Water treatment

describesthose processesused to make water more acceptablefor a desired

end-use.These can include use as drinking water, industrial processes,medical and
many other uses. The goal of all water treatment process is to remove existing
contaminantsin the water, or reduce the concentration of such contaminantsso the
water becomesfit for its desiredend-use.

Potable water purification

is the removal of contaminantsfrom untreatedwater to produce drinking water

that is pure enough for its intended use, most commonly human consumption.
Substancesthat are removed during the processof drinking water treatment include
bacteria, aIgae,viruses, fungi, minerals such as iron, manganeseand sulphur, and
man-madechemical pollutants including fertilisers.

The processescommonly involved in treating water for drinking pulpose may be:-
- solidsseparationusing physicalprocessessuchas settlingand filtration.
- chemicalprocessessuchas disinfectionand coagulation.

Surface
body

@@
Low lift Storage
(equalization) Flash mixing
station X'locculation Sedimentation
Basin (Coagulation)
tank

Optional Coventional
treatment

O 4

E F softening, floridation,
. 2 2 ...etc)

High lift
station Advanced treatment Desinfiction Filtration

Typical potable (drinking) water treatment processes

Water Intake
water from surfacewater
The main function of the intakes works is to collect
and then dischargecollectedwater
sources(within the limitations of the water levers)
gravity'
to the water treatmentplant by meansof pumps or
opening, gtaling or strainer
Intakes are structureswhich essentially consist of
reservoir enters and is pumped
through which the raw water from river, cana!,or
or carried to a sump well by
directly to the treatment plant by meansof rising mains,
to the treatmentplant'
meansof conduits then pnmp"d through the rising mains
selecting a site for intake
The following points should be kept in mind while
works:-
so that it can be easily
1- The best quality of water should be available at the site
andeconomicallypurifiedinlesstimebygivinglessloadonthetreatment
plant.
2-TypeofrawwaterSource(river,lake,reservoir,canal).
which might endanger
3- At the site, there should be no heavy current of water
the safetYof the intake works'
quantrty of water even
4- The site should be such that intake can draw sufficient
in the worst conditions when the dischargeof the sourceis minimum'
5- The site should be approachablewithout any obstruction.
quantity of water if
6- The site should be such that intake work can draw more
required in future (sufficient scopefor future)'
there is polluted
7- The site should not be located in navigation channelswhere
water and containstoilet and other dischargesfrom the ships'
g- As far as possible the site should be near the treatment plant (for cost and
managementPurPoses).
of the points of
9- As far as possible the site should not be located in the vicinity
sewagedisPosal.
10- lntake water should be protected from floating and objectionable
matters.

Types of Intakes
1- Lake Intakes
2- ReservoirIntakes
3- River Intakes
4- Canallntakes
 1- Lake Intakes

Rlslng
Wrtcr wlthdr.wGl alns
Suclion3
pl'pc
t r . i n ar

Ip..,
i rrippoitlng
Iti lcc-valuc

l:kc Intake iypiof ,t* **" * str"umint"t".

2- River Intakes

corlrollod
edry Panl

C,^lc -<: - --
ConlrolledPa'ls - - -
-withclnwl
onduii

River intake

Wet intaXe

Gatscontrol

Dry intakc klwcr.

 3- ReservoirIntake

4- Canallntake

Outlet

The following figure illustrate the common water intake structure used in
centerand southregionsof Iraq.

To the pump

River water level

Coarse screen

Fine screen

Bell mouth
COAGULATION AIID FLOCCULATION

Naturally occurring silt and clay particles suspendedin water are

difficult to removebecausethey are very small, often colloidal in size, and
possess negativecharges,andarethuspreventedfrom comingtogetherto form
large particlesthat could more readily be settledout. The removal of these
particlesby settlingrequiresfirst that their chargesbe nevtralizedand second
that the particles be encouragedto collide with each other. The charge
neutralizationis called coagulation,and the building of larger flocs from
smallerparticlesis calledflocculation.
A fairly simplebut notaltogethersatisfactoryexplanationof coagulation
is availablein the double-layermodel.Figure I is a representation of the static
electricfield surroundingthe particle.The solid particle is negativelycharged,
andattractspositively chargedions - counterions- from the surroundingfluid.
Someof thesenegativeions are so strongly attractedthat they are virtually
attachedto the particle and travel with it, therebyforming a slippageplane.
Around this inner layer is an outerlayer of ions consistingmostly of positive
ions,but they are lessstronglyattractedo are looselyaffached,and can slip off.
The chargeon the particleas it movesthroughthe fluid is the negativecharge,
diminishedin part by the positiveionsin the innerlayer.The latteris calledthe
zetapotential.
If the net negativechargeis considereda repulsivecharge,since the
neighboringparticlesare alsoso charged,the chargemay be picturedas in Fig.
2A. ln addition to this repulsive charge,however, all particles cary an
attractiveelectrostaticcharge,van der Waals force, that is a function of the
molecularstructureof the particle.This attractivechargeis also shownin Fig.
24. The combinationof theseforcesresultsin a net repulsivecharge,an energy
barrier,or o'cnsrgyhill," that preventsthe particlesfrom comingtogether.The
objectiveof coagulationis to reducethis energybarrierto 0 so that the particles
no longerrepel eachother.Adding trivalentcationsto the water is one way to
reducethe energy barrier. These ions are electrostaticallyattractedto the
negativelychargedparticleand,becausethey aremorepositivelycharged,they
displacethe monovalentcations.The net negativecharge,and thus the net
repulsiveforce,is therebyreduced,as shownin Fig. 2B."Underthis condition,
the particlesdo not repel eachotherand,on colliding, stick together.A stable
colloidal susperlsioncan be destabilizedin this way, and the larger particles
will not remainsuspended.
Alum (aluminum sulfate) is the usual sourceof trivalent cations in water
treatment.Alum hasan advantagein additionto its high positivecharge:some
fractionof the aluminumions may form aluminumoxide andhydroxideby the
reaction Al*3 + 3OH- --)Al tbHl, I
Thesecomplexesare sticky antr h.avy and will greatly assistin the
clarificationof the waterin the settlingtank. if the unstablecolloidalparticles
canbe madeto comein contactwith the floc. This processis enhancedthrough
an operationknown as flocculation
 Innorlay€rol
ooultl€1ion3

