British Institute of Persian Studies

WARLIKE HEROINES IN THE PERSIAN ALEXANDER TRADITION: THE CASES OF ARĀQĪT AND
BURĀNDUKHT
Author(s): Evangelos Venetis
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Iran, Vol. 45 (2007), pp. 227-232
Published by: British Institute of Persian Studies
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25651420 .
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 WARLIKE HEROINES IN THE PERSIAN ALEXANDER TRADITION:
THE CASES OF ARAQIT AND BURANDUKHT

By Evangelos Venetis
University of Leiden*

Abstract
The Iskandar-nama and the twelfth-century Darab-nama are discussed as examples of the epic
eleventh-century
romance in classical Persian literature, with in the first, and Burandukht in the second, as of
prose Araqlt examples
warlikewomen. The similaritiesand differencesin therolesof these twoheroines in theirrelationshipstoAlexander
are examined, first, as adversaries, and then, as lovers, of the king.

Keywords
Alexander Romance; Darab-nama; warrior women; Queen of Fairyland; Queen of Iran.

The eleventh-century Persian Iskandar-ndma ("Book
of Alexander") and the twelfth-centuryDdrdb-ndma
("Book of Darius") belong to the genre of epic prose
romance. In these twoworks, epic and romance are two
genres indispensably interwoven into one narrative.1
Epic emphasises deeds and reflects the heroic
behaviour of the protagonists with a narrative full of
war-scenes and chivalrous and magnanimous deeds. It
also claims historicitywithout being historically exact.2
Romance is based on words through dialogue and on
discourse through love affairs3 and the adventure,
usually, of two lovers; the romance expresses more
skilful fighter, warfare is not her profession. In the
narrative, the number of warlike women is restricted
but their role is important.10
In the Iskandar-nama, Araqit is a special example of
thewarlike woman. The Alexander-Araqit adventurous
love affair forms the backbone of the narrative and it is
closely associated with themodel of the Solomon-Bilqis
relationship. This results mainly from the influence of
Islamic lore and of theQisas al-anbiya3 tradition on the
Iskandar-ndma. Yet Islamic lore, as an influential factor
about the formation of thismotif in the narrative, is only
one side of the coin. In order tounderstand the role of the

implicitly than in an expository way the eternal quest of Alexander-Araqit love affair, it is necessary to examine a
man for the accomplishment of the desired self similar love story, that ofAlexander and Burandukht, in
awareness and self-perfection.4 Thus love, as a device Tarsusi's Darab-nama.11 A comparison between these

