20

r INTRODUCTION
Severalimportant theorems were covered in Chapter8
with emphasison their applications in the analysisof
dc circuits. This chapter is a continuation of that cov-
erage with emphasison applications in the analysisof
ac circuits with reactive elements.
The theoremsin this chapter make analysiseas-
ier for certain types of circuits. These methods do not

CIRCUIT replace Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws, but they are
normally used in conjunction with those laws in cer-
tain situations.
THEOREMS Although you are already familiar with the theo-
rems covered in this chapter, a restatementof therr
IN AC ANALYSIS purposesmay be helpful. The superpositiontheorem
will help you to deal with circuits that have multiple
sources.Thevenin'sand Norton's theoremsprovide
20-1 The Superposition
Theorem methods for reducing a circuit to a simple equivalent
form for easier analysis.The maximum power transfer
20-2 Thevenin's
Theorem
theorem is used in applications where it is important
20-3 Norton'sTheorem for a given circuit to provide maximum power to a
20-4 MaximumPowerTransfer load.
Theorem In the TECH TIP assignmentin Section20-5,
20-5 TechnologyTheoryinto Practice you will evaluate a band-passfilter module to deter-
mine its internal component values, and you will
apply Thevenin's theorem to determine an optimum
Workbench(EWB)and
ffi Electronics
PSpiceTutorialsat
http://www.prenhalLcom/floyd
load impedancefor maximum power transfer.
r TECHnology
Theorv
Into
Practice

Band-pass filter
module

rN c,ro ioui

r CHAPTER
OBIECTIVES
tr Apply the superpositiontheorem to ac circuit tr Apply Norlon's theorem to simplify reactive ac
analysis circuits
A Apply Thevenin's theorem to simplify reactive ac tr Apply the maximum power transfer theorem
circuits for analysis
794 T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

2O-1 . THE SUPERPOSITION

THEOREM
The superposition theorem w&s introduced in Chapter I for ase in dc circait analysi*
In this section, the superposition theorem is applied to circuits with ac sources and
reuctive elements.
After completing this section, you should be sble to
r Apply the superposition theorem to ac circuit analysis
. State the superpositiontheorem
. List the stepsin applying the theorem

The superposition theorem can be stated as follows:

The current in any given branch of a multiple-source circuit can be

found by determining the currents in that particular branch produced
by each source acting alone, with all other sources replaced by their
internal impedances. The total current in the given branch is the phasor
sum of the individual source currents in that branch.

The procedure for the application of the superpositiontheorem is as follows:

Step 1. Leave one of the sourcesin the circuit, and replace all others with their inter-
nal impedance. For ideal voltage sources,the internal impedance is zero. For
ideal current sources,the intemal impedance is infinite. We will call this pro-
cedure zeroing the source.
Step 2. Find the cunent in the branch of interestproduced by the one remaining source.
Step 3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for each source in turn. When complete, you will havea
number of current values equal to the number of sourcesin the circuit.
Step 4. Add the individual current values as phasor quantities.

The following three examplesillustrate this procedure.

Find the current in R of Figure 20-1 using the superposition theorem. Assume the
internal source impedancesare zero.

FIGURE2O-1 c1

0.01prF
V,r vrz
1020"v 820"V
J=10kHz /= 10kHz

Solution
Step 1. ReplaceV,twith its internalimpedance(zero),andfind the currentin R due
to V"1,as indicatedinFigure 20-2.

FIGURE2O-2 cr c2

0.01pF 0.02pF
%r
1020"v
f = 10k}jz
 THEOREM. 795
THESUPERPOSITION

= l =l.59ko
X.,=,f
2tr[CI 2n(l0 kHzlt}.0| pFr

X e 1= , ] = = - - L =196d)
2nfC2 2n(10kHz)(O.02
p.F)
Looking from V"r,the impedanceis
RXs,
Z =X., * = 1.591-90"ke + 0'010" kQ)(1961-90"Q)
R + X., 1.0kO - i196A
= 1.59.1-90'kA + 6222-51.5'O
= -jt.59 kQ + 387A - j481O = 387O -j2.08 kO
Convertingto polar form yields
Z = 2.122-19.5' kO
The total curent from source 1 is

