Self-test Classical Electrodynamics

Wessel van Dam s2039931

April 2019

1. Continuity equation for electric charge in integral form:

I
Q̇ = − da · J (1)
∂V

In differential form:
ρ̇(r) + ∇ · J(r) = 0 (2)

2. Maxwell’s equations in differential form:

∇ · E = 10 %
∇·B=0
(3)
∇ × E = − ∂B ∂t
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 ∂E
∂t

3. Maxwell’s equations in integral form:

1
H
HE(r) · da = 0 Q
H B(r) · da = 0 (4)
H E(r) · dl = −Φ̇
B(r) · dl = µ0 (I + ID )

4. The displacement current density is given by:

JD ≡ 0 Ė (5)
If Ampère’s law were to be written without this term, the local conservation of electric charge would be violated.
5. The force acting on a particle of charge Q is:

F(r, v) = q[E(r) + v × B(r)] (6)

6. Consider the fields E and B that at time t = 0 obey

ρ
∇·E=
0
∇·B=0

And that at each moment afterwards evolve through the coupled PDEs

∂B
∇×E=−
∂t

∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0
∂t
Now at time t, the field E is described by an integral over its own time derivative
Z t
∂E
E(t) = dt0 + E(0)
0 ∂t

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 Now the divergence of this expression is
Z t
∂E ρ(0)
∇·E=∇· dt0 +
0 ∂t 0
The integrand can be rewritten using Maxwell’s equations:

∂E 1
= c2 ∇ × B − J
∂t 0
The divergence of the first term is zero by the second derivative rule for vector quantities. The divergence of the
second term is not zero; it is the time derivative of the charge density by the continuity equation for electric
charge.
Thus we have
Z t
1 ∂ρ ρ(0) ρ(t)
∇·E= dt0 + =
0 0 ∂t 0 0
Therefore we can conclude that since Gauss’ law was fulfilled at one time, Ampere’s law guarantees it will be
fulfilled at all subsequent moments.
The same steps work for B, albeit in the opposite way:
Suppose ∇ · B(0) = 0, then
Z t
∂B
B(t) = dt0 + B(0)
0 ∂t
Z t
= dt0 (−∇ × E) + B(0)
0

Taking the divergence of both terms yields ∇ · B(t) = 0 for all times t, as expected. This proves that the magnetic
field, too, keeps fulfilling the no-monopole law for all times t if it fulfilled it at one instant, thanks to Faraday’s
law.
7. Consider a system with a quantity Q that obeys a global conservation law, i.e. Q̇ = 0. We can write this quantity
in local form by way of a density representation of Q. let’s call this density %. Then:
Z
0 = Q̇ = dτ %̇ (7)

Which implies that one can write:

%̇ + ∇ · J = 0 (8)
Where the vector J represents the flow of the density %. This final statement is the local continuity equation and
follows naturally from every global conservation law.
8. The mechanical energy density is given by:
N
X mi v 2 i
u(r) ≡ δ (r − ri ) (9)
i=1
2

The energy current density is given by:

N
X mi v 2 i
s(r) = vi δ (r − ri ) (10)
i=1
2

The energy conservation law in local form is:

u̇(r) = −∇ · s(r) + F(r) · j(r) (11)
Where F(r) is the external force field and j(r) the particle current density. In the absence of external forces, the
conservation law takes the form of a continuity equation.

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 9. The mechanical momentum density is:
N
X
π(r) = mi vi δ (r − ri ) (12)
i=1

(note that mi vi = pi ). The Maxwell stress tensor is given by:

N
↔ X
T (r) ≡ δ (r − ri ) mi vi ⊗ vi (13)
i=1

The momentum conservation law in local form is given by:

↔
π̇(r) + ∇· T (r) = ρ(r)F(r) (14)

Or, in integral form: Z I

d ↔
dτ Π = −F + da· T (15)
dt v ∂V

Where again F(r) is the external force field

10. The energy density of the EM field is given by:
1 1 2
U= 0 E 2 + B (16)
2 2µ0

It has dimensions J m−3 .

11. The energy density flow, also known as the Poynting vector, is given by:
1
S= (E × B) (17)
µ0

Its dimensions are J m−2 s−1 .

