Body Figure Perceptions and

Preferences Among
Preadolescent Children

M. Elizabeth Collins, H.S.D., M.P.H.

(Accepted 26 March 1990)

A pictorial instrument was developed to examine perceptions of body figure in a

cross-sectional survey of 7 J 78 preadolescent children. Hypothesis testing related to
differences in figure selections by gender, grade, race, and schoolicommunity set-
ting revealed males selected /deal Self slightly thinner than Self. However, females
selected Ideal Self significantly thinner than Self, as well as thinner than males‘ se-
lection of Ideal Self and /deal Girl. Additionally, females made thinner Ideal Adult
figure selections than males. Though blacks chose heavier figures than whites, fe-
males of both races desired thinner figures. Bias toward thinness among females
occurred across all levels of age, weight, race, and schoollcommunity setting, with
42% desiring thinner figures. Results of this study suggest that the onset of disparate
figure perceptions and expectations regarding thinness among females may be evi-
dent as early as 6 and 7 years of age.

Children’s perceptions related to weight, thinness, and body figure are issues
of increasing concern to health professionals. Although a number of studies
have documented the western trend toward thinness of body figure for women
(Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Silverstein, Peterson, & Per-
due, 1986) and the attendant body dissatisfaction expressed by substantial
numbers of adult (Fallon & Rozin, 1985; Mintz & Betz, 1986; Powers & Erick-
son, 1986; Thompson & Thompson, 1986; Wooley & Wooley, 1984, 1986) and
adolescent (Davies & Furnham, 1986; Dornbusch et al., 1984; Feldman, Mc-
Grath, & O’Shaughessy, 1986; Huenemann, Shapiro, Hampton, & Mitchell,
1966; Mellin, Scully, & Irwin, 1986; Wardle & Beales, 1986) females, recent in-
vestigations have focused on determining the extent to which similar attitudes
exist in younger populations.
Though perceptions of subjective overweight and attempts at dieting tend to
increase with the onset of adolescence (Blyth, Simmons, & Zakin, 1985;

M. Elizabeth Collins, H.S.D., M.P.H. i s Assistant Professor of Health Science Education, University of
Florida. Address correspondence and reprint requests to f i r s t author at Department of Health Science
Education, FLC-5, University of Florida, Cainesville, Florida 326 I 1-2034, U.S.A.

International journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 10, No. 2 , 199-208 (1991)

0 1991 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0276-3478/91/020199-10$04.00
200 Collins

Drewnowski, Yee, & Krahn, 1988), Feldman, Feldman, and Goodman (1988)
suggested that children acquire prevailing cultural values of beauty before ad-
olescence and that thinness is desirable to girls before puberty. Freedman
(1984) concurred that adolescence is not a sudden distinct occurrence but a
continuation of earlier developmental processes, adding that girls learn long
before puberty that beauty is a basic dimension of the feminine gender role.
Mellin (1988) reported that behaviors and attitudes, such as restrained eat-
ing, fear of fat, distortion of body image, binge eating, and purging affected
approximately one-third of 9-year-olds in a study of normal weight and obese
girls in grades four through twelve. Wardle and Beales (1986) also noted dis-
turbed body image and dissatisfaction with size among girls ages 12 to 18, con-
cluding that such dissatisfaction is the norm for girls and may be increasing
among younger age groups. Using a children’s version of the Eating Attitude
Test, Maloney, McGuire, Daniels, and Specker (1989) revealed that 45% of chil-
dren surveyed in grades three through six wanted to be thinner, whereas 37%
already had tried to lose weight and 6.9% scored in the anorexia nervosa
range.
Is the desire for thinness widespread before puberty? Feldman et al. (1988)
called for studies with preadolescent children to determine how preoccupation
with weight begins and why thinness is believed attractive. This study in-
volved development and administration of a pictorial instrument in a cross-
sectional survey of body figure perceptions and preferences among children in
grades one through three. The study represented a preliminary effort to deter-
mine whether an instrument of this type could detect preoccupation with
weight early in childhood and whether children in the primary grades consider
thinness attractive in child and adult figures.

METHOD

Subjects

Participants included 1118 preadolescent children attending seven public el-

ementary schools in two Indiana school corporations, selected purposively to
represent children from a broad range of school/community settings (subur-
ban, inner city, small town, rural). Participation in the National School Lunch
and Breakfast programs, available to students of lower income, was used as a
general indicator of socioeconomic level and ranged from 4 to 80% among the
seven schools. Permission to participate in the study was obtained through let-
ters to parents. The sample consisted of male (51%) and female (49%), black
(26%) and white (74%), children from grades one (32%), two (?I%), and three
(35%).Average age of subjects was 7.97 years.