1",=E= - -t9'liI. - =4.t2tte.5"mA

z 2 . 1 2 1 - 1 9 . 5 "k Q

Use the current-divider formula. The current through R due to V", is

t., = (I-4!L\t., ( a,
= !e64-e0" \+.tzz'tg.s" ' " ^o
- jxr,
\ R ) - ' ' \ t . ok o - j i 9 6 a ) " ' - - '
= (0.6232-51.5" {>)(4.12279.5' mA)= 2.94128.0" mA
Step2. Find the current in R due to source V,2by replacing %, with its internal
impedance (zero), as shown in Figure 20-3.

F I C U R E2 O - 3

V"z
820"V
-f = l0 kHz

LookingfromV,2,the impedance
is
RX.'
rq' = vA c 2- = 7961-90"{, + (1.020' kA)0.59t-90' kO)
R + xcr l.0kfl ,li, kf,
= 1962-90' Q + 847Z-32.2' Q,
=-j796{L+111 O - j 4 5 I C 2 = l l lA - j n 4 7 A
Convertingto polar form yields
Z = 1438/-60.1'f)
The total currentfrom source2 is
_ v-. 810" v
l" = = 5 ' 5 6 2 6 0 ' lm
' A
t t+zal4rLf o=
Usethe current-dividerformula.The currentthroughR dueto V"2is
-l p ) =
/xctl-go" \-l I . '
l-
\ R-.iXc' l "
= ( . ! ?Yu.?" =\^? r" mA= 4..t
=)s.roroo. 0Z2j.eomA
\ r . 0k o- j r . s 9k o/
796 I CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

Step 3. Convert the two individual resistor currents to rectangular form and add to
get the total current through R.

lm = 2.94228.0' mA = 2.60 mA + jl.3g mA

l a z = 4 . 7 0 / 2 ' 1 . 9 om A = 4 . 1 5 m A + j 2 . 2 0 m A
In = Inr +lR2= 6.75 mA + j3.58 mA=7.64227.9. mA
Related Prohlem Determine IR if V"2 = 8ll80o V in Figure 20-1.

EXAMPLE
2O-2 Find the coil cur:rentin Figure 20-4. Assume the sourcesare ideal.

FICURE2O-4 C

I"z
30190" mA

Solution
step 1. Find the current through the inductor due to cunent source 1"1by replacing
source1"2with an open, as shown in Figure 20-5. As you can see,the entire
100 mA from the current source1,1is through the coil.

FIGURE2O-5 C

Step 2. Find the current through the inductor due to current source 1"2by replacing
source 1"1with an open, as indicated in Figure 20-6. Notice that all of the
30 mA from source1"2is through the coil.

F I C U R E2 0 - 6 (.

Step 3. To get the total inductor current, superimposethe two individualcurrentsand

add as phasor quantities.

lr=lr, + I'
= 70020' mA+ 30290o mA = 100 mA +j30 mA
= 104216.7" mA

Related Problem Find the current through the capacitor in Figure20-4.

 OHNE O R E M .
T H E S U P E R P O S I T IT 797

EXAMPTE 20-3 Find the total current in the resistor R1 in Figure 20*7. Assume the sourcesare ideal.

FIGURE20-7 c

0.22pF Rl
V"r 1.0ko RL
520" V rms 2ko
- vsz
f = IkHz - 15V

Solution
Step 1. Find the current through R1 due to source V"1by zeroing (replacing with its
internal impedance) the dc source V52,as shown in Figure 20-8. Looking
from V"1,the impedanceis

z=xc.+#
| = 7 2 3I
X-. *
2n(1.0kllz)(0.22p.F)
(1'020" kflx2z0' kQ)
z = 7232-g0"O +
320'k{,
= -j723 9 + 667dl = 9842-47.3"C,
The total curent from source1 is

r^,,=E = - ,t(ol.-Y--
^ =5-082473"
mA
z 9842.-47.3'{L
Usethe current-dividerapproach.The currentin R; dueto V"1is
*' l'0 ko\5
I o , , " ,=, / \ t '. ', - / . 0 8 r 4 i . 3 "n A = 1 . 6 9 2 4 7 . m
3 "A
\Rr+RLl \ 3 kA /