12. Poynting’s theorem for the work per unit time done by an electromagnetic field on charged matter inside a
volume V is:
w = −U̇ − ∇ · S (18)
Or, in integral form: Z I
d
dτ U = −Ẇ − da · S (19)
dt V ∂V

In words, this states that the time derivative of the E-M energy inside a given volume is equal to minus the work
done on charges inside this volume less the outflow of energy through the boundary.
13. The component on the i-th row and j-th column of Maxwell’s stress tensor is given by:
   
1 1 1
Tij ≡ 0 Ei Ej − δij E 2 + Bi Bj − δij B 2 (20)
2 µ0 2

The tensor has nine components, but since it’s symmetrical about the main diagonal (Tij = Tji ), only six of
those are independent.
14. The force exerted by the electric field on matter inside a volume V is given by:
I Z
↔ d
F= T ·da − 0 µ0 Sdτ (21)
∂V dt V

Note that this is just equation 15 rewritten and using the expression Π = µ0 0 S for the momentum density in an
EM field.

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15. Consider a linear homogeneous partial differential equation with constant coefficients.
Partial means that the equation contains partial derivatives in r and t. Linear tells us that unknown functions
appear only to linear order (i.e. not quadratic or something like that). Homogeneous means that no terms are
independent of the unknowns. The fact that the equation has constant coefficients means that the coefficients do
not change in space-time.

16. In the case of linear differential equations, the superposition principle means that a linear combination of
solutions to the equation forms itself a solution to the equation.
17. From the self-test question sheet itself:
The method consists in substituting an exponential function of the equation variables in the place of the unknown
function. The differential equation then reduces to an algebraic equation for the parameters of the exponential
function.
This method was treated in the Analysis 3 course.
18. The wave equation in one dimension:

∂ 2 u(x, t) 2
2 ∂ u(x, t)
− c =0 (22)
∂t2 ∂x2
Fourier’s method proposes an exponentional solution of the form:

u(x, t) = u0 e−iωt eikx (23)

Taking the required derivatives shows that this is a (non-trivial) solution as long as the following equation, called
the dispersion relation, holds:
ω 2 − c2 k 2 = 0 (24)
The real solution is found by taking the real part.
19. A plane wave solution is given by:
u(x, t) = |A| cos[k(x ± ct) + φ] (25)
The corresponding wavelength can be found by way of:
2π
k= (26)
λ
For a sketch of what such a solution might look like, see figure 1

Figure 1: a plane wave solution

20. Solution to the three-dimensional wave equation are of the form:

E(r, t) = E0 eik·r−iωt (27)

Assuming the wave is travelling in the z-direction, we can simplify this a bit; a possible solution becomes:

E(r, t) = E0 eik(z±ct) (28)

For this solution, one has to solve the dispersion relation in three dimensions:

k2 − ω 2 µ0 0 = 0 (29)

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 The wave vector k indicates the direction in which the wave travels, whereas the (angular) frequency ω denotes
the amount of oscillation periods of this solution that fit in one second. For the relation between the wave vector
and the wavelength:
2π
λ= (30)
|k|
Comparing the dispersion relation to equation 24, we see that:
1
c= √ (31)
µ0 0

21. The first pair of Maxwell’s equations in the case of a plane wave solution reduce to:

k · E0 = 0
(32)
k · B0 = 0

They imply that both the electric field and the magnetic field are orthogonal to the wave vector k. Since the wave
vector denotes the propagation direction, the E-field and B-field, are apparently orthogonal to the propagation
direction.
22. The wave vector is orthogonal to the E-field and B-field, and likewise the E-field and B-field are orthogonal to
eachother, in such a way that the triplet (k, E, B) is right-handed.
23. As the wave evolves, E performs periodic motion in a given spatial plane orthogonal to k. There are different
types of motion, called linear polarisation, circular polarisation and elliptical polarisation. For a sketch of the
different types, see figure 2. Both circular and elliptical polarisation have two versions, depending on their
chirality: left-handed and right-handed. In the figure, right-handedness is shown. Note the direction of the wave
vector.

