Thermodynamic Cycles

Carnot Cycle
P
1
2

3
4

V1 V4 V2 V3

T-S Diagram

T1=T2 1 2

T3=T4 3 4

PROCESS ANALYSIS
Process 1-2 T = C (Isothermal expansion / heat addition)
P1V1 = P2V2 P2 / P1 = V1 / V2
WNF = W1-2 = P1V1 ln (V2/V1) = mRT1 ln V2/V1
QA = Q1-2 = T1(∆S1-2) = T1(S2 – S1)

Process 2-3 S = C (Isentropic expansion)

P2V2K = P3V3K T3/T2 = (V2/V3)K-1 = (P3/P2)K-1/K
WNF = W2-3 = P3V3 – P2V2 / 1-k = mR(T3 – T2) / 1-k
Q2-3 = 0

Process 3-4 T = C (Isothermal compression / heat rejection)

P3V3 = P4V4 P4/P3 = V3/V4
WNF = W3-4 = P3V3 ln (V4/V3) = mRT3 ln V4/V3
QR = Q3-4 = T3(∆S3-4) = T3(S4 – S3)

Process 4-1 S=C (Isentropic compression)

P4V4K = P1V1K T4/T1 = (V1/V4)K-1 = (P4/P1)K-1/K
WNF = W4-1 = P1V1 – P4V4 / 1-k = mR(T1 – T4) / 1-k
Q4-1 = 0
 CYCLE ANALYSIS
Net Work – output energy developed by the engine during the cycle

Wknet = ∑Q
= QA + QR
= T1(S2 – S1) + T3(S4 – S3)
= T1(S2 – S1) – T3(S3 – S4)
= (T1 – T3) (S2 – S1)

Wknet = ∑W
= W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1
= P1V1 ln (V2 / V1) + P3V3 ln (V4 / V3)
= mRT1 ln V2 / V1 + mRT3 ln V4/V3

Thermal Efficiency (e) – ratio of the output energy developed and the heat supplied/added to the
system during the cycle

e = Wknet / QA
e = (T1–T3) / T1
= 1 – (T3 / T1)
= 1 – [1 / r KK-1]

Mean Effective Pressure (Pm / Mep) – average working pressure inside the system
Pm = Wknet / VD
= Wknet / (V3 – V1)

Where: VD – volume displaced/swept by the piston

– Piston displacement
– Vmax - Vmin

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

QA = Q1-2 = T1(∆S1-2) = T1(S2 – S1) and since QA = WNF = W1-2

QA = WNF = W1-2 = P1V1 ln (V2/V1) = mRT1 ln V2/V1

QR = Q3-4 = T3(∆S3-4) = T3(S4 – S3) and since QR = WNF = W3-4

QR = WNF = W3-4 = P3V3 ln (V4/V3) = mRT3 ln V4/V3

ΔS1-2 = m R ln(V2 / V1) = m R ln(P1 / P2)

ΔS3-4 = m R ln(V4 / V3) = m R ln(P3 / P4)

Isothermal Expansion ratio, ret = V2/V1

Isentropic Expansion ratio, res = V3/V2
Isothermal Compression ratio, rkt = V3/V4
Isentropic Compression ratio, rks = V4/V1
 CARNOT CYCLE PROBLEMS

1. A heat engine operates on Carnot cycle. It produces 50 KW of power while operating between
temperature limits of 100ºC and 800ºC. Determine: a) the thermal efficiency and b) the amount of
heat added.