Irr,
Rr
520'V rms 2ko
f =lffiz

FIGURE2O-B FIGURE2O-9

Step 2. Find the current in R1 due to the dc source V52by zeroing V"1(replacing with
its internal impedance), as shown in Figure 20-9.The impedancemagnitude
as seenby Vs2is
Z=Rr*R.=3Lg2
The currentproducedby V52is

IRz(sz)=
ry=#=5mAdc
798 T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

Step3. By superposition,the total current in R. is 1.69241.3" mA riding on a dc

level of 5 mA, as indicated in Figure 20-10.

FICURE20-10 Ir.

Related Problem Determine the current through RLlf Vs2is changed to 9 V.

sEcTloN20-1 l. If two equal currentsare in opposing directionsat any instant of time in a given
REVIEW branchof a circuit, what is the net current at thal"instant?
2. Why is the superpositiontheoremuseful in the analysisof multiple-source
3. Using the superposition theorem, find the magnitude of the current through R in
Figure20-tl.

FtcuRE20-11

2O_2. THEVENIN'S
THEOREM
Thevenin's theorem, as applied to ac circuits, provides a method for reducing any cir'
cuit to an equivalentform that consi.stsof an equivalent ac voltage soarce in serieswith
an equivalerutimp edance.
After completing this section' you should be able to
r Apply Thevenin's theorem to simplify reactive ac circuits for analysis
. Describe the form of a Thevenin equivalent circuit
. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent ac voltage source
. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent impedance
. List the stepsin applying Thevenin's theorem to an ac circuit
 T H E V E N I N 'TSH E O R E M . 799

The form of Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 20-12. Regardlessof how
complex the original circuit is, it can always be reduced to this equivalent form. The
equivalent voltage source is designatedYx,; the equivalent impedance is designated2,1,
(lowercaseitalic subscript denotesac quantity). Notice that the impedanceis represented
by a block in the circuit diagram. This is becausethe equivalent impedancecan be of sev-
eral forms: purely resistive, purely capacitive, purely inductive, or a combination of a
resistanceand a reactance.

F I G U R E2 O - 1 2
Thevenin'sequivalentcircuit.

Equivalency
Figure 20-13(a) shows a block diagram that representsan ac circuit of any given com-
plexity. This circuit has two output terminals, A and B. A load impedance, 27, is con-
nected to the terminals. The circuit produces a certain voltage, V1, and a certain current,
L. as illustrated.

zrn

tu)V,l vr lr,
v -

B
(b)

F I G U R E2 O - 1 3
An ac circuit of any complexity can be reduced to a Thevenin equivalent for analysis
purposes.

By Thevenin's theorem, the circuit in the block can be reduced to an equivalent

form, as indicated in the beige area of Figure 20-13(b). The term equivalent means that
when the same value of load is connected to both the original circuit and Thevenin's
equivalent circuit, the load voltages and currents are equal for both. Therefore, as far as
the load is concerned,there is no difference between the original circuit and Thevenin's
equivalent circuit. The load "sees" the same current and voltage regardlessof whether it
is connected to the original circuit or to the Thevenin equivalent. For ac circuits, the
equivalent circuit is for one particular frequency. When the frequency is changed, the
equivalent circuit must be recalculated.
B O O T C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

Thevenin'sEquivalentVoltage(V,6)
As you have seen,the equivalentvoltage, V,7,,is one part of the complete Thevenin equiv-
alent circuit.

Thevenin's equivalent voltage is defined as the open circuit voltage

between two specified terminals in a circuit.