Figure 2: Types of polarisation

24. In terms of the amplitude of the electric field of the wave, the time averaged force of a linearly polarized wave
on a blackbody is given by:
A E2
F x = · 0 k̂ (33)
c 2µ0 c
In terms of the energy per unit time absorbed by the body, it is:
A
Fx = Sx (34)
c

25. Ohm’s law, a real classic in physics, is given by:

V
I= (35)
R
Usually, you can find the Ohmic resistance by way of:
ρl
R= (36)
A

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 Where ρ is the resistivity with as unit Ω m, which is linked to the conductivity by:
1
σ= (37)
ρ

So that the conductivity has dimensions Ω−1 m−1 . In local form, Ohm’s law reads:

J = σE (38)

26. The continuity equation for free charge is:

∂ρf
∇ · Jf = − (39)
∂t
Together with Ohm’s law and equation 38 this gives:

∂ρf σ
= −σ(∇ · E) = − ρf (40)
∂t 0
From which it follows that:
t
ρf (t) = e−(σ/0 )t ρf (0) = e− τ ρ(0) (41)
Where τ = σ0 is the Maxwell relaxation time. It is the time needed for a charge density to dissipate across a
conducator so that the density decreases by a factor e. The smaller the relaxation time, the better the conductor.
27. The skin layer is an area at the surface of a conductor in which an electric field can exist. The thickness of the
skin layer is:
d = 1/κ (42)
Where: r
1 ω
κ= (43)
c 2τ

28. A perfect conductor is an idealised medium which can be described as an ohmic conductor in the infinite
conductivity (τ → 0) limit. The skin layer of a perfect conductor is thus infinitely thin.
The boundary condition for the electric field is:

Ek = 0 (44)

And for the magnetic field:

B⊥ = 0 (45)

29. TE, TM and TEM modes are three types of waves each with a specific orientation of the fields with respect to the
propagation direction of the wave. We have:
TE: Transverse Electric wave. No electric field in the direction of propagation.
TM: Transverse Magnetic wave. No magnetic field in the direction of propagation.
TEM: Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes. Neither electric nor magnetic field in the direction of propaga-
tion.
TEM waves cannot occur in a simple rectangular wave guide, or any hollow wave guide for that matter.
30. The frequency spectrum of a TE wave in a rectangular wave guide is given by:
r  πm 2  πn 2
ω = c k2 + + (46)
a b
Where m, n are integers. The cutoff frequency is given by:
r
πm 2  πn 2
ωmn = c + (47)
a b
Below this frequency, the wave number is imaginary, and instead of a traveling wave we have exponentially
attenuated fields.

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31. In terms of the gauge potentials, the electric and magnetic field are given by:

B=∇×A
∂A (48)
E = −∇V − ∂t

In the original Maxwell equations, there are 6 components to be solved (three for the E-field, three for the
B-field). In terms of the potentials, however, only four of these six remain (three for the vector potential, one for
the scalar potential), thus eliminating a part of Maxwell’s equations.
32. A specified electric or magnetic field can be represented by multiple potentials. Given a potential, it can
be modified without changing the corresponding field, a method known as a gauge transformation. The
phenomenon that the field does not change even though the potential does is called gauge freedom. The gauge
transformations can be written as follows:
A 7→ A + ∇χ
(49)
V 7→ V − ∂χ
∂t
Here χ is a scalar function called a gauge function. the above transformations yield the same fields.
33. In the Lorentz gauge, the vector potential is fixed in such a way so that:
1 ∂V
∇·A+ =0 (50)
c2 ∂t
Whereas in the Coulomb gauge, the vector potential obeys:

∇·A=0 (51)

34. The equations of motion in the Lorentz gauge are:

2
∆V − c12 ∂t
∂ 1
2 V = − %
2
0 (52)
∆A − c12 ∂∂tA2 = −µ0 J

This gauge is particularly useful because they can be solved by way of retarded potentials (see following
questions). Furthermore, these equations are not only valid under vacuum conditions, but also in polarized
media.
35. The retarded scalar and vector potentials in the Lorentz gauge are given by:
%(r0 ,t0 )
1
dτ 0 dt0 r δ t − t0 − zc + Vg (r, t)
R