Instrumentation
Adult figure drawings developed by Stunkard, Sorenson, and Schulsinger
(1983) were used by permission for guidance in designing a new pictorial in-
strument including child figures. Seven male and female child (Fig. 1) and
adult (Fig. 2) figures were created to illustrate body weight ranging from very
Body Figure Perceptions 201

IDEAL IDEAL SELF

(3.52) (3.63) (4.00)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7

-J I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I

Femalek Male Malet

IDEAL IDEAL SELF
(3.93) (3.94) (4.04)

Figure 1. Mean selections of Self, ideal Self, and Ideal Other-gender Child by male
and female subjects.

thin to obese. Prior to data collection, the instrument was reviewed by child
and adult jurors, pilot-tested, and examined for test- retest reliability and crite-
rion-related validity.

Procedure
A cross-sectional survey design was employed in which subjects used the
pictorial instrument to make five figure selections.
1. Self: Which picture looks the most like you look? (Same-gender child fig-
ure).
2. Ideal Self Which picture shows the way you want to look? (Same-gender
child figure).
202 Collins

1
LI I I I
1.5 2
I I I I I I I I I I
2.5
I I I I I
3
I I I 1 1

Female
IDEAL
ff
3.5
1 I I I I

Male
IDEAL
4
I I 8
4.5
I I I I b I I
5
I I I I
5.5
I I I I
@
I I
6
I
'J

I
8.5
I I I I I
@

I I
'J

7
IJ

(3.58) (3.94)

Figure 2. Mean selections of Ideal Adult figures by male and female subjects.

3. Ideal Other Child: Which picture shows the way you think is best for
girlshoys to look? (Other-gender child figure).
4. Ideal Adult: Which picture shows the way you want to look when you
grow up? (Same-gender adult figure).
5. Ideal Other Adult: Which picture shows the way you think is best for
grown-up womenimen to look? (Other-gender adult figure).
Five-page questionnaires were used to present one set of unnumbered figures
per page. Oral questions were based on items used in previous investigations
with older populations (Cohn et al., 1987; Fallon & Rozin, 1985). All survey
sessions were conducted by the investigator in group settings of 15-20 stu-
dents. Height, weight, and race were recorded by a data collection assistant us-
ing portable scales and tape measures, with body mass index (BMI) percentile
Body Figure Perceptions 203

rankings subsequently calculated according to National Center for Health Sta-

tistics (1987) data.
After completing the pictorial instrument, subjects circled responses to two
printed multiple-choice questions read aloud by the investigator.
1. Self: I think I am: fat, skinny, in-between.
2. Ideal Self: I would like to: lose weight, gain weight, stay the same.

RESULTS

Estimation of Reliability and Validity

Test-retest administration of the pictorial instrument conducted among 159
first-, second-, and third-grade children with an intervening period of 3 days
revealed test-retest reliability coefficients for figure selections as follows: Self =
.71; Ideal Self = .59; Ideal Other Child = .38; Ideal Adult = .55;Ideal Other
Adult = .49. Additional analyses by gender and grade level revealed that fig-
ure selections were stable in many instances, ranging as high as .91 for Self,
but dropped sporadically in others. Same-gender figure selections generally
were more reliable than other-gender Selections.
Criterion-related validity coefficients assessed through comparison of picto-
rial figure selections with actual weight and BMI were as follows: Pictorial Self
and weight = .36, p < .05;Pictorial Self and BMI = .37, p < .05.Validity also
was assessed by comparing verbal and pictorial responses for Self and Ideal
Self. Subjects who described themselves as “skinny“ most often selected Figure
4 as Self (51%),followed by Figure 3 (28%). Subjects who described themselves
as “in between” also selected Figure 4 most often as Self (60%), followed by
Figure 5 (25%). Subjects who said they were ”fat” chose Figure 5 a s Self (51%),
followed by Figure 4 (30%).
Among subjects who wanted to ”lose weight,” 68% selected Ideal Self thin-
ner than Self, whereas 26% selected the same figure and 6% selected a heavier
figure. Among subjects who wanted to “stay the same,” 58% selected the same
figure for Self and Ideal Self, with 24% selecting thinner figures and 18% select-
ing heavier figures. Fifty-eight percent of subjects who wanted to ”gain
weight” chose Ideal Self heavier than Self with 29% selecting the same figure
and 13% selecting a thinner figure.

