Mu 1

Grace Mu

Lori Bedell

CAS 137H 002

11 November 2019

The Rise in American Predominance in Space Exploration

A simple “beep, beep, beep” sound in 1957 marked the beginning of the Space Age, an

era that has seen men land on the moon, nations cooperate on the International Space Station,

and rovers sent to Mars (Lewis). At the time of Sputnik’s launch, its beeping signified a feat

unparalleled by any other, and delivered a message to the world: outer space was now within

humanity’s grasp (Lewis). As the nation responsible for this extraordinary achievement, the

Soviet Union posed a significant threat to the United States’ status as a global superpower (Jha).

Over the next decade, the United States worked to regain its authority, and eventually proved its

preeminence with the Apollo 11 mission to the moon (Jha). While landing a man on the moon

represented the culmination of American superiority in space, the preceding decade was crucial

in developing the necessary infrastructure and support for the nation’s historic space program.

The rise in American predominance in space exploration from the late 1950s to the late 1960s

could be largely attributed to the development of necessary rocket technology at the end of

World War II, psychological and defense-related factors as a result of the Cold War, and

increased domestic legislation.

World War II introduced the first modern rockets to the world, setting the stage for the

era of space exploration and providing the United States with the technology necessary to

become a participant in the space race. Prior to the commencement of World War II, the German
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rocketry movement was beginning to gain momentum, evident by the formation of the Society

for Space Travel (VfR) in 1927 ​(Neufeld)​. However, Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 accelerated

the movement, narrowing its focus to the military applications of rockets ​(Logsdon)​. German

engineer Werhner Von Braun was hired to lead the rocket-development team for the German

Army, and became the driving force behind the creation of the revolutionary V2 rocket in 1942

(Logsdon)​.​ Often regarded as the “world’s first space rocket,” the V2 represented an unforeseen

new type of aerospace weapon (Hollingham 2014). The 14 meter tall rocket was fueled by liquid

ethanol and oxygen, and was capable of carrying a ton of explosives through a trajectory over 80

kilometers high and 190 meters long (Hollingham). The V2 was also significant because it was

the first time a rocket was equipped with an automatic guidance system, which enabled the

rocket to continuously correct its trajectory through onboard gyroscopes (Hollingham). The

groundbreaking technological advancements in the design of the V2 served as the foundation for

the space rockets that the United States and the Soviet Union would develop in the 1950s and

1960s (Hollingham).

The United States, however, would have been unable to appreciate the true potential of

the technological opportunities presented by the V2 without the assistance of Wernher Von

Braun. After surrendering to the United States in 1950, Von Braun and his team of engineers

began working with the U.S. Army in Huntsville, Alabama on what would eventually become

the well-known American space program (Goldman). In 1953, his team developed America’s

first ballistic missile, and five years later, he contributed to the launch of the Jupiter-C, which

propelled America’s first satellite (Explorer I) into space ​(De La Garza)​. Von Braun’s extensive

rocketry knowledge and innovate nature earned him a position as the director of the Marshall
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Space Flight Center in 1960, and made him a valuable asset in giving the Americans the upper

hand in the space race against the Soviet Union ​(De La Garza)​.

The iconic “space race” began in 1955, when the Soviet Union and the United States both

announced plans to launch artificial satellites by 1958 ​(NASA)​. However, the more

widely-recognized beginning of the competition was the Soviet Union’s launch of the first

orbiting satellite, Sputnik, on October 4, 1957 ​(NASA)​. This historic launch initiated a period of

accomplishments and retaliations between the two nations, during which each nation was eager

to assert its dominance over the other ​(NASA)​. Just three months after the launch of Sputnik, the

United States launched Explorer 1, the first U.S. satellite carrying scientific instruments, on

January 31, 1958 ​(NASA)​. The Soviet Union responded with an unprecedented feat, launching

the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into space on April 15, 1961 ​(NASA)​. Gagarin orbited the

Earth, and remained in flight for a total of 108 minutes ​(NASA)​. The United States, reeling in

disappointment and shock, quickly responded with the launch of Freedom 7 on May 5, 1961

(Redd)​. The mission successfully carried astronaut Alan Shephard through a fifteen minute

suborbital flight, and was a monumental step for the Americans in their mission to surpass the

Russians in space exploration ​(Redd)​.

The significance of the space race extended much further than simply a challenge to

rapidly innovate and invent. The race occurred in the midst of the Cold War, which was a period

of ideological tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from the end of

World War II to the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 (Space Race). The Cold War encouraged

both countries to demonstrate military and technological superiority, and space exploration

became a new field in which they could do so (Space Race). In addition to actively participating
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in the space race, both nations began stockpiling V2 rockets and thermonuclear weapons, further

emphasizing the sense of urgency for one nation to assert its dominance over the other (Space

Race). Although the Soviet Union initially proved its dominance in the realm of space

exploration, several factors related to the Cold War spurred Americans to ultimately assert

themselves as the leaders in space exploration (McIntyre).

One of the largest reasons for the rise in American predominance in space exploration

was the psychological effect that the increase in prestige of the Soviet Union had on the

American people. Prestige, defined as “the power to command esteem,” was at the core of global

leadership, and was key to establishing hegemony during the Cold War (​Values in the Space

Race)​. The United States, which regarded itself as a global leader due to its high achievement

and resolve, had grown accustomed to wielding a large amount of prestige from both

technological and ideological standpoints (​Values in the Space Race)​. However, in successfully

reaching significant space milestones such as launching a satellite and a man into orbit before the

Americans, the Soviet Union stole certain technological prestige from the United States (​Values

in the Space Race)​. In gaining this prestige, the Soviet Union earned global credibility, and

strengthened the ideological implication that their successes in space exploration could be

attributed to the effectiveness of communism (​Values in the Space Race)​. Yet, for the American

people, this implication seemed less like an idea, and more like a tangible threat ​(Timeline)​. The

fact that Sputnik was actively orbiting the Earth sixteen times a day and continuously passing

over American territory made Americans feel helpless, which had a powerful effect on their

psyche ​(Timeline)​. This psychological effect spurred the United States to accelerate its space
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program in order to reassert its technological dominance, protect the American public, and

remain the leader of the free democracies of the world ​(Timeline)​.

