Lesson No.

3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

 Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 – BUCKLING OF SLENDER COLUMNS

When a short block is loaded in compression, the average compressive stress in the material
is found by dividing the load by the cross sectional area. However, when the member is long
and slender, as that shown in figure, the situation is complicated bythe possibility of lateral
buckling. Buckling does not occur when the bar is straight and a load, smaller than the
critical value, is centrally applied. Such a column is stable; the bar, if given a lateral
deflection, return to its originally straight condition upon the removal of the lateral force.

Force P can ber increased until the straight form of the bar becomes unstable, and the axial
loads will then maintain the bar in a curved form. The smallest load capable of maintaining
the bar in a slightly bent form is called the critical or buckling load. A load only slightly
greater can cause a relatively large deflection. After buckling the stress increases rapidly; in
addition to the direct compression, a bending stress from moment Py is present.

The phenomenon of stability or buckling is quite different from that of bending. A beam
with lateral load starts to deflect as soon as any load is present, and the deflection is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the load. A slender member in compression, in contrast,
exhibits no lateral deflection until the critical or buckling load has been reached. Any
increase of load then causes a large increase in deflection with accompanying danger of
failure. It is obvious that the principle of superposition does not apply to long and slender
columns.

For the long straight column with hinged ends loaded by a centrally applied forces, it can be
shown that the critical buckling load is given by

π 2 EA π 2 E I
¿ = 2
Pe l 2 l ** commonly called Euler’s Load, in lb. or N unit.***
() k

Moment of Inertia should be about the axis of rotation of the cross section. Sometimes a
column may not be perfectly straight, but has some initial crookedness a , as shown .

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

The bending moment then will be larger, and the carrying capacity will be reduced. The
working load P for such a column (with a Factor of Safety n applied to the load) is

ac P S y A Pe
2
[ ( )]
P − S y A+ 1+
k 2
Pe +
n n2
=0 ***

Where, S y =¿Yield point Stress for the material, psi or MPa

A = initial crookedness, in. or mm
l = length of column, mm
E = Modulus of Elasticity, psi or MPa
I = second moment of inertia, ¿ 4∨mm 4
Pe =Eule r ' sload ,lb∨N
n = Factor of Safety, unitless
I
k=
A √
=radius of gyration , in. or mm
c = distance from neutral axis to edge of cross section, in. or mm
P = Safe load for the long slender column, lb or N.
As for other machine elements, a factor of safety must be used in column design. However,
the procedure is to design first for strength (solving for dimensions or shape) after which we
check for allowable deflection. Because the stress is not proportional to the load, the factor
of safety n is applied to the load rather than to the stress.

The maximum stress in the material is

Pe
σ max=
P
A [ ( )]
ac
1+ 2
k P e −P
***

If P y is the load that would make the stress be equal to the yield point value ( S y ) , and setting

Py
P¿ , then
n

ac
2
[
P y − S y A+ 1+ ( k2 ) ]
P e P y + S y A P e =0 ***

*Example Problem:
5
A solid circular steel column with hinged ends is 36 in. long and 2 ∈.in diameter. Yield point
8
1
stress for the material is 50,000 psi. Initial crookedness a is ∈. Find (a) the load capacity for a
16
factor of safety of 4 and (b) the maximum stress in the material.

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

Solution:

5
 Known: A long slender column 2 ∈. x 36∈.with an initial crookedness
8
of 1/16 in. S y =50,000 psi. The column is hinged at both ends.
 Required: Find (a) the load capacity P for the column, and (b) The
maximum stress that may be induced in the material for a factor
of safety of 4.
 Analysis/Evaluation:

ac P S AP
[ ( )]
P2− S y A+ 1+
k 2
P e + y 2 e =0
n n
5
a = 1/16 “ c = 1 ∈. l = 36 in.
16
5 4
I = π d4
=
( )
π 2
8
=2.3307 ¿4
64 64
A = 5.4119 ¿2
π 2 ( 30,000,000 ) 2.3307
Pe = =532,479 lb.
( 36 )2

I 2.3307
k 2= = =0.4307 ¿2
A ( 5.4119 )

( 0.0625 ) (1.3125 ) P 50,000 ( 5.4119 ) ( 532,479 )