V (r, t) = 4π0
J(r0 ,t0 )
(53)
µ0
dτ 0 dt0 r δ t − t0 − zc + Ag (r, t)
R

A(r, t) = 4π

They are called retared because they are profoundly stupid take into account that changes in a system’s
configuration take time to propagate to space and thus to reach the point we are looking at. Now, electromagnetic
”news” travels at the speed of light. In the nonstatic case, therefore, it’s not the status of the source right now
that matters, but rather its condition at some earlier time tr (called the retarded time) when the ”message” left.
r
Since this message must travel a distance the delay is /c. r
36. The Lienard-Wiechert scalar potential is given by:
qc 1
V (r, t) = (54)
4π0 |r − wR | c − (r − wR ) · vR
Whereas the vector potential is given by:
qcµ0 vR v
A(r, t) = = 2 V (r, t) (55)
4π |r − wR | c − (r − wR ) · vR c
Here the retarded position and velocity are defined as follows:

wR = w (tR ) , vR = ẇ (tR ) (56)

Where the retarded time tR is the solution for t0 in the following equation:

c (t − t0 ) − |r − w (t0 )| = 0 (57)

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37. The electric dipole moment for a collection of N point charges is given by:
N
X N
X N
X N
X N
X
p(r) = qi (ri − r) = qi ri − qi r = qi ri − r qi (58)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

Now in the case that the system is electrically neutral, the final term on the right vanishes, so that we get the
well-defined expression:
XN
p= qi wi (59)
i=1

Where wi = ri . Far from the system, the potential is approximately given by:
1 X r·p
V (r) = qi + (60)
4π0 r i 4π0 r3

And again, we see a term vanish in the case that the system as a whole is neutral, so that:
r·p
V (r) = (61)
4π0 r3

38. The requested expression for the EM irradiated power by a dipole p(t) = p0 cos(ωt) is:

µ0 p2 ω 4
P = (62)
12πc
c
This expression is valid under the condition that: d  ω  r In other words, this expression works when we are
looking at a great distances from the source.
39. The radiation reaction force is given by the Abraham-Lorentz formula:

µ0 q 2
f= ȧ (63)
6πc
The problem with this equation is that it says nothing about the component of Frad that is perpendicular to v,
and it only gives a time average. Moreover, in the case that there are no external forces, Newton tells us that:

µ0 q 2
ȧ = ma (64)
6πc
And thus:
µ0 q 2
a(t) = a0 et/τ where τ ≡ (65)
6πmc
i.e. the acceleration spontaneously increases with time. According to Griffiths, if you do apply an external force,
the particle would act before the force even acts, a phenomenon called acausal preacceleration. Therefore, it
should only be used as a small correction to other forces.
40. Free charge consists of particles that are free to move in a material, such as the electrons in a metal that are not
bound to a nucleus by way of the Coulomb force. By contrast, bound charge, are not free to move. Usually the
bound charge consists of electrons in orbit around a nucleas. Bound charge, however, does have the possibility
to create a dipole moment under influence of an external electric field.
41. The polarisation P is the dipole moment per unit volume, and therefore obeys the equation:
Z
p= Pdτ (66)
V

42. For a polarised dielectric medium, the two kinds of bound charges are given by:

σb ≡ P · n bound surface charge

(67)
%b ≡ −∇ · P bound volume charge

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43. In a polarised dielectric medium, the inhomogeneous distribution of charge causes the field to experience huge
fluctuations. Thus, the microscopic field is very erratic and impossible to compute. However, it is possible to
increase the volume at which you are looking and to take the average over this volume. This macroscopic electric
field is more informative. The divergence of this field is given by:

0 ∇ · E = ρ = ρb + ρf = −∇ · P + ρf (68)

44. In terms of the electric field an the polarization, the electric displacement is given by:

D ≡ 0 E + P (69)

The SI unit of this displacement is C m−2 .

45. In terms of D, Gauss law reads, in both differential form and integral form:
I
∇ · D = %f ←→ D · da = Qf (70)

Since it might be so that the curl of D does not vanish, it is not possible to apply Coulomb’s law to Gauss’s law
for the electric displacement.

46. The electric susceptibility, usually denoted as χ, is a material constant that may depend on factors such as
temperature, pressure, etc. It is a proportionality constant between D and E that indicates the degree of
polarization of a material. Namely:
P = 0 χE (71)
By virtue of equation 69, we then have that:

D = 0 E + P (72)

From which we conclude that:

D = E (73)
Where  = 0 (1 + χ) is the permittivity of the material, whereas the factor (1 + χ) on itself is called the dielectric
constant. Both of them are simply proportionality constants between the electric displacement and the electric
field.
47. The boundary conditions at the interface of two dielectric media are:

D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σf
k k (74)
E1 − E2 = 0

They follow from Maxwell’s equation by observing that any net charge must reside at the surface, so that within
the dielectric Laplace’s equation holds, which leads to the perpendicular boundary condition. The parallel
condition follows from the fact that the E-field needs to be continuous.