symbolising this quest, plays a central role in romance,
hence in the Iskandar-ndma.5
Warfare or single combat is a metaphor of love in
Persian prose romances.6 This is reflected in literature
through the motif of the warlike (or warrior-like)
woman which is widely attested in classical Persian
literature.7The motif is also widely attested inArabic
epic romances (the Siras), such as those of Dhdt al
Himma, Hasan ofBasra and others.8 This motif reflects
a contrast to theMuslim social stereotype of woman's
seclusion.9 Concerning its typology, thewarlike woman
has been trained in the arts of combat and fighting. She
personifies the perfect model of a desirable female:
beautiful, unchaste, young, deceitful and full of energy.
She belongs to the upper social class and, although a
two love storieswill reveal their inner connection.
It is hoped to prove by this analysis thatboth stories
(Alexander-Araqit and Alexander-Burandukht) share
common motifs (topoi) which enable the reader to
identify them as one basic motif in the Persian
Alexander tradition. This has been altered in two
different versions of the same narrative about
Alexander's life in Persian literature.Accordingly, it is
suggested that the figures of Araqit and Burandukht
represent the same motif of a heroine who has different
images and functions within each of these two
narratives. Essentially, they represent a particular type
of Persian warlike heroine, acting both as adversary of
Alexander and his alter ego in these two Persian prose
romantic versions of theAlexander romance.
 228 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN
As a result, by suggesting that the above two stories
are essentially the same motif storyof a queen,
resisting
Alexander's power and defending her country, this
analysis questions Hanaway's theory about
Burandukht. According to his view, Burandukht cannot
be considered equivalent to the warlike fairies
(pariydn) because "the latter are supernatural beings"
and because she is identified with Anahita. Hanaway
suggests also that thewarlike heroine Burandukht in the
Ddrdb-ndma is a legendary manifestation of the
Zoroastrian deity Anahita. His theory is based upon
three factors in the narrative: Burandukht's strong
association with water and the city of Istakhr, her
profile as the Queen of Iran against the Muslim
conqueror Alexander and the fact that she is the holder
of farr.n A second point of Hanway's theory is that
Alexander and Burandukht's story is unique in the
tradition of Persian romances "with respect to itsmajor
characters and events".13 Third, he makes a strict
distinction between thewarlike fairies and thewarlike
women because the former are "supernatural beings"
while the latter (in this case, Burandukht) "are regarded
as actual human beings in the world of the story".14
Marina Gaillard agrees with Hanaway's points in the
introduction to her recent French translation of the
Ddrdb-ndma.15 In order to discuss the above points, it
is necessary first to look at the content of these two
stories and examine their similarities and differences.
In the Iskandar-ndma, Alexander visits Fairyland
after his trip to the Land of Darkness.16 Alexander's
encounter with Araqlt is an endless combat on the
battlefield. Alexander is the intruder and Araqlt the
defender. Alexander's persistence in trying to capture
Araqit's kingdom, Fairyland, while in fact he can
bypass itwithout any further trouble, symbolises the
inevitable attraction of the two lovers. Land, for
Alexander, symbolises Araqlt herself, and the conquest
of land corresponds to the sexual conquest of itsqueen.
This conquest, however, is not to be achieved in a short
time and easily. Alexander's opponent in battle and his
heart's desire is an accomplished and courageous
fighter.
As has already been mentioned, love grows for
Araqlt inAlexander's heart at first sight. Their first
meeting takes place on the battlefield and this is the
place where their symbolic love encounter will happen
in the rest of the episode. As mentioned Araqlt
represents thewell known motif of the valiant warlike
woman in Persian literature.17Her military skill and
STUDIES
behaviour suggest similarity to an Amazon: she is the
queen of a mysterious land inhabited only by female
fairies who are all warlike and who fight from the
saddle of theirhorses. This similarity becomes obvious
from the very beginning.18 Araqit on horseback attacks
Alexander, attempting to take him by the belt and
unhorse him. However, she cannot approach Alexander.
Then, he counter-attacks, catches her by her belt and
while he is about to tear her from her horse, Araqit
gathers all her strength and tears her belt.19 The fairies
intervene and help Araqit escape from Alexander's
hands. This is the first combat between the two lovers
and it ends in a draw. This equilibrium of power
between the two sides continues in several battles
throughout the rest of the narrative.
Araqlt's example confirms that some warlike
women break the general rule of women as
secondary
actors in this narrative and play the role of the
protagonist on an equal basis with themain figure of
the plot (Alexander). From the fourwarlike women in
the Iskandar-nama, only Araqit manages to remain a
protagonist. Suhayl, Shahmalik's daughter, and
Yaqutmalik play an important role, each one in their
own story,but nothing beyond it.After the end of the
story they are thrown into oblivion by the narrator.
However, Araqit is the only case of a woman who plays
a constantly predominant role and becomes
Alexander's alter ego, a common feature inpre-Safavid
prose romances.20 Her active fighting role after her
marriage is in accordance with the profile of warlike
women inArabic literaturewho also do not fade from
public life.21
Moreover, a strikingmotif in the narrative is the
femininity of thewarlike woman, a topos also attested
inArabic romances.22 Her beauty is over-emphasised
and she consciously makes use of her feminine
qualities in battle. This causes Alexander's confusion
when he comes to intimate contact with her. Her
dazzling beauty initially makes the hero fail in his
attempt to defeat thewarlike-woman. In the end, it is
mostly her beauty rather than her strength that defeats
him.
As for the story of Alexander and Burandukht (or
Rushanak) in the Darab-nama,23 Burandukht is the
daughter of Darab III and princess of Iran.When her
father is killed by Alexander, she rejects Alexander's
proposal tomarry him and becomes theQueen of Iran
and Alexander's fiercest enemy. She is also accom
plished in military matters, thanks to her father's
 HEROINES IN THE ALEXANDER
foresight in instructingher in all the arts that theprinces
learnt in their childhood.24 She raises an army and
moves against Alexander. After her defeat, she flees the
battlefield and regroups her forces. Then she defeats
Alexander near Baghdad and moves westwards to
Aleppo. After several actions she is forced to retreat
eastwards to Istakhr in Fars with Alexander constantly
on her heels. From this point on, she is in continuous
retreat.After many battles she retires to a cave from
which she disappears suddenly, and, with her supernat
ural powers, she sets off forAleppo. It is there that she
decides to go to a nearby mountain and, along with a
female companion, has a bath in the flowing water
there. It is at thatprecise moment thatAlexander passes
and sees them naked. The surprised Burandukht
decides to surrender toAlexander, since he has seen her
naked.25 She recognises Alexander as king of Iran and
then they getmarried.26 After theirmarriage, Alexander
installs Burandukht on the throne of Iran and he
embarks on his quest for the Fountain of Life and his
conquest of the rest of the world. When he reaches
India, he faces strong resistance and asks for
Burandukht's help. With her supernatural powers,
mastering the power ofwater and being invulnerable to
the enemy assaults, she ensures the victory for
Alexander. Then Alexander goes to Mecca and she
returns to Iran.Alexander looks in vain for the Fountain
of Life. He dies in Jerusalem and Burandukht returns to
Iranwhere she dies shortly afterwards.
Starting from the common features of the two
heroines, there are several points to analyse. First, both
Araqlt and Burandukht appear in two quite similar
Persian prose romantic versions of the Alexander
Romance tradition (eleventh-twelfth centuries A.D.).27
Tarsus!'s account is another Persian version of the
Pseudo-Callisthenes' Greek tradition. The author has
skilfully combined two romances and traditions; in the
first part, he narrates the story of Darab II and his son
Darab III,28 while in the second part of the Ddrdb
ndma, he places Alexander's story.29 It is the second
part inwhich Burandukht has the role of protagonist.
The second common point is thatboth heroines are
initiallyAlexander's fiercest adversaries.30 They appear
as Alexander's unbeatable rivals inhis effort to
conquer
their kingdoms and the world. They both
fight
Alexander intensely as warlike heroines in several
combats.31Another common theme is that they are both
queens and leaders of their countries. Araqlt is the
Queen of the Fairyland32 and Burandukht becomes the
TRADITION 229
Queen of Iran after her father's assassination.
Subsequently, they have a strong sense of superiority
and pride. A fourth similarity is that the two heroines
have supernatural powers. Araqit is a female fairywith
huge power on the battlefield: all fairies can fly and
theirmuscular strength is dreadful for the human.33
Burandukht masters thewater and rainfalls, whilst she
is invulnerable to fire; she can disappear and become
invisible.34 Their similarities do not stop there.
Although they constitute a real threat to Alexander's
advancement and plans forworld domination, both are
defeated by Alexander on the battlefield.35 A sixth
common element is that both recognise Alexander's
superiority in their kingdoms.36 Moreover, they both
fall in love with Alexander and vice versa.37 This love
nurtures the plot and leads to the advancement of the
narrative with an ultimate result: both marry
Alexander38 and as a result, both heroines become the
primary female figures inhis life and in thenarrative by
following Alexander in his campaigns and playing the
predominant role in helping him to defeat his
enemies.39
The last and most important common motif in the
two stories is that of the naked virgin seen by the hero.
This motif is well known in the Persian literary
tradition and is also attested in theKhusraw u Shirin.40
It is cited in both narratives but is used by the narrator
in different stages of the story:When Araqit is tempted
by Tafqaj's intentions she says to herself that "he has
"4l The same
seen me naked [and I cannot
betray him]
motif is repeated when Burandukht tellsAlexander that,
since he saw her naked, shewill give up fighting him.42
As for the differences of the two stories, there are
mainly three of these and they can be summarised as
follows. First, Burandukht has a historical role in the
Darab-nama since she is theQueen of Iran, daughter of
Darab and bears the historical name of a short-lived
Sasanian Queen (A.D. 630-32). Burandukht's historical
dimension in the narrative is part of the general
historical aspect of theDarab-nama. Although Tarsusl's
account is legendary, the author uses the historical
element (names, places and political situations) in order
to make his story seem more real.
By contrast, the
historical element is much more diminished in the
Iskandar-nama and Araqit is herself a fully legendary
figure: she is the Queen of the Fairyland. She has a
completely legendary image, since she is semi-human
and semi-fairy (her upper half is human, her lower half
is beastlike). Nevertheless, this vital difference between
 230 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

