Al-Jehani Hassan 6101MECH Final Report

Redesign of an Oscillating Stage for
Vibration Assisted Machining
6101MECH Engineering Project

Final Report
Name: Hassan Al-Jehani

Student Number: 806660
Supervisor: Andre Batako
Programme: Mechanical Engineering
Date: 16/03/2020
Department of Maritime and Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Byrom St, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
6101MECH Engineering Project Redesign of an Oscillating stage for Vibration Assisted Machining
Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who have helped and guided me throughout my
course of study. I would like to thank my family who have always been supportive of me and my studies
abroad and gave me the strength and determination to pursue me goals, my tutors who have given
me support and confidence and knowledge to achieve this degree. I would like to send a special thank
you to my supervisor Dr Batako whose guidance and commitment has given me the necessary
understanding to complete his dissertation.
Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 2 Student ID 806660

Abstract
In this project an oscillating rig used for the purposes of vibrated assisted machining (VAM) was
redesigned in a way to maximise its operational performance. Preliminary designs underwent a few
development stages and the final design was based on the research of currently used VAM methods.
The final design was a combination of two concepts put together, one of which was a design of flat
springs used in a VAM vibration rig by Tsiakoumis, V. I. (2011), who simulated his design with piezo
electric actuators at 200Hz and achieved desirable natural frequecnies and displacements for his
experiements which were vibrated for grinding processes. His final selected model has been redeigned
in a more compact way and his actuator has been replaced with a more efficient and precise
technology actuator manufactured by Cedrat technologies and also known for its role in Rosetta/Midas
space mission (Barillot et al.,1999). This project investigated the behaviour of the final design through
the use of finite element analyses (using SolidWorks). Several analyses were applied including a static
analysis, a frequency analysis and a dynamic analysis via harmonic excitation and modal time history.
Initial results showed desirable results in terms of stresses, displacements, natural frequencies and
modal shapes. For the purpose of variety all analyses were completed with two types of springs
(variable stiffness was employed) and the comparison of the two did not show significant differences.
The project could benefit from validating the results achieved by simulations through an actual VAM
process.

Content
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Content ....................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 8
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11
Background: .............................................................................................................................. 11
Classification: ............................................................................................................................ 11
Operation:................................................................................................................................. 11
History ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Advantages of VAM Compared to Conventional Machining ........................................................ 12
Project Aim and objectives......................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Overview of Vibration Assisted Machining (VAM) ................................................................. 13
2.1.1 Brief History of VAM ...................................................................................................... 13
2.1.2 VAM and Precision of Machining ................................................................................... 13
2.1.3 Materials and Alloys Employed ...................................................................................... 15
2.1.4 The Current Need in Industry ......................................................................................... 16
2.1.5 Advantages of VAM ....................................................................................................... 17
2.1.6 The Harmful Effects of Vibration in Machining................................................................ 18
2.1.7 Comparison with 1D and 2D VAM .................................................................................. 18
2.2. Machining Background ........................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Machining Tools ............................................................................................................ 20
2.2.2 Machining Forces .......................................................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Machining Parameters ................................................................................................... 24
2.2.3.1 Power ........................................................................................................................ 24
2.2.3.2 Material Removal Rate ............................................................................................... 24
2.2.3.3 Equivalent Chip Thickness ........................................................................................... 25
2.2.3.4 Surface Roughness ...................................................................................................... 26
2.2.4 Machining Kinematics .................................................................................................... 27

2.2.4.1 Contact between Tools & Surfaces .............................................................................. 27

2.2.4.2 Cutting Mechanism in VAM (1D and 2D) ...................................................................... 28
2.3. Existing Designs of Vibrating Stage ...................................................................................... 30
2.3.1 VAM Actuator Design .................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1.1 Piezoelectric ............................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1.2 Mechanical ................................................................................................................. 32
2.3.1.3 Magnetic .................................................................................................................... 33
2.3.1.4 Ultrasonic ................................................................................................................... 33
2.3.2 Research on Existing Vibrating Stages ............................................................................ 34
2.3.3 Simulations and Predictive theories to optimise machining ............................................ 38
Chapter 3: Methods Followed & Design Selection ....................................................................... 41
3.1 Design Choice Summary: ...................................................................................................... 41
3.2 Details of the Two Adopted Concepts: .................................................................................. 41
3.2.1 Concept 1 Objective:...................................................................................................... 41
3.2.2 Concept 2 Objective:...................................................................................................... 43
3.3 Selected Design Parameters ................................................................................................. 44
3.3.1 Dimensions: .................................................................................................................. 45
Chapter 4: Simulation Method & Setup ...................................................................................... 50
4.1 Analyses Chosen for the Simulations: ................................................................................... 50
4.2 Simulation input parameters: ............................................................................................... 50
4.2.1 Materials:...................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Boundary conditions:..................................................................................................... 51
4.2.3 Meshing: ....................................................................................................................... 51
4.2.4 Connections: ................................................................................................................. 52
4.2.5 External Loads ............................................................................................................... 53
4.2.5.1 Vibration Source: ........................................................................................................ 53
4.2.5.1 Grinding Wheel Force: ................................................................................................ 56
Chapter 5: Results & Discussions ................................................................................................ 57
5.1 Static Analysis: ................................................................................................................. 57
Applied Springs Mechanism: .................................................................................................. 58
5.2 Frequency Modal Analysis: ............................................................................................... 59
5.3 Dynamic Analysis: ............................................................................................................ 61
5.3.1 Constant Force - Frequency Range Excitation Analysis (harmonic sweep): ....................... 61
5.3.2 Sinusoidal Force Excitation Analysis (time history analysis) ............................................. 63

5.3.3 Novel Design ................................................................................................................. 64

5.3.4 Spring Elasticity Study.................................................................................................... 66
Chapter 6: Conclusions & Future Work ....................................................................................... 67
Future Work: ......................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter 7: Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 69
List of Figures
Figure 1 Types of VAM – 1D & 2D (Cerniway, 2005)............................................................................. 11
Figure 2 Block diagram for VAM and its respective components (Ibrahim, 2010)................................ 14
Figure 3 VAM Model for die sinking - Charmilles Roboform 200 (Huang & Zheng, 2004) .................... 15
Figure 4 Tool surface wear for polycrystalline diamond tool after machining 304 stainless steel
samples. Conventional machining (left) and VAM (right) (Alao, 2011) ................................................ 15
Figure 5 Two-dimensional cutting using the VAM technique (Cong & Pei, 2014)................................. 17
Figure 6 Difference in the force propagation for the 1D and 2D VAM techniques (Cerniway, 2005) ... 19
Figure 7 Array of tool head and work piece interaction phases for machining processes (Singh,
Melkote, & Kolton, 2019) ...................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 8 Flexible Manufacturing System assembly with two machining units (Davidrajuh & Krenczyk,
2018) ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 9 Schematic of horizontal spindle machining centre (Kalpakjian, n.d.)...................................... 22
Figure 10 Forces exerted on the cutting tool......................................................................................... 22
Figure 11 Simplified model for grinding forces (left) and analysed model for grinding forces (right)
(Chen & Rowe, 1996) ............................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 12 Parameters for Material Removal Rate (MRR) (Rowe, 2009) ............................................... 24
Figure 13 Equivalent chip thickness and its defining parameters (Rowe, 2009) ................................... 25
Figure 14 Results of experimentation by Batako et al (2015) for analysing the impact of grinding
wheel on the average surface roughness coefficient ............................................................................ 27
Figure 15 Contact zone regions between grinding wheel and the work piece surface (Pandiyan &
Tjahjowidodo, 2019) ............................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 16 Variation in cutting and thrust forces for conventional and 1D VAM cutting (Shamoto, Ma,
& Moriwaki, 2005)................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 17 Reduction in peak cutting force ............................................................................................ 29
Figure 18 Comparison of thrust forces for aluminium cutting using carbide tools using conventional
cutting, 1D and 2D VAM (Shamoto, Ma, & Moriwaki, 2005) ................................................................ 30
Figure 19 PZT actuators attached to a turning tool (Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1991) .............................. 31
Figure 20 Longitudinal torsional compound actuator design for VAM (Wang, 2014) .......................... 31
Figure 21 A model with a mechanical VAM actuator design (Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1991) ................ 32
Figure 22 Configuration of a 2D ultrasonic actuator stage supporting VAM technique (Koyama &
Nakamura, 2009) ................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 23 Model for 2D vibrating stage designed by Zhang et al. (2006) ............................................. 34

Figure 24 Modified model for 2D vibrating stage designed by Jin et al. (2015).................................... 35
Figure 25 Design for vibrating table combining piezoelectric actuators with slide ways (Chern &
Chang, 2006) ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 26 A modified design with a workpiece holder generating stable 2D vibrations (Chen, et al.,
2017) ..................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 27 Design for the VAM stage for ROSETTA/MIDAS with two-dimensional vibrations (Barillot, et
al., n.d.).................................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 28 Results of Finite Element Analysis using ATILA for ROSETTA/MIDAS stage (Barillot, Letty,
Claeyssen, Lhermet(1), & Yorck) ........................................................................................................... 37
Figure 29 Finite element model developed for the micro-milling process behavioural analysis (Chen &
Zheng, 2019).......................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 30 relationship of cutting velocity and cutting force as analysed through finite element model
(Patten & Williams, 2007) ..................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 31 Model for the three modes of vibration modelled through finite element analysis (Lotfi &
Amini, 2017) .......................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 32 Different models tested by Tsiakoumis (2011) ..................................................................... 41
Figure 33 Deflection of Stsge by Tsiakoumis (2011) ............................................................................. 42
Figure 34 Exploded view by Tsiakoumis (2011) .................................................................................... 42
Figure 35 Vibrating Actuatore added by Tsiakoumis (2011) ................................................................. 42
Figure 36 Dynamic Respoce by Tsiakoumis (2011) ............................................................................... 43
Figure 37 Dimensions of the system by Tsiakoumis (2011) .................................................................. 43
Figure 38 Rosetta Midas Actuator design (Barillot et al, 1999) ............................................................ 44
Figure 39 Actuator APA 50xs used by Rosetta Midas (Barillot et al, 1999) .......................................... 44
Figure 40 Selected design (Top View) ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 41 Selected design (Isometric View) .......................................................................................... 46
Figure 42 Selected Design (Section x-x view) ........................................................................................ 46
Figure 43 Selected Design (Section z-z view) ........................................................................................ 47
Figure 44 Dimensioned Assembly Drawing ........................................................................................... 47
Figure 45 Cedrat Tech. Actuators Used (APA 120 ML PP) ..................................................................... 48
Figure 46 Ball Bearing design ................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 47 Exploded view of the design showing the transfer weight ball bearings.............................. 49
Figure 48 Fixed Geometry Boundary Condition .................................................................................... 51
Figure 49 Mesh Application .................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 50 Mesh ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 51................................................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 52 APA 120 ML PP Piezo electric Actuator (Cedrat Technology) ............................................... 53
Figure 53 Piezo Electric Actuator’s Datasheet – APA 120 ML PP .......................................................... 54
Figure 54 External Loads indicated in pink............................................................................................ 54
Figure 55 Application of Sinusoidal Force in SolidWorks ..................................................................... 55
Figure 56 Application of Constant Force over a range of frequencies in SolidWorks........................... 55
Figure 57 Grinding Wheel Force............................................................................................................ 56
Figure 58 Stress concentration (static study) ........................................................................................ 57
Figure 59 Stress values in the areas of interest (static study)............................................................... 58
Figure 60 Static Study Displacement ..................................................................................................... 58
Figure 61 List of modes and natural frequencies of the system ........................................................... 59
Figure 62 Modes Shapes (AMPRES=displacement amplitude in mm) .................................................. 60
Figure 63 Frequency Amplitude Plot (original design) .......................................................................... 62
Figure 64 Frequency Stress Plot (original design) ................................................................................. 62

