OUT?

Probes

a) Individual related difficulties

b) Instructional related difficulties

c) Institutional related difficulties

2. How is the use of information and communication technologies a challenge to

course delivery and to administrative activities at your center and OUT at large?

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 Appendix D:
Work Plan

DURATION ACTIVITY
1st September -30th Research proposal writing
November 2011
December, 2011- Data collection from the field
January, 2012
January, 2012 Data entry and data analysis
1st February -30th Report writing
March .2012
April, 2012 Submission of the esearch report

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