the two heroines is counterbalanced, or even eliminated, doubt that Burandukht, as a warlike heroine, is not a
by Araqit's totally human-like behaviour. unique literarydevice in the Persian tradition.
The second difference between the two women is With regard to Hanaway's third point about the
their character regarding Alexander. Burandukht is "historical" dimension of Burandukht, it must be
more disciplined and fully devoted toAlexander. She
emphasised that her historical image does not
has two strictly divided profiles in the love story: the contradict the legendary aspect of Araqit in the
first is that of Alexander's fierce adversary and the Iskandar-nama of the warlike heroine as
topos
second is that of his devoted lover,wife and ally. By
adversary and lover ofAlexander.
contrast,Araqit's character ismore unstable. She is also
devoted toAlexander, but her devotion and stability are
shattered by her vulnerability and sexual preference for Notes
young males. Her love affairwith Tafqaj, however, is
brief and of an ambiguous nature (platonic or * The basis of this article was presented at the Tenth
physical?). Once she realises hermistake, she returns to International Conference for Graeco-Oriental and African
her husband's side and reinstates her devotion to him. Studies, organisedby the InstituteforGraeco-Oriental and
In spite of thisparenthesis, Araqit's profile of a devoted African Studies,Athens, 25-28 August 2005.
wife is similar toBurandukht's. 1 Love is a common feature in Persian prose romances, see