Figure 65 Full Frequency Spectrum (initial design) ............................................................................... 63

Figure 66 Frequency Amplitude & Frequency plots.............................................................................. 63
Figure 67 Displacement Plot (At resonance) over a full cycle ............................................................... 64
Figure 68 Frequency Response (Novel Design) ..................................................................................... 64
Figure 69 Full Frequency Spectrum (novel design) ............................................................................... 65
Figure 70 Compression Spring under 1400 N loading ........................................................................... 66
List of Tables
Table 1 Material Chosen for Simulation................................................................................................ 50
Table 2 Piezo Electric Actuator’s Datasheet – APA 120 ML PP ............................................................. 54
Table 3 Initial & Novel design comparison ............................................................................................ 65

Nomenclature
(VAM) Vibration Assisted Machining
(1D, 2D) One degree and 2 degrees of freedom
(Resonance Machining) Vibration assisted
(Vcrit) Critical Velocity
(FEA) Finite Element Analysis.
(PEA) Piezo-Electric Actuator
(MEMS) Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(EDM) Electrical Discharge Machining
(ECM) Electrical Chemical Machining
(SEM) Scanning Electron Microscope
(Al – based MMC) Aluminium based Metal Matrix Composite
(SiC) Silicon Carbide
(CRFP) Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers
(SRG) Stock Removal Grinding
(FFG) Form and Finish Grinding.
(MRR) Material Removal rate
(FMS) Flexible Manufacturing System
(NC) Numerical Control
(CNC) Computer Numerical Control
(MC) Machine Centres
(F) Friction Force
(N) Normal Force
(Fn) Normal Force
(Ft) Tangential Force
(P) Grinding Power
(Ft) Tangential component of the grinding force
(Vs) Speed of the grinding wheel
(Vw) Speed of the work piece
(Q) Material Removal Rate

(e) Specific Energy for Grinding
(bw) Contact width of the wheel and the work piece
(heq) Equivalent chip thickness
(Ae) Depth of the cut
(hcu) Uncut chip thickness
(Lc) Real contact length
(Lf) Deformation contact length
(Lg) Geometric contact length
(HSR) Horizontal Speed Ratio
(PZT) Lead Zirconate Titanate
(APA) Amplified Piezoelectric Actuators
(CMA) Ceramic Multilayer Actuator
(JC) Johnson-Cook material model
(ALE) Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian
(CAD) Computer Aided Design

Chapter 1: Introduction
Background:
Vibration assisted machining (VAM) uses vibrations which are induced in 1D or 2D of freedom to the
cutting tools to improve precise machining (Kumar et al., 2014). It works by producing high-frequency
small amplitude vibrations in order to improve fabrication processes. Over the years, it has been used
on several processes ranging from drilling to grinding (Brehl & Dow, 2007). Resonance machining
(vibration-assisted) is a new method of machining to be used for difficult applications, such as hard
and tough to cut aerospace materials. This method has been investigated over the years and some
good outcomes are now being used in the aerospace industry.
Classification:
VAM systems are classified into two main classes based on the frequency of the vibration. Resonant
systems operate at frequencies higher than 20kHz, which in turn produce very small displacements.
On the other hand, non-resonant systems operating at frequencies between 1 and 40 kHz produce
much higher displacement amplitudes. These can be either operating in 1D, whereby the vibration is
parallel to the cutting force, or they can operate in 2D, whereby the vibration is parallel to both the
cutting and thrust forces (Kumar et al., 2014).
Figure 1 Types of VAM – 1D & 2D (Cerniway, 2005)
Operation:
In 1D vibrations, the up feed is characterised by the critical velocity vcrit = 2PifA (where A is amplitude).
Operating below this velocity gives a periodic contact break between the tool and the material, which
is desirable for achieving all benefits whilst cutting. 2D vibrations have the same characterisations
despite operating harmonically in two directions. 1D and 2D also differ in duty cycles (Kumar et al.,
2014).
History
In the late 1950s, 1D VAM was first introduced into macro-scale cutting applications. In the mid-1980s,
VAM showed improvements in diamond cutting tool life and economics. Others introduced
improvements in surface finish and ductile cutting compared to conventional machining. Later in 1990,

2D was introduced as well as further reductions in force, which led to extending the life of tools that
was markedly an improvement over 1D.
VAM has recently been used to create precision microstructures made of optical materials and steel
with more complex geometries and surface finishes.
Currently, researchers are working on precision applications using 1D VAM systems and in machining
macro-scale parts made of materials such as titanium and aluminium-SiC metal matrix composites that
previously showed difficulty in machining.
In the near future, the work on VAM technologies will be extended to machining precision components
with economical tool lives (Brehl & Dow, 2007).
Advantages of VAM Compared to Conventional Machining

• Machining forces can be reduced.
• Generated chips can be thinner.
• Improved surface finish.
• Better form accuracy.
• Near-zero burr.
• Tool life extension.
• Increased depth of cutting in a brittle material.
Project Aim and objectives

Aim
This project will re-configure an existing oscillating jig and innovatively re-design the housing and
workpiece holder. The main aim is to specifically re-design a 2D low vibration stage for vibration-
assisted resonated machining and simulate its behaviour via the use of finite element analysis (FEA).
This is done to improve its performance in terms of compacting its dimensions and reducing the friction
of moving parts.
Objectives
1- This research will help to investigate the different parameters affecting the performance of
the vibration stage through a review of recent research works in VAM.
2- Also, the current stage of design of existing vibration machining setups will be investigated.
The specifications and limitations of the process will be investigated, and the results will be
presented.
3- A re-design of one of the setups will be adopted and a 3D model of the concept vibration stage
will be prepared to simulate the process by finite element analysis using the Solid Works
software.
4- The vibrating source is a piezoelectric actuator and the aim of the simulations is to achieve
small amplitude and high-frequency vibrations, which is a requirement for VAM
5- The results will be compared with previous designs and future recommendations will be
discussed in light of the compared results.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Overview of Vibration Assisted Machining (VAM)
2.1.1 Brief History of VAM

Mechanical and technological advancements in engineering industries have resulted in a higher
demand for precision components in various sectors, including micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS), automotive manufacturing, aeronautical inventions, biomedical engineering, optic and
technical ceramic industry, and even for computing-related hardware manufacturing (Huo & Cheng,
2019). Precision components are manufactured with detailed specifications and are designed to
achieve higher accuracy in performance, desirable finishing properties, and enhanced operational
efficiency.
Precision component manufacturing in the optical and technical ceramic industry has always been a
challenge due to the use of hard and brittle materials for producing high-precision mechanical parts,
such as optical lenses and transitional parts for small alloy-based machines. These materials possess
high hardness but lower fracture toughness properties, thus breaking during conventional machining
techniques and resulting in increased material loss during the manufacturing stages.
To address the challenges of precision machining for brittle materials, conventional machining
methods, including electrical discharge machining (EDM), electrical chemical machining (ECM), and
laser and ion beam machining techniques, have been adopted in various manufacturing processes.
However, the efficiency of these methods has always been a critical issue, with delayed manufacturing
time periods, reduced mechanical efficiencies, higher cost and impacts on the environment, resulting
in inefficient machining (Chen, et al., 2018).
Although vibration techniques were already being incorporated traditionally for the precision drilling
of wood and low carbon steel, these had precision errors due to being circularly displaced towards any
of the individual axes (X, Y, Z) (Ibrahim, 2010). Constant efforts to enhance the efficiency of precision
machining revealed that the high-frequency vibratory motion of the tool or the workpiece could
significantly enhance the machining quality, hence the VAM technique was introduced in the late
1950s. Since then, VAM has been incorporated for both traditional machining (drilling, cutting, and
turning) and advanced machining (laser beam cutting, ion discharge machines, EDM and ECM)
(Ibrahim, 2010).
2.1.2 VAM and Precision of Machining

VAM is a machining technique that utilises VAM is a machining technique that utilises external energy
dissipated through high frequency but low amplitude vibrations either on the tool or the workpiece
surface. The gradual loss of the periodic contact of the tool with the workpiece results in improved
machining performance. The cutting tool is generally moved by a vibrating device, which gets its
movement from a vibration amplifier. The following block diagram shows the various components of
VAM and their respective line of action at each stage of machining (Ibrahim, 2010).

Figure 2 Block diagram for VAM and its respective components (Ibrahim, 2010)
An example of VAM is Chern and Lee’s (2006) design of a vibrating worktable for their drilling
machinery, which became famous in the machining industry as an “ultra-precision micro-drilling
worktable”. The analysis of the machine showed that the uniform distance between the drilled holes
was relatively decreased by this technique, and the holes were more effectively aligned by the
increased frequency of the vibratory motion. Moreover, while it was also possible to sharpen the
drilled surface and reduce the roughness by increased vibrations, on the other hand, the effective life
of the drilling machine was somewhat reduced due to over-cutting and the increased interaction with
the workpiece surface (Chern & Lee, 2015).
For the vibration-assisted cutting process, the vibration amplitude (sine wave) results in gap
formations in-between cutting intervals, which is significant for the heat absorption of the cutting fluid
during the process. This also results in enhanced tool life and an effective reduction in the production
cost. For accurate cutting and complex geometry objects, it is necessary to monitor very closely the
frequency and amplitude of the VAM processes in order to achieve the optimal vibratory motion
between the tool and the workpiece surface (Ibrahim, 2010). A VAM model along, with its components,
is shown in the figure below as an example, which is used in die-sinking processes.

Figure 3 VAM Model for die sinking - Charmilles Roboform 200 (Huang & Zheng, 2004)
2.1.3 Materials and Alloys Employed

Conventional cutting using a diamond tool for ferrous and hard metals such as iron, steel, nickel, and
titanium has always resulted in the early wear of the diamond tool, whereas VAM enhances the tool
life even when machine cutting, drilling or tilting ferrous and hard metals. Moreover, with the VAM
technique, tools can either have a conventional diamond tip or can be modified as with cubic boron
nitride or carbide tools. Figure 4 shows scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of a polycrystalline
diamond machining tool using VAM and conventional machining techniques for steel. The wear of the
diamond tool surface is more evident in the conventional technique, while it is more levelled in VAM
(Alao, 2011).
Figure 4 Tool surface wear for polycrystalline diamond tool after machining 304 stainless steel samples.
Conventional machining (left) and VAM (right) (Alao, 2011)

Experimentation also shows that the roughness of using a vibration-induced diamond tool for alloy
composites, such as an aluminium-based metal matrix composite (Al-based MMC) reinforced with
silicon carbide (SiC), is much more refined as compared to conventional machining techniques (Zhong
& G.Lin, 2006). Moreover, using VAM for soda-lime glass cutting is also effective at reducing the wear
surface of the diamond tool, with an experiment by Klocke and Rubenach (2000) showing 3-
micrometre wear marks for VAM as compared to 9 micrometres for conventional cutting techniques.
VAM has enabled the machinability of traditional hard materials, such as titanium and its alloys,
hardened steel, and tungsten carbide with reduced tool wear and has enabled the machining of new
materials, including glassy carbon and carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CRFP) with high precision and
desirable shapes.
2.1.4 The Current Need in Industry

With the development of controlled frequency vibration for VAM, the demand for the technique has
substantially increased for various machining and engineering purposes. Vibratory motion can be
induced in either the tool or the working surface, depending on the nature of the machining process.
The basic component of VAM is a piezo-actuator, and with many modified version of the piezo
actuator, the nature of VAM has been diversified from turning to milling, from drilling to grinding, from
EDM to ECM and for ionic and laser beam machining processes (Ahn, et al., 1999).
The VAM technique is very efficient in machining processes in the optical and technical ceramic
manufacturing, where hard and brittle materials can be easily drilled and cut to desirable shapes with
high-frequency vibrations. Moreover, using delicate alloys and metals in the aeronautical and airspace
inventions requires VAM for efficient machining processes to generate the required shape and surface
roughness without damaging the intrinsic material properties (Huo & Cheng, 2019).
VAM has largely been used for drilling purposes in the manufacture of mechanical parts, with Adachi
and Arai (1997) developing an electric servo vibrating at a lower frequency range as a method to
prolong the tool life and also reduce the size of the undesirable deformity of the workpiece (burr) of
drilled surfaces (Adachi, et al., 1997). Later on, experiments showed that hard and brittle materials can
be cut with a high critical depth by utilising a high-frequency diamond tooltip.
Moreover, VAM has recently become very common for grinding purposes, whether stock removal
grinding (SRG) or form and finish grinding (FFG). SRG involves the removal of unwanted material from
the workpiece surface, whereas in FFG, the surface finish of the workpiece is a major concern. VAM
assists in the guided grinding process, reducing the chances of damage to the finished surface. Grinding
using VAM is being employed heavily in the construction, automotive and aeronautical manufacturing
industries and for the development of optical lens and large telescopic equipment (Tsiakoumis, 2011).
Another prominent development in VAM is the design and fabrication of a piezo-table constituting a
parallelogram-working surface with a piezoelectric actuator, which has been in use for the efficient
and accurate grinding of ceramic materials (Zhang, et al., 2006). Wu and Fan (2003) described a design
in which an elliptic vibration shoe supports the workpiece, which controls the rotational motion of the
workpiece with an operational frequency of 20 kHz. The operation is dependent on the frictional force
exerted between the workpiece and the shoes controlling the rotation of the workpiece (Jiang, et al.,
2015). The figure below is an illustration of a VAM technique for cutting in two directions.