48. A little bit similar to the explanation on free and bound charge, bound current is current due to moving particles
that are not free to move, i.e. they are bound, usually to atoms. External force fields influence the movement of
these current, directing them in a particular direction. The free current actually consists of all currents that are
not bound.
49. The magnetization M is the magnetic moment per unit volume.

50. The bound volume current and bound surface current are given by:

Jb = ∇ × M bound bulk current

(75)
Kb = M × n bound surface current

51. The curl of the macroscopic electric field in a magnetised medium is:
1
∇ × B = ∇ × M + Jf (76)
µ0

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52. The auxiliary magnetic H field is given by:
1
H= B−M (77)
µ0
This field has the SI unit A/m.
53. Ampère’s law written as the curl of the H field is:

∇ × H = Jf (78)

54. For linear media, the magnetic susceptibility is the proportionality constant between the magnetization and the
H field, by virtue of:
M = χm H (79)
One can then write the magnetic field as:

B = µ0 (H + M) = µ0 (1 + χm ) H (80)

And define the magnetic permeability, another proportionality constant, as µ = µ0 (1 + χm ).

55. The difference between diamagnetic materials and paramagnetic materials is that the former has a negative sus-
ceptibility, whereas the latter has a positive susceptibility. In other words, paramagnets acquire a magnetization
parallel to B, whereas the magnetization of diamagnets is opposite to B.
56. From Amère’s law (equation 78), it follows that the boundary conditions are given by:
k k
H1 − H2 = Kf × n
(81)
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0

57. The polarization current is simply the partial time derivative of the polarization:

∂
Polarization current: P (82)
∂t

58. Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic field in a medium are given by:

∇·D=0
∇·B=0
(83)
∇ × E = − ∂B
∂t
∇ × H = ∂D
∂t

Next to these, one can use the constitutive equations, which in linear media are quite simple. Constituitive
equations are mathematical relationships between D, H and E, B specific to a given medium. In linear media:
1
D = E and H= B (84)
µ

We then arrive at:

∇·E=0
∇·B=0
(85)
∇ × E = − ∂B
∂t
∇ × B = µ ∂E
∂t

59. Mathematically, the Maxwell equations in linear media are the same as those in vacuum, with the exception of
the µ0 0 being changed to µ. Physically, however, this means that the propagation speed is different in media,
namely: r
1 c µ
v=√ ≡ where n = (86)
µ n µ0 0
The n is the index of refraction, which is a measure of how strongly EM waves are refracted at the interface of
two media.

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 Figure 3: an EM wave refracting and reflecting at the interface of two media

60. Consider a plane wave incident on a flat interface between two dielectric media. The properties of the problem
can be found in figure 3. The three laws of geometric optics are obeyed, being:
First law: The incident, reflected and transmitted wave vectors lie inside one plane called the plane of incidence.
Assuming this is x − z plane (that is ky = 0):

(kI )x = (kR )x = (kT )x

(87)
kI sin θI = kR sin θR = kT sin θT
Second law: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection:

kI sin θI = kT sin θT (88)

Third Law: Snell’s law:
sin θT n1
= (89)
sin θI n2

61. The requested index of refraction is given by equation 86.

62. The reflected wave obeys Fresnel’s equation:
 
α−β cos θT 2 sin θT µ1 n2
ẼR = ẼI where α= and β = = (90)
α+β cos θI 1 sin θI µ2 n1

Apparently, in the case that α = β, the reflected wave vanishes. This happens at a certain angle (since α is
dependent on the incidence angle), called Brewster’s angle. This is only for one polarization direction: the
other polarization direction (perpendicular to the first) does get reflected (though some of this light still passes
through the interface). As such, one can split light by polarization using this angle. See figure 4. The transmitted
wave has a more or less mixed polarization, whereas the reflected wave is of just one polarization.

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Figure 4: Refraction at the Brewster angle.

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