QA
800C
e = T1 – T3 / T1 = 1073 – 373/ 1073
= 0.652
Wnet = 50KW
Recall: e = Wnet / QA
QA = Wnet / e = 50/0.652 = 76.6 KW
100C
QR

2. A Carnot engine operates with 0.136 kg of air as the working substance. The pressure and volume
at the beginning of isothermal expansion are 2.1 MPa and 9.6 liters. The sink temperature is 50ºC,
and the heat added is 32 KJ. Determine:
a) Source temperature
b) Thermal efficiency

Given: m = 0.136 kg T3 = 50ºC = 323K = T4

P1 = 2,100 KPa QA = 32 KJ
V1 = 0.0096 m3 R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K (table)

a) Source tempt (T1 = T2)

T1 = P1V1 / m R = 2,100(0.0096) / 0.136(0.287) = 516.5K

b) Thermal Efficiency, e
e = 1 – (T3/T1) = 1 – (323/516.5) = 0.375

3. A Carnot engines uses nitrogen as the working medium. The heat supplied is 53 KJ and the
adiabatic expansion ratio is 16:1. The receiver temperature is 295K. Determine:
a) Thermal efficiency
b) Heat rejected
c) Net work

Given: QA = 53 KJ res = 16 = V3 / V2
T3 = 295 = T4 K = 1.399 (table) N2

a) e = 1 – (T3/T2) = 1 – (V2/V3)K-1 = 1 – (1/ res)K-1 = 1 – (1/16)K-1 = 0.669

b) QR = QA – Wnet = QA – (eQA ) = QA ( 1 – e ) = 53 ( 1 – 0.669 ) = 17.53 KJ

c) Wnet = QA – QR = 53 – 17.53 = 35.47 KJ

4. A six – cylinder engine with 10 cm x 10 cm bore and stroke operates on Carnot cycle. It receives
54 KJ/cycle of heat at 560ºC and rejects heat at 280ºC while running at 300 rpm. Determine the
following:
a) Thermal Efficiency
b) Net power, KW

Given: nc = 6 cyl T1 = 560ºC = 833K = T2

QA = 54 KJ/cycle T1 = 280ºC = 553K = T4
10cm x 10cm n = 300 rpm

Solution: e = 1 – (T3/T1) = 1 – (553/833) = 0.3361

Wnet = eQA = 0.3361(54) = 18.15 KJ/cycle
P D = π/4 (bore)2(stroke)(no. of cyl) = π/4 (0.1m)2(0.1m)(6) = 0.0047 m3/cycle

a) Net Power = 18.15 KJ/cycle x 1 cycle/rev x 300 rev/min x min/60sec = 90.75 KW

 COMBUSTION POWER CYCLES

AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE

Otto Cycle (Basis of Comparison for Spark-Ignition Engines)

PV and TS Diagram

P 3
T S=C
S=C V=C
V=C
4 2
Wnet 4
2 QT
V=C
S=C
S=C
V=C
1
1

V S

Process Analysis:
Process 1 – 2 [Adiabatic Compression] Process 3 – 4 [Adiabatic Expansion]
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)K-1 = (P2/P1)K-1/K T4/T3 = (V3/V4)K-1 = (P4/P3)K-1/K

W1-2 = [P2V2 – P1V1] / 1–K W3-4 = [P4V4 – P3V3] / 1–K

Q1-2 = 0 Q3-4 = 0

Process 2 – 3 [Isometric Heating] Process 4 – 1 [Isometric Heat Rejection]

P3 / P2 = T3 / T2 P1 / P4 = T1 / T4

W2-3 = 0 W4-1 = 0

QA = Q2-3 = ΔU = m CV (T3 – T2) QR = Q 4-1 = ΔU = m CV (T1 – T4)

 Cycle Analysis:
A. Net Work (WNET) = ΣQ = ΣW

From: (T – s) Diagram:

WNET = ΣQ = Q2-3 + Q4-1 = [m CV (T3 – T2)] + [m CV (T1 – T4)]

= [m CV (T3 – T2)] – [m CV (T4 – T1)]

From (P – V) Diagram:

WNET = ΣW = W1-2 + W3-4 = [(P2V2 – P1V1) / 1–K] + [(P4V4 – P3V3) / 1–K]

B. Thermal Efficiency (е) = ratio of the network to the heat added during the cycle

e = WNET / QA = [m CV (T3 – T2)] – [m CV (T4 – T1)] / [m CV (T3 – T2)]

= [(T3 – T2) – (T4 – T1)] / [(T3 – T2)]
= 1 – [(T4 – T1) / (T3 – T2)]