Figure 5 Two-dimensional cutting using the VAM technique (Cong & Pei, 2014)
Another emerging use of VAM in the industry is in the automatic precision polishing technique
through vibration-assisted magnetic abrasive polishing. The workpiece platform rotates through
vibration, whereas the magnetic pole rotates with the abrasives. The vibration of the workpiece
induces a magnetic field with the pole and affects the polishing pressure. The surface finish improves
substantially when the vibrations are simultaneously applied horizontally and vertically (Tsiakoumis,
2011)
2.1.5 Advantages of VAM

High-frequency vibratory motions incorporated during machining processes, such as drilling, turning,
cutting and milling, have reported benefits including a reduction in effective machining forces,
improved surface finishing and reduced roughness, accurate and precise burr formation during drilling,
decrease in wear and tear of the tool or the workpiece, and reduced machining time periods (Ibrahim,
2010).
An experiment by Zhang et al. (2006) showed that the vibration-assisted grinding of ceramics reduces
the chance of the micro-welding phenomenon, therefore reducing friction significantly, facilitating an
efficient coolant supply and delivery to the grinding zones, reducing the sliding friction, and resulting
in smooth and well-finished surfaces (Zhang, et al., 2006).
Another set of experiments by Syoji (1999) recorded the VAM technique for grinding using mild steel,
which has a very low wear and tear cycle of the grinding wheel. This was achieved due to reduced
normal grinding forces and by achieving a uniform surface finish. It has been observed that mild steel
tends to have high wearing impacts on the grinding wheel at conventional speeds. Therefore, it can be
concluded that mild steel for the design of VAM is an optimal choice for 1D and 2D vibratory motions.
With mechanical developments in VAM techniques, another advantage is the development of a device
able to generate micro-vibrations in the workpiece assembly during the grinding process. Three
piezoelectric actuators drive the base plate for vertical vibrations, whereas a single actuator drives the
horizontal platform. This introduces grinding in the 2D plane, enabling a simultaneous grinding of the
co-planar surfaces for ceramic materials (Zhong & Yang, 2004). The latest research and

experimentation on VAM has concluded that this technique can be effectively used for electrochemical
machine drilling for either ribbed holes or micro-holes (Wang, et al., 2014).
Moreover, experimental results show that a 62 percent increase can be achieved for the material
removal rate (MRR) with nominal a depth of penetration of median crack propagation and a 24 percent
reduction in the median crack propagation. This was observed during an experiment with vibrations
induced in a Pyrex glass workpiece in the Z direction with a 90-degree pencil point diamond cutting nib
attachment. The maximum frequency that was generated for this experiment was 4.5 kHz (Tsiakoumis,
2011).
2.1.6 The Harmful Effects of Vibration in Machining

The findings of Brehl (2008) show that VAM does not allow complex geometry to be achieved without
grinding and polishing, and when it comes to the metal removal process using diamond cutting of
ferrous materials, surface roughness and tool life are both strongly contributing factors (Brehl, Review
of Vibration Assisted Machining, 2008). Another problem was identified as being the loss of cutting
efficiency when the load is applied to the cutting tip during high-frequency VAM (Babitsky, 2003). This
effect can be effectively eliminated by monitoring through an auto resonant control system, and an
improvement in surface roughness of up to 50 percent can be achieved with a 50 percent noise
reduction.
For grinding processes, vibrations can be detrimental for the surface quality of the workpiece and the
loading phenomenon for the grinding wheels. The undesirable vibrations can be categorised as forced
and regenerative vibrations. Forced vibrations are primarily caused by the movement of the grinding
wheel, or at times from the hydraulic devices attached to the machine or even from the floor of the
machine, which are hard to detect (Gawlak, 1984). Meanwhile, the regenerative vibrations are mostly
a result of the rotational motion of the workpiece, with waves forming on the workpiece surface due
to the relative vibratory motion between the grinding wheel and the workpiece. Over time, this alters
the depth of the cut after the revolution of the workpiece and results in a decreased efficiency of the
machining process (Marinescu, et al., 2007).
2.1.7 Comparison with 1D and 2D VAM

The basic difference between the 1D and 2D VAM techniques is the movement of the workpiece or
the tool during the vibratory action. In 1D VAM, the workpiece will move in a singular plane parallel to
the workpiece surface, bringing the principal cutting force in line with the vibrations. Meanwhile, by
the addition of one more vibration, the assembly shifts towards 2D VAM, which moves the tool in
elliptical motion (Ibrahim, 2010). For 2D VAM, the major elliptical axis is in line with the cutting force
and the minor elliptical axis aligns with the thrust force, as shown in Figure 6. The figure clearly shows
the difference in the paths taken by the forces during 1D and 2D VAM and the formation of a singular
plane for 1D VAM and an elliptical path for 2D VAM (Ibrahim, 2010).

Figure 6 Difference in the force propagation for the 1D and 2D VAM techniques (Cerniway, 2005)
1D VAM techniques have proven useful for extending tool life, economical and efficient machining,
and improved surface roughness as compared to conventional machining processes (Wang, et al.,
2014). However, for cutting processes, it has been observed that 2D VAM is much more efficient and
produces better surface finishes. In 2D VAM, the additional vibration force results in the tool edge
moving in an elliptical order, which generates a resultant upward motion with respect to the
workpiece.
The tool forces for 2D vibrations reduce significantly as compared to 1D, with a 22 percent reduction
for 2D vibrations as compared to conventional machining processes (Skelton & Wang, 2002).
Experiments on machining ferrous and non-ferrous materials using diamond and carbide tools also
showed that the tool life can be enhanced using 2D VAM techniques as compared to 1D with the same
overall geometry (Shamoto, et al., 2005).
2.2. Machining Background

Machining is defined as the mechanical process of material removal from a metal or alloy workpiece
using a power-driven tool to shape or cut the workpiece into a desired geometry and surface finish.
According to various surveys reported globally, approximately 15 percent of value addition occurs with
the use of machining operations for the manufacturing of mechanical components, and according to
statistics, several billion dollars are spent annually on the manufacturing and operations of machining
tools in industrial countries (Grzesik, 2008).
Over the years, the machining industry has advanced in terms of producing highly precise and accurate
parts with attention to minute details and components for a desirable finish and reduced surface
roughness. Conventional machining processes include drilling, threading, boring, milling, shaping and
geometric planning, lapping and grinding, ultrasonic machining. In contrast, modern machining
processes are associated with electrochemical material removal, laser and electron beam for accurate
cutting and seamless finishes (Groover, 1996). Figure 7 shows an array of machining tool heads and
workpiece interactions based on the nature of the machining process.

Figure 7 Array of tool head and work piece interaction phases for machining processes (Singh, Melkote, &
Kolton, 2019)
2.2.1 Machining Tools

The common machine tools are categorised according to their line of action; for example, lathes are
used for turning, grinding and cutting, whereas planers are used for geometrical formations, screw
boring and drilling, reaming, milling, threading, cutting, shapers and while grinding and polishing tools
are used for a desirable surface finish. Composite machining equipment with multiple tool attachments
for successive phases of processing has been developed for modern manufacturing industries.
To save cost and time, mass production and automated processes are very common commercially.
These have been achieved through the advancement of the machining industry and the development
of self-contained power head units with adequate transfer mechanisms. Mostly, the power head units
consist of a metal frame, with an electric driving motor as an energy generation hub, a gearbox to
adjust the speed and features, and tool spindles and axes. Transfer mechanisms are responsible for
transiting the workpiece from station to station for either processing or assembling, which is achieved
through transit conveyor belts (Arnone, 1998).
Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) have enabled the highest level of sophistication for machining
processes through the incorporation of manufacturing cells and automatic material handling systems
with a computing interface. The manufacturing cell is a system for generating parts with similar design
specifications, whereas the workstations are composed of various machining tools that automatically

load, unload and transfer the machining part. FMS efficiently optimises the stages of manufacturing
for enhanced efficiency and productivity (Woodyard, 2009).
Figure 8 Flexible Manufacturing System assembly with two machining units (Davidrajuh & Krenczyk, 2018)
In the 1950s, numerical control (NC) was introduced as a method to control the machining motion
through the regulation of the sequence of action, for example, the positioning and cutting in the drilling
process after a specified distance and time interval or continuous cutting. With the advancement of
technology, computer numerical control (CNC) was introduced, whereby a software-controlled control
panel was introduced for monitoring and regulating the operations of the machine along the
sequential processes as in NC. CNC has enabled a versatility of operations with higher accuracy and
programmed outputs, resulting in reduced production costs.
The most important development in the machining arena are the machine centres (MC), as shown in
Figure 9, which comprise a complex assembly of various machining tools (sometimes over 200 tools)
with an automated tool changer system. MCs perform multiple machining tasks simultaneously on the
workpiece with a maximum capacity of five-axis movement, including linear and rotational motions.
MCs often combine multiple lines of action, including cutting, drilling, shaping, and scraping together
on the workpiece achieved through vertical and horizontal spindles. Moreover, MCs also perform tool
health monitoring, inspection and performance regulation. Modern MCs are modular in nature,
whereby the tools and the equipment can be removed and replaced during the machining process
(Wright, 2000).