The thirddifference is structural and deals with the W.L. Hanaway, "Formal Elements in the Persian Popular
role of the two women in the development of the Romances", p. 141.
narrative. Burandukht appears helping Alexander ener 2 M.W. in
Bloomfield, "Episodic Motivation andMarvels
getically in his effort to find the Fountain of Life. and Romance", p. 105.
Epic
Araqlt, on the other hand, makes her appearance in the
3 J.C. Biirgel, "The Romance" inPersian 161.
Literature, p.

plot afterAlexander's failure to find the Fountain of 4 J. Scott Meisami, Medieval Persian Court Poetry, p. 132.
Life. However, this difference is only a minor structural 5 For the centrality of love in the romances, see eadem,
detail which does not disagree with themain point of "Kings and Lovers. Ethical Dimensions of Medieval
these lines, which is that Araqlt and Burandukht Persian Romance", pp. 1-27.
constitute the same topos. 6
Hanaway, op.cit, pp. 153-54.
From the preceding discussion, it is evident that the 7 War as a
metaphor for love is also attested in the Vis u
similarities are numerous and convincing enough to Ramin in the case ofMubad and his adversaryViru, who
make one question Hanaway's theory, in that he paid combat for Vis's heart, VRP 20. As Meisami comments,
too much attention to a presumably historical the battle scene conveys a moral judgment on the

framework of the Ddrdb-ndma and that it is conse combatants and a general indictment of the use of violence
a
quently hypothetical to suggest that Burandukht is to achieve personal ends. See Meisami, op.cit, p. 101.

legendary manifestation ofAnahita. Taking into consid 8 R. Kruk, "Warrior Women in Arabic Popular Romance.

eration the similarities above and the fact thatAraqlt Qannasa bint Muzahim and other valiant ladies", pp.
has a similar, supernatural, role in the Iskandar-ndma 214?31; eadem, "The Bold and theBeautiful.Women and
(as Burandukht masters thewater, Araqlt masters the 'Fitna' in the Sirat Dhat al-himma: The Story of Nura", pp.

air), the theory of confrontation between Alexander and 100-3.

does not seem convincing enough. Although 9 About this

Anahita stereotype,see L. Ahmed, Women and Gender
the possibility of Burandukht reflectingAnahita cannot in Islam, p. 103.

be entirely excluded, Burandukht could also be seen 10 M.