To illustrate, let's assumethat an ac circuit of some type has a resistor connected

between two specified terminals, A and B, as shown in Figure 20-14(a). We wish to find
the Thevenin equivalentcircuit for the circuit as "seen" by R. V,7,is the voltage acrosster-
minals A and B, with R removed, as shown in part (b) of the figure. The circuit is viewed
from the open across terminals A and B, and R is considered external to the circuit for
which the Thevenin equivalent is to be found. The following three examples show how to
Iind V,7,.

(a) Circuit (b) With R removed

F I G U R E2 O - 1 4
How Ys, is determined.

EXAMPTE 20-4 Determine V,7,for the circuit external to R; in Figure 20-15. The beige area identifies
the porlion of the circuit to be thevenized.

F I G U R E2 O _ 1 5

100C)
v"
2520"V

Solution Remove R, and determine the voltage from A to B (Y,,).In this case,the
voltage from A to B is the same as the voltage acrossX;. This is determined using the
voltage-divider method.

rr I XLZ90" \,, 1 50290" Q

" 252.0'Y= I1.2263.4'Y
\Rr+jXt) \112126.6"Q
Y tn= Y ea = Y L = 11.2263.4" Y
Related Problem Determine Vr, if R1 is changed to 47 Q in Figure 20-15.
EXAMPLE 20-5 For the circuit in Figure 20-16, determine the Thevenin voltage as seenby R1.

F t c u R E2 0 - 1 6

Solution Thevenin's voltage for the circuit between terminals A utd B is the voltage
that appearsacrossA and B with R1 removed from the circuit.
There is no voltage drop acrossR2 becausethe open across terminals A and B
preventscurrent through it. Thus, Vas is the sameas V62 and can be found by the volt-
age-divider formula.
xczl-9j" l'52-90'ko
V,. = v-, = [ -.rXcr- \v" = / \tozo"v
\ Rr iXrz) \ 0 kA -i3 kO/
l
- ( 1'51-90" ka
\tozo" y = 4151-18.4'v
\3.162-11.6'kQ/
Ytn= Yen= 4.752-18.4"Y
Related Problem Determine V,7,if R1 is changedto 2.2kQ in Figure 20-16.

EXAMPLE
20-6 For Figure 20-11 , find V,a for the circuit external to R..

F T G U R2E0 - 1 7 x.

R
10ko

Solution First remove R1 and determine the voltage acrossthe resulting open termi-
nals, which is V,7,.Find V,7,by applying the voltage-divider formula to X6and R.

' = ( :t9: \v, = f;*q*

v,,= vR ^ )sro"u
\R-jx./' \ r0ko-jl0ko/
=( tozo' ug> \szo' Y = 3.s424s"
Y
\14.141-45' kQ I
Notice the L has no effect on the result, since the 5 V source appearsacross C and R
in combination.
Related Problem Find V,7,if R is 22 kQ and R1 is 39 kO in Figure 20-17.
BO2 I CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

Thevenin's lmpedance (Ztn)

Equivalent
The previous examplesillustrated how to find only one part of a Thevenin equivalentcir-
cuit. Now, let's turn our attention to determining the Thevenin equivalent impedance,Z,1,.
As defined by Thevenin's theorem,

Thevenin's equivalent impedance is the total impedance appearing

between two specified terminals in a given circuit with all sources
replaced by their internal impedances.

Thus, when you wish to find Z,l,between any two terminals in a circuit, all the voltage
sourcesare replacedby a short (any internal impedanceremains in series).Al1 the cunent
sources are replaced by an open (any internal impedance remains in parallel). Then the
total impedancebetween the two terminals is determined.The following three examples
illustrate how to find Z,y.

EXAMPTE
2O-7 Find Zn for the part of the circuit in Figure 20-18 that is externalto R,. This is the
same circuit used in Example 204.

F I G U R E2 O - 1 8

100f,)
v,
2520'V

Solution First, replace V" with its internal impedance (zero), as shown in Figure
20-19.