C. Mean Effective Pressure (Mep or PM) = average working pressure during the cycle

Mep = WNET / VD

= WNET / (V1 – V2)

Where: VD = volume displaced by the piston inside the cylinder

= maximum volume – minimum volume

Adiabatic Expansion Ratio: Adiabatic Compression Ratio:

res = V4 / V3 rKs = V1 / V2
Recall the Property Relation;

T2/T1 = (V1/V2)K-1 = (rK)K-1 T2 = T1 [(rK)K-1

P2/P1 = (V1/V2)K = (rK)K P2 = P1 [(rK)K]
P3 = P2 (T3 / T2)

P4/P3 = (V3/V4)K P4 = P3(V3/V4)K = P3(V2/V1)K

= P3 ( 1/ rK )K = P3 / rKK

T4/T3 = (V3/V4)K-1 = (V2/V1)K-1 T4 = T3 [ 1/(rK)K-1]

= T3 / (rK)K-1

V1 V2 + VD cVD + VD C + 1
Isentropic Compression Ratio : rks = = = =
V2 V2 cVD C
Where : c = percent clearance
A. Heat Added , QA

QA = Q2-3 = mCvΔT
= mCv(T3-T2)

B. Heat Rejected, QR

QR = Q4-1 = mCvΔT
= - mCv(T4-T1)

C. Net Work, WNET

WNET = QA - QR
P2V2 − P1V1 P4V4 − P3V3
= +
1− K 1− K

D. Thermal Efficiency, e

W NET T −T
e= x100% = 1 − 4 1 x100%
QA T3 − T2
1
=1– x100%
(rK ) K −1

E. Mean Effective Pressure, Pm

W NET W NET
PM= =
V1 − V2 VD
 ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Work done per cycle = Pm x Length of Stroke x Area
Work done per second = Pm x Length of Stroke x Area x N

Indicated Power = power produced inside the cylinder due to piston movement
= Pm x Length of Stroke x Area x N x nc

Where: Pm = mean effective pressure

L = length of stoke
A = cross-section area of the cylinder
N = number of working strokes per second
= rps / 2 (4-stroke cycle engine)
= rps / 1 (2-strohe cycle engine)

4-stroke cycle engine produces one power stroke in every two crankshaft revolutions
2-stroke cycle engine produces one power stroke in every crankshaft revolutions

Brake (Shaft) Power = power measured at the output shaft of the engine
= power available at the engine shaft
= 2π n T
Where: 1 rev = 2 π radians
n = revolution per second
T = engine torque available at the engine shaft

Mechanical Efficiency = ratio of the brake power and the indicated power
= BP / IP

Mean Piston speed =2Ln

Air and Fuel ratio = rair/fuel

= mass flow of air / mass flow of fuel

Volumetric Efficiency = defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn in during the
suction stroke to the mass of air which would fill the swept volume
of the cylinder at atmospheric pressure and temperature
= mass of air / mass at VD

Thermal Efficiency: a) brake thermal efficiency, eb = brake work / heat added

b) indicated thermal efficiency = indicated work / heat added

Engine Efficiency: a) Indicated Engine efficiency, ηI = Indicated power / Net power

b) Brake Engine efficiency, ηb = Brake power / Net power
 OTTO CYCLE SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A single cylinder petrol engine works on the Otto cycle and draws in air at 1.01 bar and 22ºC.
The bore and stroke of the engine are 105 mm x 130 mm, respectively and the clearance volume
is 13% of the swept volume. If the maximum temperature is 1400ºC, find:
a) Compression ratio
b) VD
c) e

Given: P1 = 101 KPa k = 1.4

T1 = 295K R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K
T3 = 1673K Cv = 0.718
C = 0.13 Cp = 1.005
0.105m x 0.130m