asexplainedby thedouble-layertheory.
Figure 1 , Chargeson a suspendedparticle,

Figurc t:, Reductionof the net cbargtion a particle as a result of the addition of
trivalentcounterions.(A) ParticlecarriesnetnegativechargeandvanderWaalspositive
charge;eners/ barrier preven8 coagulation.(B) Addition of trivalent cationsreduces
energybarrier,andcoagulationis possible.
COAGULANT SELECTION

The choice of coagulantchemical dependsupon the nature of the

suspended
solid to be removed,the raw water conditions,the facility design,
andthe costof the amountof chemicalnecessary
to producethe desiredresult.
Final selectionof the coagulant(or coagulants)should be made following
thoroughjar testingandplant scaleevaluation.Considerations
mustbe givento
required effluent quality, "_effect upon downstream treatment prooess
performance,cost, methodand cost of sludgehandlingand disposal,and net
overallcostat the doserequiredfor effectivetreatment.

InorganicCoagulants

Inorganic coagulantssuch as aluminum and iron salts are the most

commonlyused.When addedto the water,they furnishhighly chargedions to
neutralizethe suspendedparticles.The inorganichydroxidesformedproduce
shortpolymerchainswhich enhancemicroflocformation.
Inorganic coagulantsusually offer the lowest price per pound, are
widely available,and, when properly applied,are quite effective in removing
most suspendedsolids. They are also capableof removing a portion of the
organicprecursorswhich may combinewith chlorineto form disinfectionby-
products.Theyproducelargevolumesof floc which canentrapbacteriaasthey
settle. However, they may alter the pH of the water since they consume
alkalinity. When appliedin a lime sodaash softeningprocess,alum and iron
saltsgeneratedemandfor lime and sodaash.They requirecorrosion-resistant
storageandfeedequipment.The largevolumesof settledfloc mustbe disposed
of in an environmentallyacceptable
manner.
Inorganic CoagulantReactions

Commoncoagulantchemicalsusedarealum,ferric sulfate,ferric chloride,ferroussulfate,and

sodiumaluminate.The first four will lower the alkalinityandpH of the solutionwhile the
sodiumaluminatewill addalkalinity andraisethe pH. The reactionsof eachfollow:

ALUM

A12(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 2 AI(OH)3 3CaSOa 6COz

Aluminum + Calcium gives Aluminum Calcium Carbon

Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(alreadyin the
water to treat)

FERRIC SULFATE

Fez(SO+): + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 2 Fe(OH)3 3CaSO+ 6COz

teffrc + Calcium glves Ferric Calcium Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(presentin the
water to treat)

FERMC CHLORIDE

2 Fe Cl: + 3 Ca(HCO:)z 2 Fe(OH)3 3CaClz + 6COz

Ferric + Calcium gives Ferric Calcium + Carbon
Chloride Bicarbonate Hydroxide Chloride Dioxide
(presentin the
waterto treat)

FERROASSULFATE

FeS0+ Ca(HCOr)z Fe(OH)2 + CaS04 zCO2

Ferrous Calcium glves Ferrous + Calcium Carbon

Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(presentin the
water to treat)
SODIUM ALUMINATE

2 NazAlzO+ + Ca(HCO:)z 8 AI(OH)3 3 Na2CO3+ 6LhO

Sodium + Calcium gives Aluminum Sodium + Water

Aluminate Carbonate Hydroxide Carbonate
(presentin the
water to treat)

NazAlzO+ + COz 2 AI(OH)3 NaCO:

Sodium + Carbon gives Aluminum Sodium

Aluminate Dioxide Hydroxide Carbonate
(presentin the
waterto treat)

NazAlzO+ + MgCo3 MgA12Oa NazCO:

Sodium + Magnesium gives Magnesium Sodium

Aluminate Carbonate Aluminate Carbonate
(presentin the
water to treat)

POLYMERS

Polymers--long-chained, high-molecular-weight,organicchemicals--are becomingmore widely

used, especiallyas coagulantaids togetherwith the regular inorganic coagulants.Anionic
(negativelycharged)polymersare often usedwith metal coagulants.Low-to-mediumweight,
positivelycharged(cationic)polymersmay be usedaloneor in combinationwith the aluminum
and iron type coagulantsto attractthe suspended
solidsand neutralize their surfacecharge.The
manufacturercan produce a wide range of products that meet a variety of source-water
conditionsby controlling the amountand type of chargeand relative molecularweight of the
polymer.

Polymersare effectiveover a wider pH rangethan inorganiccoagulants.They can be appliedat

lower doses,and they do not consumealkalinity. They produce smaller volumes of more
concentrated,
rapidly settlingfloc. The floc formedfrom useof a properlyselectedpolymerwill
be moreresistantto shear,resultingin lesscarryoveranda cleanereffluent.

Polymersare generallyseveraltimes more expensivein their price per pound than inorganic
coagulants.Selectionof the properpolymerfor the applicationrequiresconsiderable
jar testing
undersimulatedplant conditions,followedby pilot or plant-scaletrials.

All polymersmustbe approvedfor potablewateruseby regulatory agencies.

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