FIGURE
2O-19
I
I
I
I Ztn
I
I
I

Lookingin betweenterminalsA andB, R andXl arein parallel.Thus,

ry = -(R110")(xLzg0")= Q0020" ox50zg0" o)

"'h Rt + jxL- roo (z + /--.50
o
_ (10020' ox50z90' Q)
= 44,6263.4.dL
112126.6{t
RelatedProblem Change\ to 47 Q anddetermine2,7,.
 THEVENINT
' SH E O R E M

EXAMPLE 20-B For the circuit in Figure 20-20, determine Zs, ts saenby R;. This is the same circuit
used in Example 20-5.

FtcuRE20-20

Solution First. replace the voltage source with its internal impedance (zero), as
shown in Figure 20:21.

F I G U R E2 0 - 2 1 T

Looking from terminals A and B, C2 appearsin parallel with the series combi-
nation of R1 and C1. This entire combination is in series with Rr. The calculation for
Z,yis as follows:

*V(2{F=Pi
z,n=Rzloo jxa - jxc2
h-
=56otoon.#
kO)
(1'52-9-0'FOX1'82-56'3"
= 56010"()+
3.t61-11.6"k{t
= 56020"Q + 8541-74.7o{r= 560 O + 225 Q - j824O
= 785 Q - j824Q = 11382-46.4" O

RelatedProblem DetermineZth if Rr is changedto 2.2 kQ in Figure20-20.

B O 4 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

EXAMPLE
2O-9 For the circuit in Figure 20-22, determine 2,7, for the portion of the circuit externalto
R.. This is the same circuit as in Example 20-6.

F I G U R E2 0 - 2 2

Solution With the voltage source replaced by its internal impedence (zero), X. is
effectively out of the circuit. R and c appear in parallel when viewed from the open
terminals, as indicated in Figure 20-23. 2,6 is calculatedas follows:
( lozo"kftxloz- 90"ko)
,,,. =W- - = 7'07Z -45' kO
R jxc l4.rr-41.6:

FIGURE20-23 X^

I
I
I
:.!i:l
l.i:i
irl:.

Related Problem Find 2,61f R is 22 kQ and R. is 39 kf) in Figure 20-22.

EXAMPTE
20-10 20-24
that
isexternar
to
ilTr'li]lt?n':#:'Jfil';:ffi,::'i311fi1[.i*'re
FICURE20-24

100C)
v,
2520"y

Solution From Examples 204 and 20-l , respectively,Y tn = Il .2263.4. Y and 2,7
= 44.6263.4" Q. In rectangular form, the impedanceis

Z,n=20O+j40O
This form indicates that the impedanceis a 20 Q resistor in serieswith a 40 Q induc-
tive reactance.The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 20-25.
 T H E V E N I N ,TSH E O R E MI 805

FIGURE20_25

1r.2163.4"
v

Related Problem Draw the Thevenin eouivalent circuit for Fieure 2O-24 with
4',7Q.

EXAMPLE20_11 For the circuit in Figure 20*26, sketch the Thevenin equivalent circuit external to R1.
This is the circuit used in Examples 20-5 and 20-8.

FTGURE
20-26
R]

Solution From Examples 20-5 and 20-8, respectively,Y*= 4.J52-18.4'V and

Ztn = 11382-464" f). In rectangularform, the impedanceis
Ztn= 785 A - j824 A

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 20-21 .

FIGURE20-27 z,n

4.752-r8.4"
V

Related Prohlem Sketch the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit in Figure 20-26
with Rt = 2.2 kd).
B06 ! C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

EXAMPLE20_12 For the circuit in Figure 20-28, determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seenby
R.. This is the circuit in Examples 20-6 and20-9.

F I G U R E2 0 - 2 8

R
10ko

Solution From Examples 20-6 and 20-9, respectively,Y tn = 354245" , and Zx, =
7 .OiZ-45" kQ. The impedancein rectangular form is

Z,n= 5 kf) - j5 kO

Thus, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure 20-29.

FIGURE20-29 Ztn

3.54245"V

Related Problem Change R to 22 kQ and R, to 39 kO

the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Thevenin's
Equivalent
Circuit
The previous examples have shown how to find the two equivalent components of a
Thevenincircuit, YTpandZx,.Keepin mind that Vr7,and2,6 can be found for any circuit.
Once these equivalentvalues are determined,they must be connectedin seriesto form the
Thevenin equivalent circuit. The following examples use the previous examples to illus-
trate this final step.