Solution:

a) rk = 1 + C / C = 1.13/0.13 = 8.69

b) VD = π/4 (bore)2(stroke) = π/4(0.105)(0.130) = 0.00113m3

c) e = 1 – 1/rkk-1 = 1 – 1/8.691.4-1 = 0.579

2. An air standard Otto cycle engine with 16% clearance operates on 250 gm of air with an initial
condition of 100 KPa and 50ºC. The energy released during heat addition is 600 KJ. Using air-
standard k = 1.4, compute for:
a) compression ratio
b) piston displacement
c) thermal efficiency

Given: c = 0.16 P1 = 100 KPa

m = 0.25 kg T1 = 323K
k = 1.4 QA = 600 KJ

Solution:
a) rK = (1+ c) / c = (1 + 0.16) / 0.16 = 7.25

b) PD = VD = V1 – V2 = 0.232 – 0.032 = 0.2 m3

V1 = mRT1 / P1 = (0.25)(0.287)(323) / 100 = 0.232 m3
V2 = V1 / rk = 0.232 / 7.25 = 0.032 m3

c) e = 1 – 1/rkk-1 = 1 – 1/7.251.4-1 = 0.547

3. Assignment…When working on Otto cycle with air as the working medium, an engine has an air-
standard thermal efficiency of 54.5% and rejects heat at the rate of 520 KJ/kg of air used. The
engine has a single cylinder with bore of 72 mm and a stroke of 85 mm. The pressure and
temperature at the beginning of compression are 0.98 bar and 66ºC, respectively. Determine:
a) Compression ratio
b) Clearance
c) Volume displaced

Given:
e = 54.5% P1 = 98 KPa
qR = 520 KJ/kg d = 0.072 m
T1 = 66º = 339K L = 0.085 m

a) e = 1 – (1 / rKK-1) rKK-1 = 1/ 1-e rK = 7.163

b) C = 1/ rK – 1 = 1 / 6.163 = 0.1623 == 16.23%

c) VD = π/4(d)2(L) = 0.7854(0.072)2(0.085) = 0.000346 m3/cycle

4. The four stroke cycle automotive gasoline engine has 6 cylinders in line, 8.89 cm x 6.35 cm size,
a compression ratio of 8.7 and develops 67.1 KW at 4,200 rpm. For the cycle, the condition at the
beginning of compression is 101.35 KPa and 60ºC. At this speed, the brake thermal efficiency is
31% while the volumetric efficiency is 72%. Calculate:
a) percent clearance
b) piston displacement
c) torque

Given: 4-stroke cycle P1 = 101.35 KPa

8.89 cm x 6.35 cm T1 = 60ºC =333K
Compression ratio, rK = 8.7 brake thermal eff, eb = 31%
Brake power = 67.1KW volumetric eff, ηv = 72%
rotative speed, n = 4,200 rpm mechanical eff, ηm = 70%
no. of cylinders, nc = 6 calorific value,HVf = 44,548 KJ/kgf

Solution:
a) C = 1/( rk – 1) = 1/ 8.7 – 1 = 0.1299 ~ 13%

b) VD = PD = π/4(d)2(L)(N)(nc)
= 0.7854(0.0889)2(0.0635)(4,200/2)(6)
= 4.97m3/min
= 0.0828 m3/sec

c) T = BP / 2π n = 67.1(60) / 2π (4,200) = 0.15 KJ

5. A 3.4-L Comet four stroke cycle automotive gasoline engine has 6 cylinders in line, 8.306 x
10.592 cm size, a compression ratio of 8 and develops 156.7 kW at 5,500 rpm. For the cycle, the
condition at the beginning of compression is 101.35 KPa absolute and 54.4º C. At this speed, the
brake thermal efficiency is 30% while the volumetric efficiency is 78%. Calculate:
a) percent clearance
b) piston displacement
c) torque

Given: 4-stroke cycle P1 = 101.35 KPa

5.306 cm x 10.592 cm T1 = 54.4ºC = 327.4K
compression ratio, rK = 8 brake thermal eff, eb = 30%
brake power = 156.7 KW volumetric eff, ηv = 78%
rotative speed, n = 5,500 rpm mechanical eff, ηm = 71%
no. of cylinders, nc = 6 calorific value,HVf = 44,432 KJ/kgf