Gaillard, "Heroines d'exception: Les femmes cayyar

mainly as a legendary warlike heroine, likeAraqlt, and dans la prose romanesque de l'lran medieval", pp. 164-65.

not as Anahita. 11 W.L.

Hanaway, "Darab-Nameh", pp. 8-9.
12
Second, the argument that Burandukht's story is Royal authority in pre-Islamic Iran depended
on divine
in the
unique is negotiable. It is indeed unique only favour and protection. The possession of the Divine
sense that it is not attested in the same narrative form Charisma (Kwarennax or farr), a luminous magic force or

and details (name, places) elsewhere. But the essential power, by the monarch was a fundamental necessity in

identification of Burandukht with Araqltin themotif of order to reign legitimately. See G. Gnoli, art. "Farr", pp.
the warlike heroine, as suggested above, leaves no 312-19; also W.L. Hanaway, Persian Popular Romances
 HEROINES IN THE ALEXANDER TRADITION 231

27 Both accounts
before theSafavid Period, pp. 39-43; idem,"Anahita and belong to the genre of Persian prose
p. 288; idem, art. "Abandokht", p. 61. romances. share common features such as the
Alexander", They
13
ZW, p.288. repetitionof conventional elements (stereotypeddescrip
14 of events, motif
Hanaway, "Anahita and Alexander", p. 288. tions phrases, battles, single combats),
15 Alexandre en Iran. Le Darab on action and an open-ended linear structure, see
Tarsus!, le Grand Ndmeh emphasis
d'Abu Taher Tarsusi, pp. 42?46. Hanaway, "Anahita and Alexander", p. 286.
16 28
IN, p. 354. DN, I: 26; I: 356.
17 In the encounters 29 1:422.
Shdh-ndma, it is Gurdafrid who Suhrab Ibid.,
in single combat. Gurdafrid defends an independent 30
IN, p. 358: 15;DN, 1:469.
31
fortress on behalf of her father, wears male armour and IN, p. 358; DN, I: 471.
32
clothes,and,without revealingher sex, she challenges the IN, p. 353: 2-3.

to single 33
attacker combat. When Suhrab eventually takes Ibid., p. 356: 18-22.

her captivehe realises thatshe is a woman indisguise and 34

DN, I: 533; I: 545; II: 187.
3s
thus he becomes annoyingly embarrassed. Gurdafrid IN, p. 371: 20; DN, 1:471.
36
argues thatitwould be betterto lether go than torisk the 7tf,p.403:4-5;ZW, II: 92.
37
gibes of his fellowswhen theylearnhe has been fightinga IN, p. 28: 19;DN, 11:92.
38
woman. See J. Clinton, "The Uses of Guile in the /TV,p. 405: 15; ZW, 11:92.
39
Shahnamah", pp. 228-29; The Marchioness ofWinchester, IN, p. 704: 7-9; DN, II: 150-51.
Heroines 40 Ed.
of Ancient Iran, pp. 28-30. In the Ddrdb-ndma, Dastgirdi, p. 80.
41
Burandukht personifies the model of a war-like lady IN, p. 554: 4-5.
42
fightingagainstAlexander, DN, 1467; Nizami, Sharaf DN, 11:92.

nama, p. 288; Hanaway, "Anahita and Alexander", p. 287.

18 As
Perry states,themodel of a warlike woman is another
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19
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20
Hanaway, "Formal Elements", p. 157. W.L. 1970. Persian Romances the
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21
Kruk, op.cit.,p. 228.
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22
"Heroines
? 1971. "Formal Elements in the Persian Popular
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23 ?
DN, I: 467. 1982. "Anahita andAlexander", JAOS CII: 285-95.
24 ?
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25 ?
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26
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