Summaryof Thevenin's
Theorem
Remember that the Thevenin equivalent circuit is always a voltage sourcein serieswith a
resistanceregardlessof the original circuit that it replaces.The significance of Thevenin's
theorem is that the equivalent circuit can replace the original circuit as far as any external
load is concerned.Any load connectedbetween the terminals of a Thevenin equivalent
circuit experiencesthe same current and voltage as if it were connectedto the terminals
of the original circuit.
A summary of steps for applying Thevenin's theorem follows.

Step 1. Open the two terminals between which you want to find the Thevenin circuit,
This is done by removing the component from which the circuit is to be
viewed.
 NORTON,STHEOREM . 807

Step 2. Determine the voltage acrossthe two open terminals.

Step 3. Determine the impedanceviewed from the two open terminals with ideal volt-
age sourcesreplaced with shorts and ideal current sourcesreplaced with opens
(zeroed).
Step 4. ConnectVr7,andZ,Tinseies to producethe completeThevenin equivalentcircuit.

sEcTroN20-2 1".What are the two basic componentsof a Thevenin equivalent ac circuit?
REVIEW 2. For a certaincircuit,Zn=25 O - j50 fl. and Ytn=5/:0o V. Sketchthe Thevenin
equivalentcircuit.
3. For the circuit in Figure 20-30, find the Thevenin equivalentlooking from terminals
A and B.

FIGURE20-30

2O-3 r NORTON'STHEOREM
Like Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorem provides a method of reducing & more
complex circuit to a simpler, more msnageableform for analysis. The basic dffirence
is that Norton's theorem gives an equivalent cument source (rather thsn a voltage
source) in parallel (rather than in series) with an equivalent impedance.

After completing this section, you should be uhle to

r Apply Norton's theorem to simplify reactive ac circuits
. Describe the form of a Norton equivalent circuit
. Obtain the Norton equivalent ac current source
. Obtain the Norton equivalent impedance

The form of Nofion's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 20-31. Regardless of how
complex the original circuit is, it can be reduced to this equivalent form. The equivalent
current sourceis designatedI,, and the equivalent impedanceis Z, (lowercaseitalic sub-
script denotesac quantity).
Nortonts theorem shows you how to find I, and 2,. Once they are known, simply
connect them in parallel to get the complete Norton equivalent circuit.

FIGURE20-31
Norton equivalentcircuit.
BOB T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

Norton/sEquivalent
CurrentSource(1")
I, is one part of the Norton equivalent circuit; Z, is the other pafi.

Norton's equivalent current is defined as the short-circuit current

between two specified terminals in a given circuit.
Any load connectedbetween these two terminals effectively "sees" a cuffent sourceI, in
paralfel with 2,.
To illustrate, let's supposethat the circuit shown in Figure 20-32has a load resis-
tor connectedto terminals A and B, as indicated in part (a). We wish to find the Norton
equivalent for the circuit external to R.. To flnd I,, calculate the current between termi-
nals A and B with those terminals shorted, as shown in part (b). Example 20-13 shows
how to find I,.

FIGURE20-32
How Io is determined.

(a) Circuit with load resistor (b) Load is replaced by short and
shoft circuit current is In.

EXAMPLE 20-1J In Figure2u33, determine r, for the circuitas ,.seen,,bytheloadresistor.Thebeige

areaidentifiesthe portionof the circuit to be nortonized.

F I C U R E2 0 - 3 3

Solution Short the terminals A andB, as shown in Fisure 20-34.