Solution:
a) C = 1/ rk – 1 = 1/ 8 – 1 = 0.1428 ~ 14.28%
b) VD = PD = π/4(d)2(L)(N)(nc)
= 0.7854(0.08306)2(0.10592)(5,500/2)(6)
= 9.47 m3/min
c) T = BP / 2π n = 156.7(60) / 2π (5,500) = 0.27 KJ

6. During a 1.45 – min test on a 7.785 cm x 8.731 cm, 8 – cylinder gasoline engine, it used 0.454
kilogram of fuel (qL = 43,734 KJ / kgf) and developed a torque of 237.3 N-m with a mechanical
efficiency of 78%. The engine shaft turned a total of 3,520 revolutions. Calculate:
a) brake power
b) heat added
c) piston displacement

Solution:
a) BP = 2πnT = 2π(3520/1.45)(0.2373) = 3619.5 KJ/min = 60.33 KW
b) QA = mf x qL = 0.454/1.45(60) x 43,734 = 228.2 KW
c) VD = PD = π/4(d)2(L)(N)(nc)
= 0.7854(0.07785)2(0.08731)[(3,520/(1.45)(2)(60)]8
= 0.0673 m3/sec
 Diesel Cycle – Basis of Comparison for Compression-Ignition Engines

PV & TS Diagram

3
P 2 P=C 3
T S=C
S=C
V=C P=C
Wnet
4 2 4
Wnet
V=C
S=C
S=C
1 V=C

V S

AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

Process Analysis:
Process 1 – 2 [Adiabatic Compression] Process 3 – 4 [Adiabatic Expansion]

T2/T1 = (V1/V2)K-1 = (P2/P1)K-1/K T4/T3 = (V3/V4)K-1 = (P4/P3)K-1/K

W1-2 = [P2V2 – P1V1] / 1–K W3-4 = [P4V4 – P3V3] / 1–K

Q1-2 = 0 Q3-4 = 0

Process 2 – 3 [Isobaric Heating] Process 4 – 1 [Isometric Heat Rejection]

V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 P1 / P4 = T1 / T4

W2-3 = P2 (V3 – V2] W4-1 = 0

QA = Q2-3 = ΔH = m CP (T3 – T2) QR = Q 4-1 = ΔU = m CV (T1 – T4)

 Cycle Analysis:
A. Net Work (WNET) = ΣQ = ΣW
From: (T – s) Diagram:

WNET = ΣQ = Q2-3 + Q4-1 = [m CP (T3 – T2)] + [m CV (T1 – T4)]

= [m CP (T3 – T2)] – [m CV (T4 – T1)]

From (P – V) Diagram:
WNET = ΣW = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4
= [(P2V2 – P1V1) / 1–K] + P2 (V3 – V2) + [(P4V4 – P3V3) / 1–K]

B. Thermal Efficiency (е) = ratio of the network to the heat added during the cycle

e = WNET / QA = [m CP (T3 – T2)] – [m CV (T4 – T1)] / [m CP (T3 – T2)]

= [CP (T3 – T2) – CV (T4 – T1)] / CP (T3 – T2)
= 1 – [CV (T4 – T1) / CP (T3 – T2)]
= 1 – [(T4 – T1) / K(T3 – T2)]

C. Mean Effective Pressure (Mep or PM) = average working pressure during the cycle
Mep = WNET / VD
= WNET / (V1 – V2)

Where: VD = volume displaced by the piston inside the cylinder

= maximum volume – minimum volume

Adiabatic Expansion Ratio: Adiabatic Compression Ratio:

res = V4 / V3 rKs = V1 / V2

Cut – off Ratio: Cut – off Volume:

rC = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 VCO = V3 – V2

Recall the Property Relation;

T2 / T1 = (V1/V2)K-1 = (rKs)K-1 T2 = T1 [(rKs)K-1]

P2 / P1 = (V1/V2)K = (rKs)K P2 = P1 [(rKs)K]