Figure 9 Schematic of horizontal spindle machining centre (Kalpakjian, n.d.)
2.2.2 Machining Forces

Machining processes are based on the assembly of co-planar forces being exerted on the tool or the
workpiece, resulting in either displacement or geometrical changes due to the various stresses and
strains induced. The following figure summarises the various forces being exerted on a cutting tool.
The resultant force R occurs due to two significant co-planar forces, namely cutting force Fc and thrust
force Ft, with Fc being in the direction of tool travel, which determines the efficiency of work done in
the plane of cutting. Ft does not generate work, but when acting together with Fc, it results in the
deflection of the tool or the workpiece.
Figure 10 Forces exerted on the cutting tool

When considering the forces on the shear plane, (R) also has components, whereby (Fs) is the force
required to shear the workpiece along the shear plane and (Fn) is the resulting normal force in the
shear plane. Friction force (F) and normal force (N) also act on the surface of the tool, with cutting
force always pointing in the direction of the machine motion. Frictional force generated at the tool-
workpiece interface is a determining factor for the performance of the machine. To effectively reduce
the coefficient of friction, cutting fluids can be used which increase the cutting speed, improve the life
of the tool material and the surface. The cutting force is a complex force given that it depends on the
tool geometric properties, workpiece surface properties, and machining variables of the assembly.
It is beneficial to understand the forces involved in grinding as a machining process. Grinding is

considered as a chip removal process, with the cutting tool acting as an individual abrasive grain. It is
not always the cutting force alone that contributes to the overall resultant force, but even the sliding
of the cutting edge of the tool results in the elastic deformation of the workpiece and the tool.
According to Younis et al. (1987), the grinding process has three essential stages, namely sliding,
ploughing, and cutting, and the total grinding force vector (Ftot) on the workpiece is given as:
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Cutting forces in grinding are significant for the final product, as workpiece surface roughness,
geometry and the induced grinding forces affect dimensional properties. The grinding wheel generally
exerts normal and tangential forces during the process, with the normal force affecting the roughness
of the workpiece and tangential force having an impact on the tool service life and the energy
consumed during the process (Tsiakoumis, 2011).
Figure 11 Simplified model for grinding forces (left) and analysed model for grinding forces (right) (Chen &
Rowe, 1996)
Figure 11 (left) shows the forces model developed by Chen and Rowe (1996) for the component
breakdown for the grinding forces, with F being the resultant force of the normal force (Fn) and
tangential force (Ft). Meanwhile, the analysed model (right) shows that the normal forces and
tangential forces are not perfectly horizontal or vertical, but they are exerted at an angle to the
workpiece surface (Chen & Rowe, 1996). In the scenario where the diameter of the grinding wheel is
larger than the depth of the cut, the angle (a) is insignificant, resulting in the horizontal force
component being identical to Ft and the vertical component being equivalent to Fn (Tsiakoumis, 2011).

2.2.3 Machining Parameters
2.2.3.1 Power
The power of the machine plays an important role in determining the geometry and surface roughness
of the workpiece. For grinding processes, the grinding power (P) is a direct function of the tangential
component of the grinding force (Ft) and is also dependent on the speed of the grinding wheel (Vs)
and the speed of the workpiece (Vw), as expressed in the equation below (Tsiakoumis, 2011):
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡 (𝑉𝑠 ± 𝑉𝑤 )
The velocities of the grinding wheel and the workpiece are either in the same direction or opposite to
each other; therefore, they are denoted by a (±) sign. The workpiece speed can be neglected in the
case where the grinding wheel speed is much greater, resulting in power being a function of the wheel
speed and tangential force component only. Moreover, if the material removal rate (Q) and the specific
energy for grinding (e) are known, with bw being the width of the contact of the wheel and the
workpiece, the grinding power can also be derived as in the following equation (Tsiakoumis, 2011):
𝑃 = 𝑄𝑒𝑏𝑤
2.2.3.2 Material Removal Rate

The material removal rate (MRR) is defined as the quantity of the material removed or cut from the
workpiece sample per unit time. In simple terms, the difference in either the volume or the weight of
the workpiece before and after machining determines the speed of the work done (material removal
rate). The discharge voltage of the machine, peak current, duration and intensity of vibration, process
cycle, and intervals between impulses all contribute to a higher value of MRR (Jahan & Wong, 2014).
MRR also determines the efficiency of the machining process (wheel or tool) and the speed of the
production cycle with which the workpieces are processed. If MRR is considered in a more generic
order with unit contact width, then the material removal rate is known as specific MRR (Q’). The MRR
(Q) is a function of the depth of the cut (ae), speed of the workpiece (Vw) and most importantly, the
contact width of the wheel and the workpiece (bw), as shown in Figure 12 and expressed in the
equation below (Tsiakoumis, 2011).
Figure 12 Parameters for Material Removal Rate (MRR) (Rowe, 2009)

A higher MRR also generates high stress on the grinding wheel, therefore, eventually leading to the
wear and tear of the wheel. MRR can be effectively increased without inducing additional stresses on
the wheel by increasing the contact width between the wheel and the workpiece. Surface roughness
and the finish of the workpiece are always prioritised over MRR as the surface parameters determine
the utility of the machined workpiece.
2.2.3.3 Equivalent Chip Thickness

Equivalent chip thickness is essentially a kinematic characteristic that is dependent on the depth of the
cut, speed of the wheel and the workpiece. It can be defined as the thickness of the layer of the
material that is removed/cut in a single revolution of the grinding wheel or the tool or simply the depth
of the material that is detached from the workpiece surface by a single revolution of the cutting tool
(Rowe, 2009). Figure 13 demonstrates the equivalent chip thickness and its relative parameters.
Figure 13 Equivalent chip thickness and its defining parameters (Rowe, 2009)
The equivalent chip thickness (heq) is directly proportional to the speed of the workpieces (Vw) and the
depth of the cut (Ae), whereas it is inversely proportional to the speed of the grinding wheel (Vs), as
expressed in the equation below (Tsiakoumis, 2011):
ℎ𝑒𝑞=𝐴𝑒𝑉𝑤
𝑉𝑠
Equivalent chip thickness does not consider the spacing between the grains, which are present at the
surface of the wheel; therefore another parameter, uncut chip thickness (hcu), is a more reliable source
for analysing the removed material from the workpiece surface. According to Marinescu et al. (2007),
the removed material at each revolution of the wheel can be modelled as long, slender triangular
sections with each having a mean thickness of hcu (Marinescu, et al., 2007). The following equation
describes the relationship between the uncut chip thickness and other parameters (Tsiakoumis, 2011):
Where,

C: Active grit density

r: Grit cutting point shape factor = (ratio between grain width and grain thickness)
de: Equivalent wheel diameter
ae: Real depth of the cut
Another limitation of the equivalent chip thickness is that it does not consider the number of active
cutting edges on the grinding wheel while the wheel takes a complete revolution and it is also not
dependent on the symmetry and geometry of the contact between the workpiece and the wheel.
Therefore, the equivalent chip thickness might not be a true depiction of the actual material removal,
although it does provide a good estimation under ideal machining conditions (Rowe, 2009).
2.2.3.4 Surface Roughness

Another important parameter for machining is the surface roughness, which indicates the level of
smoothness of the surface of the workpiece. Workpieces with a smaller coefficient of roughness have
a better surface quality and therefore easy to machine. The most common coefficient for surface
roughness is Ra, which is the arithmetic average for all the surface grains when taken on a sampled
length of the object from a reference line after discarding all form deviations (Marinescu, et al., 2007).
In other terms, surface roughness can be considered as the deviation from the nominal surface criteria
ranging from the third up to the sixth order deviation. First and second-order deviations refer to the
form (flatness, angularity, geometry) often occurring due to machining errors of the tool or the
deformation nature of the workpiece or material inhomogeneity. Meanwhile, third and fourth-order
deviations refer to the formation of grooves and cracks, propagations related to the shape, and the
condition of the cutting edges. The fifth and sixth order deviations are the physical-chemical
deformations of the workpiece surface, which are either a result of slippage, diffusion, oxidation or
induced residual stresses (Benardos & Vosniakos, 2003).
To understand the effect of surface roughness on the vibration-oriented grinding process, Batako et
al. (2015) conducted various experiments with several types of grinding wheel and workpiece
materials. They found that for a 15-micrometre cut and a hardened steel (BS 534A99) workpiece, the
vibration-induced grinding reduces the surface roughness, therefore improving the surface finish of
the machined object. As shown in Figure 14, the improvement in surface quality is roughly around 5 to
10 percent depending on the wheel type; therefore, it is ideal for machining processes where the
surface quality is an important outcome parameter.

Figure 14 Results of experimentation by Batako et al (2015) for analysing the impact of grinding wheel on the
average surface roughness coefficient
2.2.4 Machining Kinematics
2.2.4.1 Contact between Tools & Surfaces

The contact parameters between the tool and the workpiece surface are significant in determining the
efficiency of the machining process. The nature of the contact affects the force propagation, induced
stresses, temperature variations during machining, and wear and tear of the tool. The most important
indicator for the contact is the contact length, which is determined by multiple variations, which are
a) real, b) geometric, and c) kinematic contact lengths (Tsiakoumis, 2011). According to Rowe et al.
(1993), real contact length (Lc) is a combination of the deformation contact length (Lf) and the
geometric contact length (Lg), as in the following:
𝐿𝑐 2 = 𝐿𝑓 2 + 𝐿𝑔2
Kinematic contact length is different from the geometric contact length as at high speeds of grinding,
the contact length increases for up grinding and reduces for down grinding processes. At high speeds,
there is a higher chance of grain fracture as the uncut chip is continuously changing dimensions
(Marinescu, et al., 2007). The contact length for grinding processes is dependent on various factors,
including modulus of elasticity and Poisson ratios for the workpiece and the grinding wheel, normal
forces generated, real depth of the cut, diameter of the grinding wheel, and its roughness factor (Qi,
et al., 1994).
The contact area between the grinding wheel and the workpiece can be distributed into three distinct
stages known as contact zones: a) cutting zone, b) ploughing zone, and c) rubbing or sliding zone. The
cutting zone is the pre-dominant cutting region, whereas in the ploughing zone, plastic deformations
are significant, with the rubbing zone being the entire contact length, and at spark out stage, the
rubbing zone is the dominant region for the entire process (Malkin, 1989). The following figure
demonstrates the three zones in terms of the contact regions.

Figure 15 Contact zone regions between grinding wheel and the work piece surface (Pandiyan & Tjahjowidodo,
2019)
2.2.4.2 Cutting Mechanism in VAM (1D and 2D)

Shamoto and Moriwaki (2005) determined the variation of the thrust force and cutting forces with 1D
vibration cutting as compared to the conventional cutting process. Although the peak thrust and
cutting forces were the same at each cycle of vibration, the average of both forces was significantly
reduced for the vibration-induced cutting, as shown in Figure 16 below.
Figure 16 Variation in cutting and thrust forces for conventional and 1D VAM cutting (Shamoto, Ma, &
Moriwaki, 2005)
The percentage reduction of the cutting force for the 2D VAM technique is slightly greater than for 1D
VAM and it is effectively measured through the horizontal speed ratio (HSR). The peak cutting and
thrust force for 2D VAM are significantly less than for conventional grinding; moreover, as the
frequency of vibration is increased, HSR reduces, further reducing the peak forces, as shown in the
figure 17 below (Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1994).

Figure 17 Reduction in peak cutting force
In the figure above, due to the vibration action, the percentage of the effective tool contact time is
reduced for 2D VAM, therefore reducing the peak cutting force. Comparing both graphs, it is evident
that the reduction of forces for 2D VAM is higher than for 1D VAM (Ibrahim, et al., 2016).
To analyse the efficiency of the 2D VAM technique, another useful parameter is the cutting ratio, which
is defined as the ratio between the contact time of the tool and the workpiece to the total duration of
the machining process, expressed in the following equation:
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = ∗ 100%
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
The cutting ratio depends on the frequency and amplitude of the vibration, whereas it is also affected
by the feed rate of the workpiece and the spindle speed. Higher cutting ratios indicate an increased
efficiency of the chip removal process, a reduction of cutting force and also a reduction of the cutting
temperature, and increased tool life (Wang, et al., 2002). The impact and the ploughing action of the
cutting tip on the workpiece can be easily predicted in the 2D VAM technique as it is controlled by the
frequency of the vibrations in order to achieve the desired surface roughness within the ductile region
(Kim & Choi, 1998).
Figure 17 shows the thrust forces along with cutting distance for conventional cutting, 1D and 2D VAM
for the cutting of aluminium using carbide tools. It shows a significant reduction of 20 percent forces
for 1D and another 2 percent reduction for 2D as compared to conventional machining (Zhou, et al.,
2002).