Figure Selections
In addition to examining differences in children’s selections of Self and Ideal
Self, figure selection responses were combined to compare children’s prefer-
ences for how boys, girls, men, and women “should” look (Ideal Boy, Ideal
Girl, Ideal Man, Ideal Woman). A cross-gender comparison was made using a
discrepancy score (Ideal Self minus Self). Null hypotheses of no differences in
figure selections were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (school/
community setting), and 2 x 2 x 3 (gender x race x grade level) analysis of
variance for each of the dependent figure selection variables. School/commu-
nity setting and race were analyzed separately, as one school corporation in-
204 Col Iins

cluded few black students. Selection of the ANOVA procedure was based on
recommendations from the literature regarding treatment of variables between
the ordinal and interval scales as interval data to allow use of more powerful
and clearly interpretable statistics (Labovitz, 1970, 1972; Young, 1981).
Comparison of discrepancy scores (Ideal Self- Self) revealed that subjects
varied only by gender (females = -.48, males = -.lo), F (1, 1106) = 16.428,
[ I < .OS), with females preferring significantly thinner figures than males.
Paired t-tests further demonstrated that both males, t (570) = 2.32, p < .05, and
females, t (546) = 10.27, p < .05, selected figures for Ideal Self that were signif-
icantly thinner than selections for Self.
No significant differences in Ideal figure selections (Boy, Girl, Man, Woman)
occurred by schoolicommunity setting, and in only one instance by grade level.
However, blacks made significantly heavier figure selections than whites for all
figures.
Means scores and standard deviations for figure selections by gender are
provided in Figures 1 and 2 of this article. Males and females did not differ in
their perceptions of Ideal Boy, F (1,1106) = .496, p > .05. However, females
selected significantly thinner figures than did males for Ideal Girl, F (1,1106) =
17.444, p < .OS; Ideal Man, F (1,1106) = 46.374, p < .05; and Ideal Woman, F
(1,1106) = 114.228, p < .OS.
Mean body mass index for males in this study was 16.72, ranking in the
49.13 percentile for age; BMI for females was 16.71, ranking in the 50.67 per-
centile for age (National Center for Health Statistics, 1987). Though 47% of
males and 44% of females chose the same figures as Self and Ideal Self, 42% of
females selected an ideal figure thinner than their current figure, whereas only
14% selected heavier figures as ideal. In comparison, 30% of boys chose thin-
ner figures, whereas 23% selected heavier figures (Fig. 3). The preference for
thinner figures among females increased with BMI but occurred across all lev-
els of BMI for both races. Almost one-fourth (24%)of female subjects ranking
in the lowest BMI quartile preferred thinner figures. At all levels of BMI, more
males than females preferred to be heavier, whereas more females than males
preferred to be thinner.

DISCUSSION

Examination of test- retest correlations revealed more stability in figure selec-

tions related to subjects’ own gender. However, correlations for other-gender
selections often were low and in some instances, extremely low. Some chil-
dren, particularly younger subjects, found amusement in making other-gender
selections. Individual testing or smaller groupings might alleviate this situa-
tion. History also may have influenced retest response. For example, a second-
grade girl remarked after retesting, ”I said I was in-between, but my Mama
says I’m skinny!” A longer intervening period between testing sessions might
be desirable, as well as the numbering of the figure drawings.
Repeated administration of the pictorial instrument indicated the task of se-
lecting a pictorial Self often was difficult for first-grade subjects of both gen-
ders. The tendency to select figures more highly correlated with weight and
BMI increased among subjects around 9 years of age, particularly among fe-
Body Figure Perceptions 205

""

40 -

30-
R
C
E
7 20--
10 -

n-
THINNER SAME HEAVIER

Figure 3. Percentages of male and female subjects selecting Ideal Self figures thinner,
the same, or heavier than Self.

males. However, children tended to select socially desirable middle-range fig-

ures as Sell, regardless of gender, weight, or BMI.
Correlations between pictorial and verbal selections for Self may have been
influenced by lack of sensitivity in verbal descriptors. The options "fat" and
"skinny" used in the printed questions represented extremes along the body-
weight continuum and may have held negative connotations. However, de-
scriptors were limited by language that was comprehensible to younger
subjects, evidenced in pilot-testing by children who had difficulty with con-
cepts such as "less than" or "thinner." Maloney et al. (1989) acknowledged
similar problems in working with third-grade students who may have been
confused by the questions used in the Eating Attitude Test. The verbal diffi-
culty in talking with younger children about weight suggests a pictorial instru-
ment may be useful for this type of inquiry.
Regarding Ideal Self, over half the subjects expressed similar preferences
both verbally and pictorially to lose weight, gain weight, or stay the same.
However, though most subjects selected middle-range figures as Self, many
children selected different figures as Ideal Self. These deviations are consistent
with adult and adolescent body dissatisfaction.
Though higher socioeconomic level has been shown as an important variable
in increased adult and adolescent desire for thinness (Sobal & Stunkard, 1989),
the general measure of schoolicommunity setting demonstrated no statistical
differences in figure selections. This lack of difference suggests the variable
may have been insufficient for detecting variance in figure selection by socio-
economic level. Alternatively, the finding could indicate societal pressure for
thinness increasingly experienced by children across all socioeconomic levels.
Interestingly, children's figure selections also were similar across grade levels.
206 Collins