T3 / T2 = V3 / V2 T3 = T2 (rC) ; V3 = V2 (rC)

P4 / P3 = (V3/V4)K P4 = P3(V3/V4)K = P3(V3/V1)K

= P3(V2 rC /V1)K
= P3(rC / rK )K

T4 / T3 = (V3/V4)K-1 T4 = T3 (rC / rK) K-1

= (V2 rC / V1)K-1
= (rC / rK) K-1
 V1 V2 + VD cVD + VD C + 1
Isentropic Compression Ratio : rks = = = =
V2 V2 cVD C
Where : c = percent clearance

A. Heat Added , QA

Process 2 – 3 ( P = C )

QA = Q2-3 = mCpΔT
= mCp(T3-T2)

B. Heat Rejected, QR

Process 4 –1 : ( V = C )

QR = Q4-1 = mCvΔT
= - mCv(T4-T1)

C. Net Work, WNET

WNET = / QA / - / QR /
= / mCp(T3-T2) / - / mCv(T4-T1)/

D. Thermal Efficiency, e

W NET C (T − T )
e= x100% = 1 − V 4 1 x100%
QA Cp (T3 − T2 )
1  (rC ) K − 1 
=1-   x100%
(rK ) K −1  K (rC − 1) 

E. Mean Effective Pressure, Pm

W NET W NET
PM= =
V1 − V2 VD
 DIESEL ENGINE PROBLEMS
1. There are supplied 317 KJ of heat to a Diesel engine operating on 227 grams of air. The pressure
and temperature at the beginning of compression are 98 KPa and 49ºC, respectively. The pressure
at the end of compression is 3,945 KPa. Calculate the following:
a) Compression ratio
b) Clearance

Solution:
a) rK = V1/V2 = (P2/P1)1/k = (3,945/98)1/1.4 = 14

b) C = 1/ rK – 1 = 1/ 13 = 0.0769 →7.69%

2. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 15. The pressure and temperature at the
beginning of compression are 1 bar and 17ºC, respectively. If the maximum temperature of the
cycle is 2,250K, determine the following:
a) T2 = T1rKK-1 = 290(15)0.4 = 856.7K

b) rC = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 2,250/856.7 = 2.63

c) T4 = T1rCK = 290(2.63)1.4 = 1,120.5K

d) e = 1 – [(T4 – T1) / k(T3 – T2)] = 1 – [(1,120.5 – 290) / 1.4(2,250 – 856.7)] = 0.5745

3. A 6-cylinder, 20 cm x 27 cm, 4-stroke cycle Diesel engine on an actual test was found to use 30
kg of fuel with heating value of 20,000 KJ/kg in a one (1) hour test. If the thermal efficiency of
this engine is 40% while operating at 600 rpm, determine:
a) Piston displacement
b) Heat added
c) Mean effective pressure

Solution:
a) PD = π/4(bore)2(stroke)(working strokes)(no. cyl)
= 0.7854(0.2)2(0.27)(600/2)(6)
= 15.27 m3/min
= 0.255 m3/sec

b) QA = mass of fuel x heating value of fuel

= mf x qL
= (30/3600)kg/s x 20,000 KJ/kg
= 166.67 KW

c) Mep = Wnet / PD
= eQA / PD
= 0.40(166.67) / 0.255
= 262 KPa
4. There are developed 1,063 KW at 267 rpm by an 8 – cylinder, 2 – stroke cycle diesel engine with
size of 40.64 cm x 50.80 cm. It uses 4.94 kg /min of fuel with heating value of 42,571 KJ/kg. The
average indicated mep is 562 KPa. Determine:
a) Heat added
b) Piston displacement

Solution:
a) Heat added, QA = mf x qL = 4.94 kg/min (42,571 KJ/kg) = 210,300.74KJ/min = 3,505KW

b) Piston displacement, PD = π/4(bore)2(stroke)(working strokes)(no. cyl)

= π/4(0.4064)2(0.508)(267/60)(8)
= 2.35 m3/sec