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Assessment of Sexual Violence Against Female Students in Wolaita Sodo University, Southern Ethiopia
Assessment of Sexual Violence Against Female Students in Wolaita Sodo University, Southern Ethiopia
Article
Journal of Interpersonal Violence
Assessment of Sexual
28(11) 2351–2367
© The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permissions:
Violence Against Female sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0886260512475316
Students in Wolaita jiv.sagepub.com
Sodo University,
Southern Ethiopia
Abebayehu Tora1
Abstract
Studies indicate that girls and women encounter sexual violence in their day-
to-day social life in all cultures and societies. This study aimed to determine
the prevalence of sexual violence against female students in Wolaita Sodo
University; 374 female students provided responses to self-administered
questionnaire. The study revealed 23.4% (95% CI = 18.7-27.3) attempted
rape, 8.7% (95% CI = 3.6-12.9) completed rape, 24.2% (95% CI = 17.7-26.1)
committed physical harassment, 18.7% (95% CI = 12.8-20.3) committed
verbal harassment, and 11.3% (95% CI = 6.6-12.6) forced sexual initiation.
Reported level of these perpetrations was experienced mainly at high school
and during enrollment year in the university. Boyfriends, close friends, family
members and relatives, school and university teachers, other employees, and
strangers were found to be the key perpetrators of sexual violence against
women. Interventions are required to create a safe learning environment for
female students through prevention and rehabilitation programs.
Keywords
sexual violence, rape, sexual harassment, forced sexual initiation, Ethiopia
1
Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia
Corresponding Author:
Abebayehu Tora, Department of Sociology, Wolaita Sodo University, P. O. Box 138, Wolaita
Sodo, Wolaita Sodo, 138, Ethiopia.
Email: abezed@yahoo.com
2352 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)
Introduction
According to Jewkes, Sen, & Garcia-Moreno (as cited in Contreras, Bott,
Guedes, & Dartnall, 2010, p.7), sexual violence refers to “any sexual act,
attempt to obtain sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, acts
to traffic women’s sexuality, using coercion, threats of harm or physical
force, by any person regardless of a relationship with the survivor, in any
setting, including but not limited to home or work”. Some writers argue
that sexual violence may manifest itself in many forms: “from psychologi-
cal intimidation and coercion through name calling, sexual harassment,
stalking, moderate physical violence (pushing, shoving, slapping), to
severe physical violence (beating, using weapons) and sexual assault”
(Crawford & Unger, 2000).
It is estimated that up to 6 out of every 10 women in the world experience
physical or sexual violence in their lifetime (United Nations Development
Fund for Women, 2009). Studies indicate that women of a younger age,
between 15 and 24 years, are at increased risk to experience various forms of
sexual victimization (Heise, Pitanguy, & Germain, 1994; Schei & Barketeig,
1989).
In Ethiopia, various studies indicated the prevalence of gender-based vio-
lence in general and sexual violence in particular. A study among high school
students revealed that of the 6.2% of the students who have started sexual
intercourse, 26.1% were raped and 75.9% of the students reported being sex-
ually harassed (Lellisa & Yusuf, 2008). School-based cross-sectional survey
conducted in Debark, north western Ethiopia, also indicated the prevalence
of completed and attempted rape to be 8.8% and 11.5%, respectively (Worku
& Addisie, 2002). Another study in eastern part of Ethiopia among secondary
school students revealed multitude of risk factors exposing school girls to
sexual victimization (Bekele, VanAken, & Dubas, 2011).
Scanty literature is available on the nature and extent of sexual violence
against female students in colleges and universities in Ethiopia. Previous
studies indicate that schools and universities are found to be highly suscep-
tible to sexual and gender-based violence (WHO, 2002) though the problem
is not adequately addressed in the education sector (Panos Institute, 2003).
School- and college-aged girls are highly prone to sexual violence and harass-
ment due to the patriarchal tradition, alcohol and drug exposure, and ill-reg-
ulated sexual behavior, which is prevalent both among youth and adults
(Philpart, Goshu, Gelaye, Williams, & Berhane, 2009; Tadesse, 2004). In a
cross-sectional survey conducted in Addis Ababa University among 612
female students, the prevalence of lifetime completed and attempted rape was
12.7% and 27.5%, respectively, whereas sexual harassment in lifetime and
Tora 2353
In the informed verbal consent sheet presented to the participants, the pur-
pose of the study and method of data collection were clearly stated. The
participants were given Yes and No options to express their willingness.
Information was provided to participants that their responses would be kept
confidential and anonymous. If the respondents find some of the questions
recalling trauma, they were informed that they can stop filling the question-
naire and consult student counseling office in the university. Ethical clear-
ance for this study was obtained from Ethical Approval Committee of
Wolaita Sodo University.