Racial differences in figure selections mirrored preferences reported among

adults. At any given level of relative weight, a smaller proportion of black than
white women consider themselves overweight. However, within categories of
actual weight compared to weight for all women of the same ethnic group, per-
centages of women feeling overweight are comparable for black and white
women (Dawson, 1988). Similarly, though black children in this study consis-
tently selected heavier figures than did white children for Self and Ideal Self,
the desire to have thinner ideal figures was parallel in black and white females.
The major question of this study centered around whether preadolescent
children prefer ideal figures different from their own perceived figures. Exam-
ination of the fourth male and female child figure drawings, most often se-
lected as Self, reveals children of desirable, even lean, body weight. However,
selection of thinner figures as Ideal Self occurred across all levels of weight,
age, race, and schooYcommunity setting among females. This finding is consis-
tent with Maloney et al.’s (1989) report related to third-grade subjects, raising
the distinct possibility that some children are preoccupied with weight at a
young age. Similar to findings presented by Fallon and Rozin (1985) and Cohn
et al. (1987), females in the current study preferred to be thinner than the im-
age considered most attractive by males.
Though subjects were not interviewed concerning their figure selections,
some children made comments during and after questionnaire administration
and during height and weight measurement. Many children, particularly girls,
did not want their classmates to know their weight, with one second-grade girl
exclaiming after being weighed, ”Forty-eight pounds of fat!” Several girls mur-
mured as they circled their pictorial selections for ideal figure, ”She’s perfect.”
Boys more often remarked that their selections looked strong, with one boy draw-
ing muscles on the arms of his ideal male figures. However, a second-grade boy
explained that he needed to ”lose two pounds to make the wrestling team,” per-
haps providing insight into selections of males who chose thinner ideal figures.
Males in previous investigations with older subjects have expressed body
figure and weight satisfaction or preference for heavier, more muscular figures.
Therefore, caution is warranted with regard to the slight preference for thin-
ness expressed by boys in the present study. The statistical significance associ-
ated with this finding may be attributable to large sample size, signifying
limited practical significance. Nevertheless, Maloney et al. (1989) also reported
concerns for thinness among young male subjects.
Studies with adolescents have indicated dieting for weight control and evi-
dence of disordered eating patterns among normal weight females. However,
Cohn et al. (1987) found girls ages 10.5-15 years expressed much less body
dissatisfaction than the college women of the Fallon and Rozin (1985) sample,
both studies using the Stunkard et al. (1983) adult figure drawings. The signif-
icant preference for thinness among females in the current study may reflect
the use of a more age-appropriate instrument.

CONCLUSION

This study, based on the premise that children begin to develop gender-
based stereotypes of attractiveness early in life, should be considered a prelim-
Body Figure Perceptions 207

inary attempt to employ a new instrument for investigating body figure

perceptions and preferences among young children. The finding that 42% of
the black and white, first-, second-, and third-grade girls in this study pre-
ferred body figures different and thinner than their own perceived figures is
noteworthy. Within the limitations discussed for this study, the bias expressed
by female subjects toward thinner child and adult ideal figures, coupled with
an overall preference for thinness among all age, weight, and racial groupings,
suggests that questions related to figure dissatisfaction among young children
are legitimate concerns bearing further investigation. Results from this study
indicate that the onset of disparate figure perceptions and expectations regard-
ing thinness among females may be evident as early as 6 and 7 years of age.
Administration of this instrument indicated several areas needing further in-
vestigation. Follow-up testing is needed for more extensive estimation and
possible enhancement of reliability and validity of the instrument, incorporat-
ing suggestions from the discussion. In addition to the jury review conducted,
a scaling procedure should be developed for determining equivalence in figure
sizes between genders in order to make cross-gender comparisons among sets
of figures. Similar studies are indicated with subjects from a broader range of
geographical areas.
Due to the young age of subjects, interviewing may be critical in deterining
whether bias for thinness actually is present within this age group and, if so,
why thinner figures are considered desirable and attractive to children. At-
tempts should be made to assess parental and societal influences on the body
figure attitudes of children. Longitudinal studies conducted to assess changes
in perceptions and preferences for body figure over time and within individu-
als may assist in planning and implementing effective prevention and interven-
tion strategies for encouraging realistic expectations related to body figure in
the primary years.

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