Mechanics of Materials Laboratory

Dr. M. E. Barkey
Department of Aerospace Engineering and Mechanics
The University of Alabama

Lab 2
Tension Test of Low Carbon Steel

Submitted by:

Dated:

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Contents
Objective:....................................................................................................................................................3
Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................................3
Theory:........................................................................................................................................................3
Engineering Stress:..................................................................................................................................4
True Stress:.............................................................................................................................................4
Engineering Strain:..................................................................................................................................5
True Strain:..............................................................................................................................................5
Modulus of Elasticity:.............................................................................................................................5
Yield Stress:.............................................................................................................................................5
Procedure:...................................................................................................................................................5
Data and Observations:..............................................................................................................................6
Graphs:........................................................................................................................................................7
Summary of Results:...................................................................................................................................8
Q/A:.............................................................................................................................................................8
Discussion:................................................................................................................................................10
References:...............................................................................................................................................10

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Objective:
This experiment is meant to achieve following goals:

 Familiarize with the basic terms of mechanics of materials like stress, strain, yield
strength and elastic modulus etc.
 Understand the principle of tensile test.

Apparatus:
Tension test apparatus is comprised of a
number of parts that include load cell that is
basically to apply the controlled load on the
sample that is griped by the grips. There is an
extensometer that is meant to measure the
elongation of the specimen that is then
converted to axial strain.

Theory:
1-dimensional stress is produced in the specimen under tensile test. Engineering stress on the
specimen can be determined from:
F
σ axial=
Ao

Ao represents the original cross sectional area and F represents the axial load. When the necking
of specimen occurs stress state becomes more complicated. Instrumented “load cell” is used to
determine the force for mechanically screw driven machines. Measurements of cross section
before the start of test give the original cross sectional area. Load cell in testing machines is of
material of known modulus of elasticity and is instrumented in such a way that it gives reading
in volts that is proportional to the applied axial stress until it doesn’t exceed its capacity.

For materials with 0 Poisson’s ratio, 1-dimensional stress state corresponds to multidimensional
strain state. Engineering Strain is determined from
∆L
ε axial=
Lo

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Extensometer measures the change in the length of gage. Specimen is attached to the
extensometer at the two knife edges and as the specimen stretches extensometer moves.
Extensometer gives voltage readings in proportion to the deformation it experiences.

In transverse direction Elastic strain is determined by

ε transverse=−v ε axial

Where v the Poisson’s ratio can be determined during the test if transverse strain is measured.

Tension Test is used to measure the mechanical properties of materials like elastic modulus, the
ultimate stress, yield stress and the other such properties.

In a Tension test the specimen design is of much importance. It general has a “dog-bone” shape
with larger cross section where it is gripped and smaller cross section where extensometer is
placed. This cross sectional area distribution is necessary so deformation can take place where
extensometer can measure it. If it has a constant cross sectional area, it can break where it is
gripped because of greater contact stress in addition to axial stresses. The transition of cross
section from larger to smaller cross section is also important because if it is abrupt, due to
“stress concentration effect” of transition radius the specimen may fail. Failures are unlikely to
happen if the transition radius is large. So in gage length the cross sectional area of specimen
should be sketched in such a way that tensile machine can break the specimen.

Engineering Stress:
The engineering stress is the value of stress that is determined by dividing the applied load by the initial
or actual cross sectional area of the sample to be tested.

F
σ eng=
Ao

True Stress:
It is the value of stress that is determined by division of applied load by the instantaneous cross
sectional area of the sample.
F
σ true =
Ains

Engineering Strain:
Engineering strain like engineering stress is calculated using initial conditions. It is measured by
dividing the elongation produced due to the applied load by the initial actual length of sample
to be tested.
∆L
ε eng=
Lo

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True Strain:
Like true stress it is the strain that is measured at the instantaneous conditions. It is the value of
strain that is obtained by taking natural log of the fraction of instantaneous length over actual
length.
L
ε t=ln
Lo

Modulus of Elasticity:
Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ability of the material to resist elastic deformation when
stress is applied to it.
σ
E=
ε

Yield Stress:
Yield stress is the maximum value of stress that material can bear while experiencing elastic
deformation. After this limit, plastic or permanent deformation is started.

Procedure:
 Determined the type of material that is to be tested as in our case it is low carbon steel.
 Initial cross sectional diameter was measured and noted.
 Zero error of the apparatus was calibrated.
 Sample to be tested was placed between the grips of the machine.
 The gripping load was recorded.
 Extensometer was then attached with the sample and marks were put at a distance of
about 2in that is the initial length of gage.
 Removed the extensometer when the specimen was about o neck.
 The final length of gage and cross sectional diameter of the sample were noted.

Data and Observations:

Material: Low carbon steel

Initial Cross section: 0.55 in

Final Cross section: 0.21 in

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Initial Gage length: 1.96 in

Final gage length: 2.76 in

Sketch of sample before and after test:

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Graphs:
Stress vs Strain
70000
65290.13
60000

50000
Stess (psi)

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Strain

Stress-Strain Graph for whole test

Stress-Strain graph within Elastic limit

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 Stress vs Strain (Within Elastic limit)
40000 35862.26
35000
f(x) = 29640570.69 x − 16.9
30000
25000
Stess (psi)

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Strain

Upper and Lower Yield Points:

Stress vs Strain
50000
Upper and Lower Yield Points
45000
37943.97
40000
3500035862.26
Stess (psi)

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
Strain

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Summary of Results:
Upper yield stress: 37943 psi

Lower yield stress: 35862 psi

Ultimate stress: 65290 psi

Elasticity modulus: 30,000 ksi

Q/A:
Answer to Question 1:
The accepted value for modulus of elasticity of low carbon steel is 29000 ksi while the measured value
from the tensile test came to be 30000 ksi which is very close to the originally accepted value. The little
deviation from the actually accepted value can be accounted for minute difference in the composition of
sample material, systematic error and some personal error while performing the test.

Percentage error:

| Actual−Measured|
Percentage error = ×100
Actual
|29000−30000|
Percentage error = × 100=3.45 %
29000

Answer to Question 2:
The accepted value of yield stress is 53700 psi while the measured value in test is about 38000 psi so the
percentage error is calculated to be:

|53700−38000|
Percentage error = × 100=29.2 %
53700

Answer to Question 3:

Applied Load
Axial stress=
Original Cross sectional Area

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Answer to Question 4:

Elongation
Axial strain=
Original Length

Discussion:
The lab was actually very helpful in understanding the basic concepts of stress, strain and other related
terms. The tensile test was performed of a sample of low carbon steel and elongation corresponding to
different loads was noted. In the start the elongation was increasing proportionally to the applied load
but after a certain limit this proportionality disappeared and elongation started increasing irregularly.
The region where the elongation and load were linearly proportional is the region where only elastic
deflection was occurring but as that certain limit of proportionality that is called modulus of elasticity,
the material started to be deformed plastically. The highest point on the graph tells us about the
maximum stress that sample can bear and it is called ultimate tensile stress. From the slope of stress-
strain graph in the elastic region, the elastic modulus was measured and compared with the accepted
standard value for low carbon steel. The two values are very close to each other and proves that the test
has been performed accurately with the results very close to the actual values.

References:
 https://www.slideshare.net/musadoto/tensile-test-report-89414455
 https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experiments/tensile/
 https://www.scribd.com/doc/22919957/Tensile-Test-Lab-Report
 https://www.engineersedge.com/material_science/yield_strength.htm

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 http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_mom_truestresstruestrainengstressengstrain.html
 https://www.shimadzu.com/an/industry/ceramicsmetalsmining/i223.html

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