Development of Questionnaire
A team of sociologists and psychologists have been involved in the develop-
ment of structured questionnaire based on the variables of interest identified
in sexual violence literature in Ethiopia and similar settings elsewhere.
Sociodemographic and other variables such as age, religion, year of study,
relationship status, and previous experience of sexual intercourse were
included in the questionnaire. Attempted and completed rape, verbal and
physical harassment, and forced sexual initiation were the major forms of
sexual violence perpetrations included. Questions were set to investigate
whether someone has attempted to rape using physical force or actually com-
mitted it, offended them verbally or physically, and or used forced sexual
initiation. For instance, attempted rape was assessed by asking female stu-
dents, “Has someone made any failed attempt to make sexual intercourse
using physical force or intimidation without your consent?” Completed rape
was also assessed by asking respondents, “Have you ever made sexual inter-
course without your willingness, failing to overcome the physical force or
intimidation of someone?” To assess physical harassment respondents were
asked, “Have you ever been beaten, slapped buttock, touched breast, kissed
forcefully, or experienced other forms of sexually initiated contacts without
your consent?” Verbal harassment was also assessed by asking, “Has some-
one ever insulted you or used offensive sexual languages against you or
given disparaging comments against your body?” To assess forced sexual
Tora 2355
initiation, respondents were asked, “Have you ever been initiated to make
sexual intercourse with someone who provided you financial or other bene-
fits in advance and insisted you to make sex in return?” Options were given
to respondents to trace the time they experienced sexual violence: childhood
(below Grade 8), high school, during enrollment year, and during second and
above years in the university. List of common perpetrators of sexual violence
identified in sexual violence literature were also included as options in the
questionnaire so that the respondents could trace one or more of them in their
responses. Family members, close friends, boyfriends, students, teachers,
strangers, school, and university employees were included. In this study,
family member or relative refers to any person who is related to the victim
because of family membership or blood relationship and who has a social
responsibility to take care of the child.
The questionnaire was pretested before the actual survey to check feasibil-
ity of the contents in context, simplicity to understand, and time required to
complete the questionnaire. The variables framed in the questionnaire were
found fitting into the situation of female students in the university. But slight
inconsistencies were observed among participants to understand some termi-
nologies and completing the questionnaire in the assumed time limit. As a
result, some modifications were incorporated into the final draft using famil-
iar words and reducing redundant questions.
Data Collection
Six women who have at least degree qualifications in behavioral and social
science fields have been provided training about data collection processes
particularly on how to reduce the social desirability bias and maintain quality
of data. The randomly selected female students from each stratum (first year,
second year, third year, and fourth year) were approached in their classrooms.
Those female students willing to participate were distributed the question-
naire with empty envelopes informing them that they can complete the ques-
tionnaire anywhere convenient for them. The facilitators arranged small,
locked ballot boxes around the classrooms, dormitories, and libraries where
respondents placed the completed questionnaire enclosed in the envelope.
Analysis
Data were first entered into excel and cleaned; 374 respondents completed
the questionnaire, whereas 11 refused to participate and 12 declined to return
it among 397 participants approached contributing to 94.2% response rate.
2356 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)
Results
Participants
A total of 374 female students participated in the study. The average age for
the participants was 20, whereas the minimum and maximum age was 17 and
25, respectively. Of the respondents, 57.4% were from first year, 21.9% were
from second year, 18.2% were from third year, and 2.7% were from fourth
year (see Table 1).
Majority of the respondents belong to Coptic orthodox (52.3%) and prot-
estant religion (32.8%). Those who do not have boyfriends currently or are
single constitute 78%, whereas 17% indicated that they have boyfriends cur-
rently. Reported level of previous experience of sexual intercourse among
female students was 19.5%.
Family member Boyfriend Close friend School teacher Other student University Other Stranger
Variables (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) teacher (n, %) employee (n, %) (n, %)
Attempted rape 19 (23.5) 28 (34.5) 15 (18.5) 5 (6.2) 4 (4.9) 2 (2.5) 1 (1.2) 7 (8.6)
Completed rape 7 (28) 9 (36) 3 (12) 1 (4) 2 (8) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4)
Physical harassment 8 (11.1) 26 (36.1) 16 (22.5) 4 (5.6) 8 (11.1) 1 (1.4) 1 (1.4) 8 (11.1)
Verbal harassment 3 (5) 14 (23.3) 10 (16.7) 1 (1.7) 21 (35) 2 (3.3) 2 (1.7) 8 (13.3)
Forced sexual initiation 4 (11.8) 5 (14.7) 12 (35.3) 2 (5.9) 5 (14.7) 1 (2.9) 1 (2.9) 4 (11.8)
Table 5. Chi-square Analysis: Sociodemographic and Other Factors Associated With Experience of Sexual Violence.