FIGURE20-34

I, is the current through the short and is calculated as follows. First, the total
impedanceviewed from the source is

Z = Xct * =RX=!, = 50/-90" e + 6620" Q)(1002-90" sr)

R+X., 56(.)-1100f2
= 502-90" Q + 48.91-29.3"O
= -j50 Q + 42.6A - j23.9 CL= 42.6A - il3.9 A
 NORTON'S
THEOREM

Converting to polar form yields

Z = 85.32-60.0' Q
Next, the total current from the source is

I" = 5 = - ,9oto"' =703260.0"

mA
z 85.32-60.0. Q
Finally, apply the current-divider formula to get In (the current through the short
between terminals A and B).

t,,
"
= (=-\-)I, ' = l,;+4q* nA = 3442r2r.
^-\tozzoo.o" mA
\ R + X c zI -
\ 5 6 o j t 0 0O / '
This is the valuefor the equivalentNortoncurrentsource.
Related Prohlem DetermineIn if v" is changedto 2520" v and R is chansedto
33 Q in Fisure20-33.

Norton'sEquivalentlmpedance(Zn)
Z, is defined the same as zr7: rt is the total impedance appearing between two specified
terminals of a given circuit viewed from the open terminals with all sourcesreplaced by
their internal imoedances.

''
EXAMPLE20_14 Find z, for the circuit in Figure 20-33 (Example 20-13) viewed from the open across II
terminals A and B.

solution First, replace v" with its internal impedance (zero), as indicated in Figure
l
i
20-35.
l
FlcuRE20-35 xct
-l#
50f,) 100c)
R Z,
s6c)
I

Looking in between terminals A and B, C2 is in series with the parallel combi_

nation of R and C1.Thus,

z, = xr-"* =St- = t00l_-90"e + (5620" QX50z-90' Q)

R+X., 56O_i50O
= l00Z-90' Q + 31.32-48.2.Q
= - j 1 0 0{ L + 2 4 . 8 f J *j z j . 8 { L = 2 4 . 8O - i 1 2 S O
The Nortonequivalentimpedanceis a 24.8C)resistance
in serieswith a 128C)caoac-
itive reactance.
RelatedProblem Find Zn in Figure 20-33 if Y, = 2510. V andR = 33 C).
810 r C I R C U I T H E O R E MlSN A C A N A L Y S I S

The previous two exampleshave shown how to find the two equivalent components
of a Norton equivalent circuit. Keep in mind that these values can be found for any given
ac circuit. Once these values are known, they are connectedin parallel to form the Nor-
ton equivalent circuit, as the following example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 20-15 Show the complete Norlon equivalent circuit for the circuit in Figure 20-33 (Example
20_13).

Solution From Examples 20-13 and 20-14, respectively,l" = 3442121' mA and

Z, = 24.8 A - jl28 Q. The Nofton equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 20-36.

FtcuRE20-36
A
24.8A
t, zn
3441121"mA n8a

Related Problem Show the Norton equivalent for the circuit in Figure 20-33
Y, = 2520'V and R = 33 Q.

Summaryof Norton'sTheorem
Any load connectedbetween the terminals of a Norton equivalent circuit will have the
same current through it and the same voltage acrossit as it would when connectedto the
terminals of the original circuit. A summary of steps for theoretically applying Norton's
theorem is as follows:

Step 1. Replacethe load connectedto the two terminals between which the Norton cir-
cuit is to be determined with a short.
Step 2. Determine the current through the short. This is I,.
Step 3. Open the terminals and determine the impedancebetween the two open termi-
nals with all sourcesreplaced with their intemal impedances.This is Zn.
Step 4. Connect ln and Z, in parallel.

SECTION20-3 1. For a given circuit, I, = 510' mA, and Z, = 150 O + j100 C).Draw the Norton
REVIEW equivalentcircuit.
) Find the Nortoncircuit as seenby R1in Figure20-37.