Figure 18 Comparison of thrust forces for aluminium cutting using carbide tools using conventional cutting, 1D
and 2D VAM (Shamoto, Ma, & Moriwaki, 2005)
Moreover, it has also been observed that the surface roughness significantly reduces through VAM
techniques as compared to conventional machining, with a reduction of 95 percent using 2D VAM
techniques and reduction of 40 percent for 1D VAM when used for cutting purposes. 2D VAM also
results in nominal burr formation while drilling, whereas for 1D, the reduction of burr formation is
around 70 percent in comparison to conventional machining (Brehl, Review of Vibration Assisted
Machining, 2008).
2.3. Existing Designs of Vibrating Stage
2.3.1 VAM Actuator Design
2.3.1.1 Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric actuators (standing wave or displacement mode) are the most common vibration
generating elements for VAM and are extensively used for micro-machining processes, such as 2D VAM
for milling or turning processes. Piezoelectric actuators are preferred over other forms because they
have their large torque production capabilities, a direct action force, and no need for additional braking
or gearbox mechanisms, while having nominal backlash and mostly cancelling out all external electric
fields during their mode of action (Kiswanto & Libyawati, 2019). Piezoelectric actuators are also known
to be energy efficient and highly precise, with low wear and tear and a compact form, making them
ideal for ultrasonic and low-frequency VAM techniques.
Piezoelectric (PZT) actuators work in two distinct modes: the resonant and non-resonant modes (Chen,
et al., 2018). In the resonant mode, the piezoelectric actuator functions at a frequency closer to the
structure’s resonance frequency, which results in larger displacement at a higher efficiency, with a

reduction in energy loss as electromechanical conversion. In the resonant mode, higher frequency
ranges of up to several tens of kilohertz with lower amplitudes in several hundred microns are attained.
Shamato et al. (1991) designed a PZT actuator VAM model with four actuators attached to the turning
tool, each pair having a 180-degree phase difference, resulting in an elliptical vibration of 20 kHz
frequency, as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 19 PZT actuators attached to a turning tool (Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1991)
The resonant mode for PZT actuator driven vibration devices limits their operational capacity to a fixed
higher range of vibrations. Moreover, as the basic underlying principle for resonant PZT is the
resonance of the tool and the stage, the structural parameters of the design are significant. The high
energy demand and overheating of piezoelectric ceramics in PZT actuators are also limiting factors for
their performance (Wang, et al., 2014).
Another modified design proposed by Wang (2014) for resonant piezoelectric actuator driven VAM is
the longitudinal-torsional compound vibratory device. The vibrations are caused in the axial and
tangential directions. This is achieved by a longitudinal vibration transducer in which the chute of the
assembly generates a torsional vibration from the longitudinally induced vibration, resulting in a multi-
mode vibration mechanism, as shown in Figure 19 below.
Figure 20 Longitudinal torsional compound actuator design for VAM (Wang, 2014)

The non-resonant mode is used for 2D vibration assisted milling for two planar actions (feed and cross-
feed), attained through a flexible assembly driven by piezoelectric actuators. In such a design, the
operation frequency is not constant and therefore a more precise motion control is achieved. In the
non-resonant mode, the piezoelectric actuator vibrates under forced vibratory action rather than
under resonance, with the frequency of the sinusoidal voltage ranging from a few hertz to several
thousand hertz. The displacement action is dependent on the induced voltage and could increase to a
larger value based on the strains induced in the relatively soft PZT material (Chen, et al., 2018). Through
forced vibrations, the piezoelectric actuator undergoes severe self-heating and cooling phases, which
might act as a limitation for the VAM action.
2.3.1.2 Mechanical
As for the 2D VAM technique, the vibrations are achieved in an elliptical pattern, therefore an alternate
actuation method for generating the elliptical motion can be producing elliptical trajectory through
mechanical means instead of vibrations induced in two directions. This idea was first implemented by
Moriwaki et al. (1991), who utilised a double spindle mechanism of two sets of AC motors with
eccentric sleeves producing an elliptical motion of the tool, as shown in Figure 20 below.
Figure 21 A model with a mechanical VAM actuator design (Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1991)
The elliptical motion is generated by mechanically rotating the sleeves through the built-in motor.
There are two motors generating power for this assembly: the built-in motor assists for tool vibration,
whereas the servomotor helps in the rotation of the tool spindle. A flexible coupling technique
connects the tool spindle with the servomotor; therefore, the vibration of the tool spindle along with
the rotatory motion both collectively result in an elliptical motion of the tool. This results in repetitive
oscillatory motion of the tool without piezoelectric actuators with altering the vibration parameters,
such as the rotational speed of the motor or the eccentricity of the tool sleeve (Shamoto & Moriwaki,
1991).

2.3.1.3 Magnetic
The first model for electromagnetic vibration assistance for machining was developed by Katsumi et al
(1975), in which an electromagnetic vibratory action was induced in a grinding spindle exciting the
spindle through electromagnetic forces with a reversal of the current flow in the coil. This excitation
of the spindle results in a vibration motion with a frequency ranging from 20 to 200 Hz and an
amplitude as high as 10 millimetres. Electromagnetic actuation for VAM has many limitations, for
example the bulky size of the entire assembly, which limits the vibration to only 1D longitudinal
motion, and high-powered internal and external cooling required due to intense heat generation
during the process (Katsumi & Nichiro, 1975).
For ultrasonic vibratory action, either magneto-strictive or piezoelectric actuators are preferable with
the ability to convert the input signal into a mechanical output. A model designed by Xiang et al. (2011)
utilises ultrasonic vibration of 35 kHz and an amplitude of 15 micrometres generated through a
magneto-strictive actuator, which results in a reduction of the cutting force and crack propagation
when milling silicon and aluminium composite materials. The input voltage signal is initially transduced
into the strong magnetic field generated and later converted into mechanical output through the
magneto-strictive effect. The additional link results in energy loss, therefore generating undesirable
characteristics of the block force and maximum displacement (Xiang, 2011).
2.3.1.4 Ultrasonic
High-intensity ultrasound actuators have numerous benefits in comparison to other modes, including
simple configuration and assembly, low profile design and less noise generation during the machining
process. A recent development in ultrasonic actuators is the design of a non-contact ultrasonic
levitated stage, in which cross-sectional beams are supported on the sliding table with a two-
directional slider utilising the ultrasonic waves generated through the movement of the beam or the
slider frame for the VAM action. The mode of action is based on the acoustic force propagation within
the air gap between the beams and the slider, which results in the generation of a thrust force on the
slider exerted by the viscosity force of the air trapped in between the gap. More commonly, a two-
phase drive is considered for ultrasonic actuators, whereby one of the vibration sources generates the
sound wave and the other one is responsible for absorbing the sound wave generated. The traveling
of the generated sound wave is dependent on many external factors, including the distance between
the two vibration-generating sources, the difference in the time periods of the generated waves, and
the effective resistance between the beam and the transducers (Koyama, et al., 2007).

Figure 22 Configuration of a 2D ultrasonic actuator stage supporting VAM technique (Koyama & Nakamura,
2009)
Figure 21 shows the configuration for a 2D self-running ultrasonic actuator-based stage with
aluminium plates with the four configured vibrating plates designed by Kayama (2009). The lead
zirconate titanate (PZT) material is attached to the fixed ends of the vibrating plates, whereby the
vibrating plates act as cantilevers and the ultrasonic waves are generated by varying the frequency of
the aluminium plates.
2.3.2 Research on Existing Vibrating Stages

Zhang et al. (2006) developed a model for a 2D vibrating stage for the VAM technique using the
piezoelectric actuators generating vibrations in different directions, as shown in Figure 22. The planar
structure is compact and there is nominal clearance and reduced mechanical friction. In this model,
the vibration generated by the actuators in the X direction improves the moving mass for the entire
stage; therefore, the vibratory motion in the Y-axis is restricted to a frequency of less than 1000 Hz
(Zhang & Sun, 2006).
Figure 23 Model for 2D vibrating stage designed by Zhang et al. (2006)
Jin et al. (2015) developed a modified version of the two-dimensional vibrating stage design with
piezoelectric actuators modelled next to the hinged part, which results in good efficiency in terms of
the vibration being transmitted to the workpiece. This design has the limitation of being flexible only
in a single plane; therefore, the vertical vibrations are more efficient, whereas the horizontal vibrations

are affected by the stiffness of the stage, and therefore, result in an uneven displacement of the stage,
as shown Figure 23 (Jin & Xie, 2015).
Figure 24 Modified model for 2D vibrating stage designed by Jin et al. (2015)
Li et al. (2012) used a single flexible assembly of four bars, as shown in Figure 24 in developing another
model for the two-dimensional vibrating stage. This system, when vibrating in a certain direction,
generates a massive cross-coupling displacement in the other direction, reducing the accuracy of the
motion. An improved version of the vibrating table was introduced by Chern et al. (2006), which utilises
piezoelectric actuators in a combination of slide ways on the workpiece, generating the required
vibration for the VAM action, as shown in Figure 24.
Figure 25 Design for vibrating table combining piezoelectric actuators with slide ways (Chern & Chang, 2006)
Another modified model for a two-dimensional vibrating stage was proposed by Chen et al. (2017),
who modelled flexible hinges in two distinctive layers, thus reducing the displacement coupling effect
in the two-perpendicular direction. For the actuator in one direction, the pair of the inner hinges and
the opposite pair of outer hinges are designed with flexibility, whereas the remaining two-directional

hinges are stiff, which transfers the vibrating effect efficiently. This model is capable of attaining a
characteristic vibratory motion in both directions with a vibration of 2 kHz and an approximately 10-
micrometer amplitude. To further improve the action of the two-dimensional vibration, a workpiece
holder is incorporated into the design, as shown in Figure 25.
This results in the dynamic vibrations of the workpiece in two distinct directions, with a kinematic stage
with flexure hinges on which the workpiece is mounted for action. The hinges are mobilised by the
high-voltage piezo actuators, resulting in the 2D vibrations. This assembly design is simple and efficient
for the realisation of multi-dimensional vibratory motion. The limitation of this design is the
operational efficiency at lower frequencies and amplitudes, thereby restricting the operational modes.
Figure 26 A modified design with a workpiece holder generating stable 2D vibrations (Chen, et al., 2017)
Another modified stage, designed using amplified piezoelectric actuators (APA) and with no weak
zones or parts such as flexural hinges, was proposed for the ROSETTA/MIDAS Space Mission, as shown
in Figure 25. The ceramic multilayer actuator (CMA) is pre-stressed through an elastic amplifier. The
stage has actuators modelled in the X and Y directions, forming a parallelogram action for motion.
Stiffeners are used to nullify the effect of parasitic rotations, whereas another key issue with this stage
is the required angular deviation, which is difficult to maintain during the process (Barillot, et al., n.d.).