As the tension between the United States and the Soviet Union increased, fears of a

growing “missile gap” created a need for American superiority in space exploration due to

national security reasons. The Soviet Union’s command of advanced technology exhibited

through its satellite launches created a fear that the nation could use the same technology to

create “intercontinental ballistic missiles” (Licklider 600). The potential existence of these

missiles strengthened the threat of nuclear war, distressing both the American public and

government. Government propaganda and television shows such as ​The Twilight​ ​Zone

heightened fears of nuclear war, and pushed the American public to support rapid advancements

in space as a form of preparation for combat ​("The Start Of The Space Race")​. In his 1960

election campaign, John F. Kennedy capitalized upon the concept of the “missile gap” in order to

continue to increase support for bolstering the American space program (Snead 46). The most

influential event, however, was the Cuban Missile Crisis, which could be described as “the most

dangerous confrontation in nearly fifty years of Cold War between the United States and the

Soviet Union” (George 20). The thirteen day period of American negotiations with the Soviet

Union following the discovery of missiles in Cuba made the “missile gap” seem like a terrifying

reality, furthering support for the space program as a necessary means of protection (George

159).

Legislation in support of American investment in space was also key in advancing

American predominance in outer space. While President Eisenhower created legislation that

initiated the process of American space exploration, President Kennedy’s policies propelled the
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nation to the forefront of exploration (Snead 88). The Eisenhower administration intended to

seek the “development of U.S. outer space capabilities” in order “to achieve U.S. scientific,

military and political purposes, and to establish the U.S. as a recognized leader in this field”

(Snead 88). In July 1958, President Eisenhower signed into effect the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA), which was an organization that would “plan, direct, and conduct

aeronautical and space activities” (Snead 88). By enabling the creation of NASA, Eisenhower

played a role in facilitating research projects such as the Mercury astronaut program and Project

Gemini (Garber and ​Launius​). Project Apollo, which landed an American man on the moon, can

more closely be attributed to Kennedy’s leadership as President of the United States (Snead 94).

Kennedy, who was concerned that the United States was “behind, possibly as much as

several years, in the race for control of outer space,” centered his political campaign around a

desire to unite the nation in facing the “opportunities and perils” of a “New Frontier” (Snead 89).

He promised to enact policies that would “strengthen American prestige,” and shifted his focus

to greatly boosting Eisenhower’s space program (Snead 89). In 1961, Kennedy announced his

commitment to landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade, and consequently approved

an “accelerated program of spacecraft development” known as the Apollo program (Snead 93).

Congress allotted a budget of $2.8 billion to the program in 1962, but spending on this program

increased to $6 billion by 1965 (Snead 93). Kennedy remained committed to funding NASA and

the Apollo program, insisting that “an energetic continuation of [the nation’s] strong space effort

[was] essential” in order to prevail in the space race against the Soviet Union (Snead 94).

The Americans were ultimately able to establish their superiority in space exploration

with the successful landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on July 20, 1969 (Space Race). About half
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a billion people around the world watched the lunar landing, effectively proving the dominance

of the United States over the Soviet Union on a global scale (Space Race). Apollo 11 represented

the end of a decade of ceaseless research and technological breakthroughs, as well as the height

of public support for the space program (Space Race). By the early 1970s, the American public

began to question whether the billions of dollars that the government had funneled toward space

exploration had been justified (Space Race). With social and economic issues that needed

resolutions at home, the public lost interest in watching government spending and energy get

directed toward unnecessary missions into space (Space Race). The Apollo 17 flight in 1972

marked the last of the manned missions to the moon, before NASA shifted its priorities toward

unmanned space exploration and the development of the space shuttle (Space Race). One of

NASA’s most symbolic post-Apollo 11 projects was the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which

enabled the U.S. Apollo to dock with the Russian Soyuz spacecraft in space (​Redmond)​. An

iconic handshake between Apollo commander Thomas P. Stafford and Soyuz commander

Aleksey A. Leonov upon docking signified the end of an era of tension between the two nations

in the field of space exploration (​Redmond)​. The joint mission not only permitted the nations to

interact in a friendly manner, but also allowed the astronauts to conduct scientific demonstrations

together, foreshadowing the United States’ and Soviet Union’s future collaboration on the

International Space Station (Garber and ​Launius​).

Although American dominance in space exploration is often solely attributed to the Cold

War, it is important to recognize the other factors that influenced its accelerated space program.

Without the availability of rocket technology following World War II, and the help of Werhner

Von Braun’s extensive rocketry knowledge and vision for space travel, the United States would
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have been unable to become such a prevalent participant in the space race. The psychological

effect of the Soviet Union’s perceived dominance in the space race and the fear of a growing

“missile gap” spurred the U.S. to rapidly advance its presence in space. Legislation created by

both President Eisenhower and President Kennedy also elevated the importance of American

preeminence in space by allocating substantial funding toward an organized space exploration

agency. Regardless of which of these factors played the largest role in the increase of American

predominance in space exploration, the legacy of the United States in the field of space research

has been long-lasting (Jha). Along with the Soviet Union, the United States has used its

leadership role to aid in the development of other nation’s space programs (Jha), ensuring that

outer space is truly open to all of humanity.

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Works Cited

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