2361
2362 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)
Discussion
Studies indicated that adolescence is a time of vulnerability to many forms
of sexual violence for young women (WHO, 2002) and particularly for those
who live away from direct family supervision and care (Meyer, 2000).
However, inadequate literature is available on sexual violence against girls
and women in Ethiopia. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of
sexual violence against female students in Wolaita Sodo University.
Rape
The experience of attempted rape accounted for 23.4%, which is comparable
to 27.5% among female students in Addis Ababa University (Tadesse, 2004).
Consistent with previous studies that indicated that women aged 15 to 19
years are at increased risk to either physical or sexual abuse (Krug, Dahlberg,
Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002; WHO, 2005), experience of attempted rape in
this study was significantly associated with younger age (χ2 = 7.44, p =
.024). Interestingly, there is no significant difference among female students
Tora 2363
aged below and above 20 years in experiencing completed rape, physical and
verbal harassment, and forced sexual initiations. Comparable to a study in
Addis Ababa University (Tadesse, 2004), 8.7% of female students in the
present study reported experience of completed rape. This figure is smaller
when compared to 20.4% prevalence among high school students in Jima
Zone (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). Those female students who have previ-
ous experience of sexual intercourse are highly likely to report both
attempted and completed rape. This implies that most first-time sexual inter-
courses for girls and women are likely to be coerced or forced (Lellisa &
Yusuf, 2008; Tadesse, 2004; WHO, 2005). Surprisingly, female students who
have boyfriends currently seem to be relatively spared from both attempted
and completed rape and physical harassment. Having boyfriend currently or
being married may serve as a shield to nonpartner sexual violence in the
university though they are still susceptible to sexual victimizations by inti-
mate partners such as boyfriends.
Sexual Harassment
As much as 24.2% of female students in Wolaita Sodo University ever faced
one or other form of physical violence. A study in Addis Ababa University
treated physical and verbal harassment together and found the prevalence of
various forms of sexual harassment to be 58% (Tadesse, 2004). Another
study on high school girls in Jima Zone revealed that the experience of non-
consensual touching to be 31.2% and 28.2% of them experienced noncon-
sensual kissing (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). Higher level of verbal
harassment was also recorded (18.7%). This is congruent with that recorded
among high school students in Jima Zone (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). A
national survey on sexual violence on primary school girls in Ethiopia also
revealed higher level of verbal abuse across the country (Save the Children,
Denmark; Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Woman’s Affairs, 2008).
Interestingly, the experience of verbal harassment was higher among first-
year students (χ2 = 18.69, p = .001) and followers of Coptic orthodox reli-
gion (χ2 = 13.87, p = .008).
backed by the disadvantage of girls and women in the share of power and
other resources as compared to men. The perpetrators forcefully initiate girls
and women for sexual intercourse through providing material, financial, and
other items. Bennett and colleagues argue that this form of sexual violence
may be consensual, but agreement is unwillingly given may be due to social
expectations of sexual availability in dating relationships, or to threats, trick-
ery, or blackmail of women (Bennett, Manderson, & Astbury, 2000). The
coercive circumstances may range from persistent begging such that compli-
ance is the only way of getting rid of the man, to threats of loss of employ-
ment opportunities or school marks (Bennett et al., 2000). It may initiate the
willingness of women through the supply of resources that they are badly in
need of. Those female students who lack money to fulfill their economic
needs and have poor academic performance may be more susceptible to such
kind of violence.
violent behaviors during second and above years in campus. From this it is
possible to assume that female students are more likely to experience sexual
violence in their first year and may either learn to normalize it or cope with it
as their stay in the university increases. However, the prevalence of sexual
violence both before and during campus life is alarmingly high and need
intervention programs responsive to risk factors and perpetrators.
Appendix
Definition of Important Terms
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
Financial support for this study was obtained from Wolaita Sodo University (Type
D/1800 - 1/Wolaita Sodo University, 2011).
2366 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)
References
Author Biography
Abebayehu Tora, MA, received his MA in sociology from Addis Ababa University
in 2010. Currently he works as educator and researcher in Wolaita Sodo University.
He has been assisting and conducting researches into neglected tropical diseases in
resource-limited communities in Ethiopia, which initiated his interest in public health
problems of developing countries, particularly on the rights and safety of girls and
women. He hopes to continue his work on sexual victimization against women in
institutions and workplaces in Ethiopia.