[
P2− 50,000 ( 5.4119 )+ 1+ ( 0.4307 ) ]
532,479 +
4 ( 4 )2
=0

P2−226,123 P+9,005,384,688=0
Employing the quadratic formula,
2
−(−226,123 ) ± √ (−226,123 ) −4 ( 1 ) ( 9,005,384,688 ) 226,123 ± 122,923
P¿ =
2 ( 1) 2

226,123−122,923
P 1= =51,600 lb. **** Answer for (a)
2

226,123+122,923
P 2= =174,523 lb . disregard !
2

Pe ( 0.0625 ) ( 1.3125 )
σ max=
P
A [ ( )]
ac
1+ 2
k P e −P
=
51,600
5.4119
1+
[0.4307
532,479
(
532,479−51,600 )]
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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

¿ 11,545 psi∗¿∗Answ er for (b)

The quadratic equation (¿) can be solved easily using programmed calaculators of
today, inputting a = 1, b = - 226,123, and c = 9,005,384,688.

For hinged or pin-connected ends, the assumption is made that there is no restraints against
rotation at the ends of the column. For square or fixed ends, all rotation is prevented. The
deflection curve consists of two-quarter waves and one-half wave. Bending moments are present
at the ends, but no moment acts at the inflection points. Calculations are usually made by taking
one-half the actual length for l in the equations for columns with hinged ends.
l
Some designers proposed that if the slenderness ratio is approximately 30 or less, the effect of
k
the lateral column deflection is negligible and the member acts essentially as a body in pure
l
compression; for values larger than approximately 30, the effect of column action is not
k
negligible and column equations must be employed. Slenderness ratios between 45 and 130 are
in common use by the machine designers.

Columns can be categorized then as:

1. Long columns with central loading

2. Intermediate-length columns with central loading

3. Columns with eccentric loading

4. Struts or short columns with eccentric loading

Classifying columns as above makes it possible to develop methods of analysis and design specific to
each category. Furthermore, these methods will also reveal whether or not you have selected the category
appropriate to your particular problem. The four sections that follow correspond, respectively, to the four
categories of columns listed above.

1. Long Column with Central Loading. Figure shows long columns with differing end (boundary)
conditions. If the axial force P shown acts along the centroidal axis of the column, simple
compression of the member occurs for low values of the force. However, under certain
conditions, when P reaches a specific value, the column becomes unstable and bending develops
rapidly. This force is determined by writing the bending deflection equation for the column,
resulting in a differential equation where when the boundary conditions are applied, results in the
critical load for unstable bending. The critical force per unit of cross-sectional area for the pin-
ended column of figure is given by

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

P cr C Pe C π 2 E I π 2 E I
= = = lb N
A A l 2 l 2 , 2∨ *** for C = 1
k () k () ¿ mm2

P cr C Pe C π 2 E I 4 π 2 E I
= = = lb N
A A l 2 l 2 , 2∨ *** for C = 4
k () k () ¿ mm2

P cr C Pe C π 2 E I π 2 E I
= = = lb N 1
A A l 2 l 2 , 2∨ 2 *** C =
k () 4
k() ¿ mm 4

P cr C Pe C π 2 E I 2 π 2 E I
= = = lb N
A A l 2 l 2 , 2∨ *** for C = 2
k () k () ¿ mm2

- where the constant C depends on the end conditions as shown in

figure.
- l/k is called the slenderness ratio, unitless.
I

P
- k=
√ A
And cr is called the Critical unit load. It is the load per unit area necessary to place the column
A
in a condition of unstable equilibrium. In this state any small crookedness of the member, or
slight movement of the support or load, will cause the column to begin to collapse. The unit load