Figure 27 Design for the VAM stage for ROSETTA/MIDAS with two-dimensional vibrations (Barillot, et al., n.d.)
The modelling for ROSETTA/MIDAS was performed on the ATILA and IDEAS-SDRC software packages
in addition to the mathematical models. ATILA is a state-of-the-art tool for modelling 2 and 3-
dimensional structures using finite element modelling parameters, whereas IDEAS-SDRC is an
analytical software for mechanical performance. Two types of analyses were performed on the stage
design: modal and static analyses. The static analysis produces stroke and capacitance results, whereas
the modal analysis depicts the vibration modes and their resulting deformations. By combining both
static and modal analyses, the electromechanical behaviour of the stage can be determined in terms
of the induced stresses and stiffness coefficients. The following is a result of the static excitation on
ATILA for the modelled stage for ROSETTA/MIDAS (Barillot, et al., n.d.).
Figure 28 Results of Finite Element Analysis using ATILA for ROSETTA/MIDAS stage (Barillot, Letty, Claeyssen,
Lhermet(1), & Yorck)

2.3.3 Simulations and Predictive theories to optimise machining

To study VAM techniques, more efforts have been invested in the experimentation and physical
observation to improve the machining effort, but little has been done in terms of modelling the
behaviours. A useful technique for investigating the size effect and the material removal mechanism
for vibration-assisted micro-milling is finite element modelling. The results of using finite element
modelling (FEM) by Chen et al. (2019) for micro-milling indicate that the ploughing cutting process is
mostly influential on the cutting of the in and out regions of the workpiece while the size effect
negatively impacts the tool wearing mechanism.
Moreover, as observed through FEM analysis, the minimum cutting thickness ratio can be altered by
using elliptical vibrations for micro milling, thereby improving the machined surface finish. The crack
propagation for vibration-assisted milling is more efficient in the cutting region as compared to
conventional micro milling and with a gradual increase of frequency; the crack pattern can be easily
shifted and diverted to the cutting edge. The result of FEM also correlates with the actual experimental
results, indicating the appropriateness of the model (Chen & Zheng, 2019). This model was developed
on ABAQUS software, with a magnesium alloy as the workpiece and the Johnson-Cook (JC) material
model being used to describe the workpiece behaviour during the process. This is shown in Figure 28.
Figure 29 Finite element model developed for the micro-milling process behavioural analysis (Chen & Zheng,
2019)
In the finite element analysis model proposed by Chen et al. (2019), the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian
(ALE) formulation technique is used to cater for the large deformation rate of the workpiece during
the cutting phase. Moreover, an advancing front algorithm is also designed to evaluate the mesh
distortion characteristics during the cutting phase.
Another FEM for VAM is based on the 2D Lagrangian technique, which uses the adaptive re-meshing
method. The parameters simulated through this model are the workpiece feed, velocity of operation,
and frequency and amplitude of the induced vibrations. The model predicts the response of machining
steel using a single crystal diamond tooltip. Only the circular vibrations are analysed by keeping the x
and y-axis vibrations identical. One of the significant analysis through this FEM is the relationship
between the cutting speed and the resulting force, as shown in Figure 29. A reduction in the cutting

force is noted with a decrease in cutting speed. This action supports the VAM action as at lower cutting
speeds, the impact and influence of vibration action is enhanced, which results in accurate and focused
cutting of the workpiece (Patten & Williams, 2007).
Figure 30 relationship of cutting velocity and cutting force as analysed through finite element model (Patten &
Williams, 2007)
The model by Patten and Williams (2007) shows that the cutting force is directly proportional to the
frequency and amplitude of the vibrations and the cutting velocity, whereas the cutting temperature
is mostly a function of the cutting velocity irrespective of the vibrations. The software used for this
model is AdvantEdg. This model is also applicable to other metals and alloys of silicon and aluminium
analysing the effects of VAM technique for these hard and brittle materials. Moreover, this model can
also be useful for the simulation of effects of cutting fluids and frictional/resistance-related forces.
Another model uses the parameters of a fixed cutting tool by moving the workpiece with a constant
velocity with fixed boundary conditions. For VAM, harmonic motion is super-imposed on the cutting
tool for 1D and 2D cutting operations. The software used for this model is DEFORM 2D. For this model,
the workpiece and the tool modelled are of tungsten carbide. The workpiece is modelled under the
Johnson-Cook flow stress model based on the strain rate sensitivity, strain hardening and the thermal
softening exponent (Lotfi & Amini, 2017).
The designed tool consists of three distinctive piezoelectric stacks with a varying range of half-ring and
two bending modes, as shown in Figure 30. The half-ring piezoelectric actuators expand and contract
alternatively in this model, generating two individual beta mode vibrations. The complete ring
piezoelectric actuators a generate longitudinal mode of vibration; therefore, three-modal vibratory
action is induced (Lotfi & Amini, 2017). The excitement of the piezoelectric actuator results in either
longitudinal or elliptical vibrations.

Figure 31 Model for the three modes of vibration modelled through finite element analysis (Lotfi & Amini, 2017)
The results for this model show that the predicted and experimental values for cutting forces are
correlated. The increase in the cutting speed of this model also results in the increase of the workpiece
and tool interaction with the use of the VAM technique. For linear vibration, the peak of the cutting
force is equivalent for conventional turning and lower for elliptical vibrations. In addition, another key
observation is the increase in the shear angle when ultrasonic vibration is induced to the cutting tool
(Lotfi & Amini, 2017).

Chapter 3: Methods Followed & Design

Selection
3.1 Design Choice Summary:
The overall setup used in this design was a combination of two concepts that were used to develop a
unique design that has greater compatibility as well as vibrating efficiency. The first concept was
adopted from the VAM research paper by Tsiakoumis (2011) on the application of surface grinding
processes, and the second concept was adopted from ROSETTA/MIDAS (Barillot et al., 1999) on the
application of piezoelectric stages used for space missions.
3.2 Details of the Two Adopted Concepts:

Since the main aim of this project was to redesign and simulate the behaviour of a two-dimensional
vibrating stage for VAM (vibration-assisted machining) or resonated machining in order to improve its
performance in terms of compactness and the reduced friction of moving part, this method involves
achieving the objectives adopted from the two following concepts:
3.2.1 Concept 1 Objective:

To redesign the selected vibrating rig made by Tsiakoumis (2011), who made and tested a few designs
before he finally selected the most suitable design for his submitted project. His design was simulated
using the FEA (finite element analysis) tool known by ANSYS. Figure 31 shows all the developed designs,
and the model with the flat spring was chosen as the most suitable because it had the best
performance, interchangeability and manufacturing aspects when compared to the other two.
Figure 32 Different models tested by Tsiakoumis (2011)
Figures 32, 33 and 34 show a sketch of his selected design, which consists of two flat springs mounted
vertically with parallel and squared alignments. The used spring material was cast carbon steel and
their total stiffness value was 8243435.7 N/m.

Figure 33 Deflection of Stsge by Tsiakoumis (2011)
Figure 34 Exploded view by Tsiakoumis (2011)
Figure 35 Vibrating Actuatore added by Tsiakoumis (2011)
The rig was vibrated using a piezoelectric actuator. This was transmitted through a metal rod
connected to the top of the plate in order to protect the actuator by keeping it out of the grinding
zone.

His analytical results of the natural frequency validated the results obtained using ANSYS.
Figure 35 shows the dynamic response of his system under dynamic loading of 100 Newton amplitude.
The response shows the stress concentration areas as well as a frequency-amplitude characteristics
plot.
Figure 36 Dynamic Respoce by Tsiakoumis (2011)
Figure 37 Dimensions of the system by Tsiakoumis (2011)
Finally, Figure 36 shows the dimensions chosen for his design. The total height of the rig is 90+29.5
mm. In order to make his design more compact, the height of the design chosen for this project was
reduced to 40 mm.
3.2.2 Concept 2 Objective:

To improve the performance of the grinding operation, it was suggested to adopt the same vibrating
mechanism used by ROSETTA/MIDAS (Barillot et al., 1999). Their method involved the design of an XY
stage capable of analysing dust for a space mission. They used a design with piezoelectric actuators
manufactured by Cedrat Technologies due to its extremely good capability of producing accurate
displacement. The rig has also other advantages, such as low friction and limited noise as it is
electronically powered. Their design was also simulated using FEA, and a similar design with the same
vibrating mechanism will be used for this project.

Figure 38 Rosetta Midas Actuator design (Barillot et al, 1999)
Figure 39 Actuator APA 50xs used by Rosetta Midas (Barillot et al, 1999)
3.3 Selected Design Parameters

The selected design includes the use of four piezoelectric actuators in the X and Y directions (two on
each side, as shown in Figure 40 to provide the necessary strokes to vibrate the stage in the X and Y
domains. The piezoelectric actuator is fixed to a mechanical support and provides the vibration motion
by expanding and contracting with a single degree of freedom, enabling its mechanical support to also
to expand and contract but in the opposite direction (or degree of freedom).
Four compression springs are also used (two on each side). These are placed on the opposite sides of
each actuator in order to provide the necessary push back to return the vibrated base to its original
position. The stiffness values were chosen carefully and after simulating various stiffness in order to
provide enough stiffness to send the vibrated base back to its original position. The springs were
chosen using standard datasheets.
Four ball bearings were used to provide a sliding motion between the vibrated base and the rig
enclosure. This ensured no friction in the system. 4x GN 509.1 bearings were used in order to provide
enough support for the system taking into account the weight of the vibrated base, vibrated stage,
workpiece holders, workpiece and the grinding wheel, which was assumed to be 3 kN.

3.3.1 Dimensions:
The final dimensions of the vibrated rig are detailed in this section. The vibrated stage has the same
dimensions used in Tsiakoumis’s (2011) design, but this current design is distinguished by a very small
height.
The rig consists of the following components:
4 x compression springs with stiffness values of 2000 N/m
4 x piezoelectric actuators of the type APA120ML-PP made by Cedrat Technologies
4 x ball bearings evenly spread beneath the vibrated base made by GN 509.1
1 x vibrated base made as a stage carrier (180 x 180 x 20 mm)
1 x vibrated stage made to hold the workpiece (120 x 50 x 20 mm)
2 x workpiece holders
1 x enclosure made to carry all inner components of the vibrated rig (291x251x50.5mm) with a wall
thickness of 10 mm
The full rig was designed and assembled using the 2019 CAD (computer-aided design) tool available
from SolidWorks corporation
The following figures show the final chosen design along with its dimensions:
Figure 40 Selected design (Top View)

Figure 41 Selected design (Isometric View)
Figure 42 Selected Design (Section x-x view)

Figure 43 Selected Design (Section z-z view)
Figure 44 Dimensioned Assembly Drawing

Figure 45 Cedrat Tech. Actuators Used (APA 120 ML PP)
Figure 46 Ball Bearing design

Figure 47 Exploded view of the design showing the transfer weight ball bearings

Chapter 4: Simulation Method & Setup

4.1 Analyses Chosen for the Simulations:
The simulation underwent 3 different types of analyses in order to achieve a full set of results. This
follows the same pattern adopted by Tsiakoumis (2011), who used it to predict the vibrating effects
produced by his rig. Details of the setup for each study will be given in the following sections:
1- Static Analysis: This study shows the behaviour of the system after it has reached its static
equilibrium. This is used to predict and observe the effect of the loads applied to the vibrating
rig at its highest loading conditions. Observations of static stress and displacement will be the
results achieved by the end of this analysis.
2- Frequency Analysis (Modal): This is used to predict the different modes or shapes of the
current system as well as the natural or resonant frequencies for each mode of the system to
show its vibration characteristics. Such characteristics show how the components of the
system could vibrate. The simulation is done to test if the components are stiff enough to be
able to tolerate any potential vibrating loading. Also, this is done to ensure that the frequency
of vibration does not fall in line with the components’ resonant frequency to avoid resonance.
Nonetheless, based on the observations, the design could be improved in ways that could
increase its stiffness and not necessarily its weight.
3- Dynamic Analysis: Once the modes and natural frequencies of the system have been
identified, a dynamic analysis based on a vibrating source can be set up and run. This has a
harmonic excitation produced by the sources of vibration, which for this project are the four
APA piezoelectric actuators. Stress and displacement are observed over a range of frequencies
in order to predict and study the changing vibrational behaviour of the system. Unlike a static
analysis, this study is transient and is observed over a different range of frequencies and over
time. In other words, this is not an equilibrium study that gives a steady-state solution.
4- Spring Analysis: This is merely to test the strength of springs used in the rig.
4.2 Simulation input parameters:

Using the finite element analysis tool within SolidWorks version 2019, a dynamic analysis was
performed with the following definition:
4.2.1 Materials:
1 Ball bearings AISI 316 Annealed Stainless-Steel Bar (SS)
2 APA120ML-PP 1060 Alloy (Aluminium Alloy)
3 Base AISI 316 Stainless Steel Sheet SS
4 Enclosure AISI 316 Stainless Steel Sheet SS
5 Stage AISI 316 Annealed Stainless-Steel Bar (SS)
6 Workpiece holders AISI 316 Annealed Stainless-Steel Bar (SS)
8 Springs Alloy steel
Table 1 Material Chosen for Simulation

4.2.2 Boundary conditions:

A fixed geometry fixture was applied to the bottom face of the enclosure. This holds all the
components as if they were placed (bonded) on top of a flat rigid surface. This is important to allow
the vibrating rig to be simulated correctly as it defines the surface that is holding this in space because
without that, the simulation won’t run knowing that the fundamental boundary condition of such finite
element analysis is not defined. This is shown in the following (figure 48)
Figure 48 Fixed Geometry Boundary Condition
4.2.3 Meshing:
A standard fine mesh was applied for most faces of the design with identically sized elements;
however, areas of high stress concentration should have a finer mesh in order to achieve more
accurate results. The convergence of the results relies significantly on very fine meshes, although care
should also be taken not to over-refine the mesh, thus conserving computer memory and simulation
runtime.
Another meshing issue is the meshing of the springs. Since the springs are helical in shape, they require
refinement for the mesh to be created due to certain features they possess, which make them very
difficult to mesh using a standard size mesh.
The refined areas used a curvature-based mesh with an element size of 5.694 mm and a transition
ratio of 1.5. The full details of all meshing parameters are shown in figures 50 and 51.

Figure 49 Mesh Application
Figure 50 Mesh
4.2.4 Connections:
Another important aspect of the SolidWorks FEA simulation is the definition of the connections
between each component, and it is important that the simulation tool understands what is connected
to what as otherwise the simulations would lead to invalid results.
Three types of connections had to be defined in these analyses. These are shown in Figure 52.
1- The springs connectors are mainly used to define the values of the stiffnesses of the springs.
These are set to 2000 N/m as an initial test value, which is varied after the initial observations
of the results.
2- The contact sets are used to establish a connection between all four ball bearings and the
lower wall of the enclosure that carries the whole rig. This ensures that the loads applied on
the ball bearings are transferred correctly to the enclosure.

3- There is one component contact which is defined to have a global contact. This is usually
defined by default as bonded. This is there to ensure that all the SolidWorks assembly parts
are bonded to one another through a global connecting system, and this also means that every
component is connected to the system via at least one other component.
Figure 51
4- One final type of connection added to the design was the “Rigid Connector”. This was added
to ensure that the contact between all components of the system had a rigid connection. This
is important to ensure that all contacted faces deform rigidly as a group.
4.2.5 External Loads
4.2.5.1 Vibration Source:

This type of simulation depends mainly on the main application of the vibrating source. This was
supplied by the APA 120ML-PP. The 4 actuators used were designed in a way that gave them the same
harmonic excitation as proposed by the manufacturer. Figure 52 shows the CAD design supplied by the
manufacturer, which was followed in order to avoid any modelling errors.
Figure 52 APA 120 ML PP Piezo electric Actuator (Cedrat Technology)
The excitation values which were used according to the manufacturer’s datasheet are shown in
figure 53:

Figure 53 Piezo Electric Actuator’s Datasheet – APA 120 ML PP
Free-free indicates that the actuator is not fixed.

Blocked-free indicates that the actuator is fixed to a mechanical support assumed infinitely stiff.
Quasi-static excitation: AC voltage between –20 and 150 V at 1 Hz
Harmonic excitation: Voltage of 0.5 Vrms, sinusoidal mode from 0 to 100 kHz
Table 2 Piezo Electric Actuator’s Datasheet – APA 120 ML PP
The application of a vibratory force was only applied in the dynamic/harmonic study and the force
used the harmonic excitation which was done in two ways as given in the manufacturer’s datasheet:
a- A cyclic excitation defined by a sinusoidal force with an amplitude of 1400N. This predicts the
continuous harmonic motion over 20-time steps. The cycle per second for this was chosen to
be 1750Hz to predict the system’s behaviour at the actuator’s resonant frequency. The setup
is shown in figure 54.
b- A harmonic excitation applied with a constant force value of 1400 N over a range of varied
frequencies with minimum and maximum values of 0 and 1930 respectively. This range was
chosen in line with the frequency supplied by the datasheet (shown in figure 52) in order to
observe the behaviour of the system over the full operating frequency range. The setup is
shown in figure 55.
The above 2 were applied using the EXTERNAL LOADS feature of SolidWorks FEA tool and the forces
were applied on the inner faces of the actuators’ mechanism. This is shown via the purple arrows of
figure 53.
Figure 54 External Loads indicated in pink

Figure 54 and 55 show the force and frequency defined values which are consistent with the values
that were defined previously in figure 53.
Figure 55 Application of Sinusoidal Force in SolidWorks
Figure 56 Application of Constant Force over a range of frequencies in SolidWorks

4.2.5.1 Grinding Wheel Force:

Finally, and before starting the simulations and since this design is going to be used for VAM (vibration-
assisted machining) purposes, the vibrated rig was assumed to have a point load acting as a result of
the weight of the grinding wheel that will be used to machine the workpiece. This is because the weight
of the grinding wheel needs to be taken into account, and for the purposes of this project this load was
assumed to be 3000N. This was applied as a constant external load applied at the centre of workpiece
top, as shown in Figure 56. The negative sign does not indicate anything other than the choice of
conventions used whilst applying the force in SolidWorks.
Figure 57 Grinding Wheel Force

Chapter 5: Results & Discussions

5.1 Static Analysis:
The static analysis included the application of five external loads. 3000 Newtons were applied vertically
downwards to resemble the assumed weight of the grinding wheel and 4 x 1400 Newtons were applied
horizontally to resemble the maximum force that could be produced form the piezoelectric actuators.
The study was made to observe the system under its maximum loading conditions. This is done to
observe the system in its worst-case scenario in order to predict whether the design would fail in the
maximum loading condition.
Figure 57 shows the stress distribution on the rig and clearly indicates that the areas with high stress
concentrations are the areas affected by the piezoelectric actuators. The areas affected by the grinding
wheel load are the point of application and the edges where the stage is touching the base beneath it.
It can be noticed that these areas are not having as high a stress effect as the ones affected by the
actuators. This is merely because the load applied is a point load, unlike the distributed load applied
at the actuators’ contact areas.
Figure 58 Stress concentration (static study)
Figure 58 shows labels of the stress values at various probed locations for various areas of interest,
whereby the stress varies depending on its location ad significance. The variations between the values
from each label are proof of the interpretations provided in this section. The maximum Von Mises
stress observed is approximately 10.8 MPa, which is concentrated mainly on the faces of the enclosure
and the four actuators. The materials defined for these are 2 1060 alloy (aluminium alloy) and AISI 316
stainless steel sheet SS, respectively. The yield stresses are defined in SolidWorks as 27.57MPa and
172.37MPa, respectively. This gives a minimum value of factor of safety of FoS=27.57/10.8 = 2.55
which is very practical. This is also an excellent indicator that the design will not fail under maximum
loading conditions.

Figure 59 Stress values in the areas of interest (static study)
Figure 59 describes the displacement occurring as a result of the five applied loads. The contour
indicates that the displacement only occurs within the components where the applied loads are. This
shows that the fixtures and force application were done correctly. Moreover, the displacement values
range approximately between 0.1 and 0.23 mm, which are reasonable for a VAM rig which is
characterised by having very small amplitude high-frequency vibrations.
Figure 60 Static Study Displacement
Applied Springs Mechanism:

It is very important to note that the springs have been replaced with spring connectors as defined by
SolidWorks. These connectors give the same effect that a spring would give in terms of contact,
connectivity and stiffness. This was done because simulating actual spring geometries was very
complicated and time-consuming in SolidWorks. Hence, for simplicity, they were replaced with spring
connections and for that reason the above stress and displacement plot did not show how the springs
were affected as a result of the external loads. Moreover, the stiffness values chosen for such spring
connectors were chosen as 2000 N/m, which was an estimation that was consistent with the observed
natural frequencies of the system and also based on the definition of the natural frequency Wn =
(k/m)^1/2.

5.2 Frequency Modal Analysis:

As stated previously, the purpose of this analysis was merely to predict the different modes and shapes
the system can have, each have their own natural frequency (or resonant frequency). This is done in
order to see how the system components vibrate when subjected to external loads. The main purpose
of this study is to learn to avoid vibrating the system, during the dynamic analysis, at its own resonant
frequency to avoid resonance.
This analysis was simulated without the need of applying an external load because to predict vibrating
modes of a system, SolidWorks does not require the application of any external load or even the force
due to gravity. The rest of the simulation setup was not changed and the output of this type of analysis
gives a comparison between a number of frequencies. The simulation was chosen to run in 20 different
modes and frequencies. By the end of this, SolidWorks will have predicted as many shapes and
frequencies, each with their own characteristics. The limit to how many modes can be simulated will
be based on the number of degrees of freedom of the design and for that 20 seem to be more than
enough.
The results show that as the natural frequency goes higher in each mode, the time response reduces,
meaning that the natural frequency of a system is very good in very short time durations. Also, by
definition, the natural frequency of a component or a system is linearly proportional to its stiffness
meaning that modes with high natural frequencies have high stiffnesses which also implies good
structural integrity.
From figure 60, mode number 1 (at 291.75 Hz) can be taken as a success criterion for this system
because it has the lowest natural frequency. This means that the system’s structural integrity could be
improved by increasing such value which is linearly proportional to its stiffness.
Modes number 5 and number 6 fall between the resonance frequency given by the actuator’s
manufacturer’s datasheet at 1750 Hz. These values are going to be avoided when modelling the
dynamic analysis in order to avoid harming the actuators.
Figure 61 List of modes and natural frequencies of the system

The following give a comparison of the first 5 modes of the system showing 5 different shapes which
the system could take as a response to external vibration loadings. Later on, in the dynamic analysis,
the system is expected to have a similar deformation behaviour with at least one of these shapes.
Figure 62 Modes Shapes (AMPRES=displacement amplitude in mm)
Also, since the resonance frequency of the actuators is 1750Hz, any modes with a natural frequency
higher than 1750 Hz will hardly have any impact on the analysis. Therefore the current design could be
improved to push the observed natural frequencies beyond the operating range which means that the
operating frequency of the actuators will never reach the first or the lowest natural frequency
predicted for this system and this also means that as a result of that, the system will neither resonate
nor have any structural issues whatsoever.
The current design could be improved by improving the stiffness of the 4 opposing springs which are
opposing the motion produced by the actuators. This could be done later, once a full dynamic output
has been interrogated.