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

has the same units as strength, but this is the strength of a specific column, not of the column
material. Doubling the length of a member, for example, will have a drastic effect on the value of
P cr
but no effect at all on, say, the yield strength Sy of the column material itself. The critical unit
A
load depends only upon the end conditions, the modulus of elasticity, and the slenderness ratio.
Thus a column obeying the Euler formula made of high-strength alloy steel is no stronger than
one made of low-carbon steel, since E is the same for both. The factor C is called the end-
condition constant, and it may have any one of the theoretical values 1/4, 1, 2, and 4, depending
upon the manner in which the load is applied. In practice it is difficult, if not impossible, to fix
the column ends so that the factor C = 2 or C = 4 would apply. Even if the ends are welded,
some deflection will occur. Because of this, some designers never use a value of C greater than
unity. However, if liberal factors of safety are employed, and if the column load is accurately
known, then a value of C not exceeding 1.2 for both ends fixed, or for one end rounded and one
end fixed, is not unreasonable, since it supposes only partial fixation. Of course, the value C =
¼ must always be used for a column having one end fixed and one end free.
When the equation is used to solve for various values of the unit load Pcr/A in terms of the
slenderness ratio l/k, we obtain the curve PQR shown. Since the yield strength of the material has
the same units as the unit load, the horizontal line through Sy and Q has been added to the figure.
This would appear to make the figure Sy Q R cover the entire range of compression problems
from the shortest to the longest compression member. Thus it would appear that any compression
l
member having an l/k value less than () k Q
should be treated as a pure compression member while
all others are to be treated as Euler columns. Unfortunately, this is not true. In the actual design
of a member that functions as a column, the designer will be aware

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

of the end conditions, and will endeavour to configure the ends, using bolts, welds, or pins, for
example, so as to achieve the required ideal end conditions. In spite of these precautions, the
result, following manufacture, is likely to contain defects such as initial crookedness or load
eccentricities. The existence of such defects and the methods of accounting for them will usually
involve a factor-of-safety approach or a stochastic analysis. These methods work well for long
columns and for simple compression members. However, tests show numerous failures for
columns with slenderness ratios below and in the vicinity of point Q, as shown in the shaded area
in the figure. These have been reported as occurring even when near-perfect geometric
specimens were used in the testing procedure. A column failure is always sudden, total,
unexpected, and hence dangerous. There is no advance warning. A beam will bend and give
visual warning that it is overloaded, but not so for a column. For this reason neither simple
compression methods nor the Euler column equation should be used when the slenderness ratio
is near (l/k)Q. Then what should we do? The usual approach is to choose some point T on the
Euler curve.

If the slenderness ratio is specified as (l/k)1 corresponding to point T, then use the Euler equation
only when the actual slenderness ratio is greater than (l/k)1. Otherwise, use one of the methods in the
sections that follow.
Most designers select point T such that Pcr/A = Sy/2. Using the equation, we find the corresponding value
of (l/k)1 to be

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

1/ 2
l 2 π 2 CE
() (
k 1
=
Sy ) ***

Intermediate-Length Columns with Central Loading

Over the years there have been a number of column formulas proposed and used for the range of
l/k values for which the Euler formula is not suitable. Many of these are based on the use of a
single material; others, on a so-called safe unit load rather than the critical value. Most of these
formulas are based on the use of a linear relationship between the slenderness ratio and the unit
load. The parabolic or J. B. Johnson formula now seems to be the preferred one among
designers in the machine, automotive, aircraft, and structural-steel construction fields. The
general form of the parabolic formula is
P cr l 2
A
=a−b
k ()
***

where a and b are constants that are evaluated by fitting a parabola to the Euler curve as shown
by the dashed line ending at T. If the parabola is begun at Sy, then a = Sy. If point T is selected as
previously noted, then the value of (l/k)1 and the constant b is found to be

Sy 2 1
b=
2 π CE ( )
***
Upon substituting the known values of a and b, we obtain, for the parabolic equation,

P cr S l 2 1 l l
A ( )
=S y − y ; ≤
2 π k CE k k 1
*****()
Columns with Eccentric Loading

We have noted before that deviations from an ideal column, such as load eccentricities or
crookedness, are likely to occur during manufacture and assembly. Though these deviations are
often quite small, it is still convenient to have a method of dealing with them. Frequently, too,
problems occur in which load eccentricities are unavoidable.

The figure below shows a column in which the line of action of the column forces is separated
from the centroidal axis of the column by the eccentricity e. From Fig. 4–20b, M = −P(e +y).
Substituting this into equation d2 y/dx2 = M/E I results in the differential equation

d2 y P Pe
2+
y=
d x EI EI

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

The solution for the boundary conditions that y = 0 at x = 0, gives

yield strength of 40 kpsi. Note how the P/A contours asymptotically approach the
Euler curve as l/k increases.

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Lesson No. 3 in Machine Design 1 Week 3

Prepared by: RBMAGAY, M. Engr.

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