5.3 Dynamic Analysis:

Important assumptions about the simulation:
❖ the system components have rigid connections meaning all components are rigid bodies apart
from the springs.
❖ springs are replaced with spring connectors meaning the weight and stress of the springs were
excluded from the analysis and only their effect was applied to the system and simulated.
❖ to run the analysis in SolidWorks, the system damping needed to be defined as part of the
boundary conditions but because the system, practically, has no damping, this was defined with a
very low value (around 3%) to ensure that its effect remains insignificant in the simulations
❖ vibration displacement takes place in the horizontal axis only.
❖ force due to gravity is neglected due to its slight insignificance when compared to other loads
applied to the system.
5.3.1 Constant Force - Frequency Range Excitation Analysis (harmonic sweep):

This simulation was set to run over a range of frequencies below and above the predicted natural
frequency value chosen from the previous frequency analysis. The frequency response plots will
indicate stress and displacement of the system at its resonant or natural frequency. Because natural
frequency describes how stiff the object can be, also with it being a high value observed with small
displacements and stresses is desirable.
The results expected for this analysis take input from the frequency analysis (previous section). The
modes and natural frequencies are the same with a slight increase in the values now because this study
has now accounted for a 3 % of damping. Moreover, the simulation was also run over a range of 20
frequencies, which was the number of modes chosen for the previous frequency study.
The frequency – displacement sweep (response) for the whole system shows how the displacement
caused by the actuators’ harmonic force on the system is varied over the selected range of frequencies
from 0Hz to 1930Hz. This also includes all the frequency modes that are within that range. In other
words, different sets of results can be presented, each of which corresponds to a different rate of
vibration. The peak points of this response plot represent the natural frequencies of the system which
are predicted similarly to those natural frequencies predicted previously where each modal contour
peaked at its natural frequency (figure 62). Furthermore, this response can also be done for certain
chosen areas of interest, where each probed location will have its own curve showing its own natural
frequency and displacements swept over the same 20 modes of frequency. This is a very efficient way
for scanning the whole range of harmonic vibration in order to learn about the worst case.
In figure 62, the first 3 natural frequencies of the system can be observed with values of 313Hz, 398Hz
and 627Hz which are corresponding to displacements of 0.9mm, 1.2mm and 0.53mm respectively. The
corresponding stress values can be seen from figure 63 with values of 31 MPa, 17 MPa and 34MPa
respectively.

Figure 63 Frequency Amplitude Plot (original design)
The natural frequencies observed from the above plots are not anywhere near the operating
frequencies of the actuators and this indicates that resonance is not going to occur. Moreover, this
design could benefit from improving its rigidity by improving its stiffness which in turn could increase
its natural frequency and lower the stress effects as well as improve its displacement response. This
could be achieved by increasing the stiffness of the springs which is originally defined as 2000 N/m.
Figure 64 Frequency Stress Plot (original design)
Figure 64 shows the new frequency spectrum which is taking into account the effect of damping.

Figure 65 Full Frequency Spectrum (initial design)
5.3.2 Sinusoidal Force Excitation Analysis (time history analysis)

Another way of testing the vibrated rig’s dynamics was to run the actuators in a sinusoidal mode. The
simulation was run with a sinusoidal excitation at the resonance frequency of the piezo electric
actuators. The simulation was run over one full cycle with a duration of 1/1750Hz = 0.000571 seconds
with a force amplitude of 1400N. Figure 65 shows the stress and displacement response over that
cycle.
Figure 66 Frequency Amplitude & Frequency plots
The maximum displacement and stress take place just after half a cycle at 0.0004 seconds with values
of 0.75MPa and 0.027mm respectively. Figure 66 shows the displacements of the rig as a result of such
input which is another good indicator of the correct application of vibration loads. However, it can be

noticed that the displacement was higher in one particular area near the top left actuator and this
could be either linked to a simulation computational error or due to the non-symmetrical connections
between the base holding the stage and the 4 actuators.
To conclude with, this was another method of observing the structural rigidity. And the observed
values will be looked at again once the spring stiffness has been raised.
Figure 67 Displacement Plot (At resonance) over a full cycle
5.3.3 Novel Design

In this design the stiffness of the springs has been increased to 6000 N/m in order to observe whether
the system’s stiffness has improved and to determine whether or not the displacement caused by
vibrations could be lowered in order to achieve very small amplitude high frequency vibrations which
is desirable for VAM.
Figure 67 shows the new displacement and stress behaviour over the same previously defined
frequency range (0-1930Hz).
Figure 68 Frequency Response (Novel Design)

Now by comparing the values of the initial and the new design, it can be observed that increasing the
spring stiffness did not lead to major improvements however the benefit from this improvement was
that as the frequency kept increasing, the displacement kept continuously decreasing until it reached
a steady amplitude of approximately 0.02mm which is very desirable for VAM.
Design Natural Stress Displacement

Frequency
1 Initial Design 313Hz 31Mpa 0.9mm
398Hz 17Mpa 1.2mm
627Hz 34MPa 0.53mm
2 Novel Design 313Hz 31Mpa 2.04mm
398Hz 17Mpa 1.2mm
627Hz 34MPa 0.2mm
Table 3 Initial & Novel design comparison
Finally figure 68 shows the modal frequency range of the new design which is also very similar to the
range observed in the initial design.
Figure 69 Full Frequency Spectrum (novel design)
Sinusoidal Excitation Results: Similarly, the sinusoidal excitation outputs are almost exactly the same
before and after increasing the springs stiffnesses from 2000N/m to 6000N/m.

5.3.4 Spring Elasticity Study

A spring standalone study was made to test if the spring would fail under the same loading condition
applied to it, only this time the load was applied directly to the spring. The whole system has 4
actuators and 4 springs, each of which is inserted directly opposite one another, meaning that for each
one actuator there is one spring opposing its effect. In this study the spring will be assumed to be fixed
from one end and loaded with the same force (1400N) supplied by the actuator in its opposite side.
Figure 70 Compression Spring under 1400 N loading
The above figure is evident that the springs would not fail under the 1400N loading posed by the piezo
electric actuators. This is merely because the maximum Von Mises stress noticed in the above figure,
at 90.69MPa is much smaller than the yield strength of the material used for the spring, which happens
to be 620.4MPa.

Chapter 6: Conclusions & Future Work

This project investigated the different methods that have been used over the years in the field of (VAM)
vibrated assisted machining. VAM is still going through major improvements, many of which
endeavour to improve the machining quality by inducing vibrating into the machining rigs. Some
adopted methods included the design of VAM rigs which are vibrated by piezo electric actuators. In his
research Tsiakoumis, V. I. (2011), simulated the effect of piezo electric actuators on different spring
designs. Also, for their space mission, ROSETTA/MIDAS used a unique type of piezo electric actuators
made by Cedrat Technologies which proved to be very efficient and accurate when it came to vibration
applications. This project combined the two methods by redesigning the former with a much more
compact and efficient method adopted from the latter.
The design underwent a few optimisation stages until it was proven to be finally effective and ready
for the simulations. The project relied solely on obtaining results from simulations which were
achieved using SolidWorks which gave the benefit of providing computer aided design as well as finite
element analysis. The required output was an investigation of how the final design would behave
under 3 types of loading.
Static analysis was the first one to be completed which showed how the design would respond to the
external loadings applied to the rig under the assumption that the designed system is at rest and under
maximum loading. The applied loads were the peak loads of the vibrating sources – the four piezo
electric actuators as well as the assumed weight of the machining tool – the grinding wheel. The initial
results proved that the design could withstand the loads applied at the worst-case scenario with an
excellent Factor of safety.
Secondly the frequency analysis and results established the different modal shapes of the system each
characterised by its own natural frequency. The aim was to understand at what loading condition the
system could resonate as well as understand its structural integrity. The results were taken further and
applied to the dynamic analysis which simulated the rig with the same frequency modes plus the
additional load that is produced by the vibration source – the 4 piezo electric actuators.
The dynamic study was done in two parts, each of which employed a different method of harmonic
excitation. The first one simulated the system with an input load of 1400N amplitude over a range of
frequencies as prescribed by the actuators manufacturers and the second one simulated the system
with a sinusoidal input load of 1400N amplitude but this time at the resonant frequency of the
actuators. The results obtained from the first method showed excellent structural capabilities with
small displacement amplitudes as well as ensuring that the natural frequencies of the system were
very far from the operating frequencies of the actuators which ultimately prevented resonance and
damage. The results obtained from the second method showed a different way of operating the system
known as modal time history, which sweeps the input load over a period of time rather than frequency.
Post that sweep, stress distributions and displacements observed, seemed reasonable and within the
desired VAM range.
For variety, a novel design was introduced which used stiffer springs taking the stiffness from an initial
value of 2000N/m to 6000N/m. The newly obtained results did not show significant improvements on
the vibrating rig apart from producing a gradual decrease of displacement amplitudes as the operating

frequencies went higher. This again, although not a major achievement, is seen as a desired
characteristic because VAM is characterised mainly by having very small amplitude - very high
frequency vibrations.
Finally the springs designed for this rig were simulated separately on a standalone static study to test
their ability to withstand the horizontal loads posed by the actuators. This is mainly because the springs
were removed and replaced by spring connectors due to the difficulty of meshing them initially in
SolidWorks. Because they were removed from the design, their response towards the loads posed by
the actuators was not seen and hence a standalone study had to be done in order to check if they
would fail under such loading condition. The results of the standalone study showed a much higher
yield strength than the maximum Von mises stress observed in such study. Moreover, the replacement
of springs with spring connectors didn’t have any negative impact on the simulations because the
spring connectors presented a proper replacement to their physical presence in the design which also
allowed simulating their effects using the same prescribed stiffness.
Future Work:
Based on the observed results, the design achieved its purpose and the presented results were very
desirable in that they produced very small amplitude displacements. Resonance was also avoided;
however, the project could be further developed by applying the same procedure used for the
simulation in a lab environment. IT would be very beneficial to validate the results achieved from
simulations by applying the same theoretical procedure to any of the well known VAM processes.
Another future recommendation would be to invest a significant time in studying how to model and
simulate springs in CAD and FEA tools. This is because it proved to be a very time and memory
consuming feature which was not anticipated initially. Having the correct design for springs is very
important in FEA as they have a very important role in VAM simulations.

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Al-Jehani Hassan 6101MECH Final Report

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Redesign of an Oscillating Stage for

Vibration Assisted Machining

6101MECH Engineering Project

Name: Hassan Al-Jehani

Department of Maritime and Mechanical Engineering

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 2 Student ID 806660

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 3 Student ID 806660

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 4 Student ID 806660

2.2.4.1 Contact between Tools & Surfaces .............................................................................. 27

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 5 Student ID 806660

5.3.3 Novel Design ................................................................................................................. 64

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 6 Student ID 806660

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 7 Student ID 806660

Figure 65 Full Frequency Spectrum (initial design) ............................................................................... 63

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 8 Student ID 806660

(1D, 2D) One degree and 2 degrees of freedom

(Resonance Machining) Vibration assisted

(Vcrit) Critical Velocity

(FEA) Finite Element Analysis.

(PEA) Piezo-Electric Actuator

(MEMS) Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems

(EDM) Electrical Discharge Machining

(ECM) Electrical Chemical Machining

(SEM) Scanning Electron Microscope

(Al – based MMC) Aluminium based Metal Matrix Composite

(SiC) Silicon Carbide

(CRFP) Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers

(SRG) Stock Removal Grinding

(FFG) Form and Finish Grinding.

(MRR) Material Removal rate

(FMS) Flexible Manufacturing System

(NC) Numerical Control

(CNC) Computer Numerical Control

(MC) Machine Centres

(F) Friction Force

(N) Normal Force

(Fn) Normal Force

(Ft) Tangential Force

(P) Grinding Power

(Ft) Tangential component of the grinding force

(Vs) Speed of the grinding wheel

(Vw) Speed of the work piece

(Q) Material Removal Rate

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 9 Student ID 806660

(e) Specific Energy for Grinding

(bw) Contact width of the wheel and the work piece

(heq) Equivalent chip thickness

(Ae) Depth of the cut

(hcu) Uncut chip thickness

(Lc) Real contact length

(Lf) Deformation contact length

(Lg) Geometric contact length

(HSR) Horizontal Speed Ratio

(PZT) Lead Zirconate Titanate

(APA) Amplified Piezoelectric Actuators

(CMA) Ceramic Multilayer Actuator

(JC) Johnson-Cook material model

(ALE) Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian

(CAD) Computer Aided Design

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 10 Student ID 806660

Figure 1 Types of VAM – 1D & 2D (Cerniway, 2005)

Student Name: Hassan Al-Jehani 11 Student ID 806660