FIGURE20-37

v_
's I 1.2kO
1.220"V
R,
Lc
1800c)
 M A X I M U MP O W E RT R A N S F ETRH E O R E MT 8 1 1

2O_4I MAXIMUM POWERTRANSFER

THEOREM
When a load is connected to a circuit, rnuximum power is transferred to the load when
the loud impedance is the complex conjugate of the circait's outptut impedance.
After completing this section, you should be sble to
r Apply the maximum power transfer theorem
. Explain the theorem
. Determine the value of load impedance for which maximum power is transferred
from a siven circuit

The complex conjugate of R - jX6 is R + jX1, where the resistancesand the reactances
are equal in magnitude.The output impedanceis effectively Thevenin's equivalent imped-
ance viewed from the output terminals. When Zl is the complex conjugate of Zou,, max-
imum power is transfered from the circuit to the load with a power factor of 1. An equiv-
alent circuit with its output impedanceand load is shown in Figure 2V38.

FIGURE20-38
Equivalentcircuit with load. Zout

)o,
K
Example 20-16 shows that maximum power occurs when the impedancesare con-
jugately matched.

EXAMPLE
20_16 The circuit to the left of terminals A and B in Figure 20-39 provides power to the load
27. This can be viewed as simulating a power amplifier delivering power to a complex
load. It is the Thevenin equivalent of a more complex circuit. Calculate and plot a
graph of the power delivered to the load for each of the following frequencies:
10 kHz, 30 kHz, 50 kHz, 80 kHz, and 100 kHz.

FIGURE20-39
812 r C I R C U I T H E O R E MlSN A C A N A L Y S I S

Solution For/= 10kHz,

xr=|-= -- -]- =l.59kQ

ZnfC 2n(10kHz)(0.01pF)
Xr = 2nfL = 2n(10kHz)(l mH) = 62'8A
The magnitudeof the total impedanceis
4o,=@=@=1.53kQ
The curent is
tou, =6.5lmA
I- = v ' =
Z,o, 1.53kQ
The load power is
pr= I2Rr= (6.54mA)'z(loQ) = 428p.W
For/= 30kIIz,
I = 5'll Q
lt =
znt:o t Hrlro.otlrn
Xr= 2n(30kHz)(l mH) = 199g
z,o,=f 120ful\ 1342{)l' = 343o
v, - lov =29.2mA
'r*=
Z,o, 3$ A-'
pt= I2Rt= Q9.2mA)2(10Q) = 8.53mW

For/= 50 kHz,
1
X'- = = 3 1 8A
prF)
2n(50kHz)(0.01
Xr=2n(50kHz)(l mH) = 314g
Note that Xs und Xy are very close to being equal which makes the impedances
approximately complex conjugates.The exact frequency at which Xr= Xc is 50.3 kHz.
2,, = f (20 Q)2 + (4 tL)2= 2o'4 Q'
lov =-l9omA
t=!'--
Zro, 20.4 A
Pr= I2Rr= (490 mA)2(10Q) = 2.40 W
For/= 80 kHz,

xc=- ^^_l-=1994
2n(80kHz)(0.01pF1
Xr=2n(80 kHz)(l mH) = 563g
z,o,={@ e)f * 1304fll' = 305Q

j,=T;,=
=t::^^;:T =1o
8mw
For f= 100kHz.
v _
Ac- =159Q
2n(100kHz)(0.01pF)
v _
A L - 2n(100kHzXl mH) = 623g
7 - x@8; @61elf= 46etL
 MAXIMUM POWERTRANSFER
THEOREM T 813

i,=,',;,=#^^;,;r,=4.54
mw
As you can see from the results, the power to the load peaks at the frequency
(50 kHz) for which the load impedanceis the complex conjugate of the output imped-
ance (when the reactancesare equal in magnitude). A graph of the load power versus
frequency is shown in Figure 2040. Since the maximum power is so much larger than
the other values, an accurateplot is difficult to achieve without intermediate values.

FIGURE20-40 pr (w)

50 kHz

RelatedProblem rf R = 47 Q and c = 0.022prFin a seriesRC circuir,what is the

complexconjugateof the impedanceat 100kHz?

EXAMPTE
20_17 (a) Determine the frequency at which maximum power is transferredfrom the ampli-
fier to the speakerin Figure 204r(a). The amplifier and coupling capacitor are the
source, and the speaker is the load, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure
20-4r(b).
(b) How many watts of power are delivered to the speaker at this frequency if
% =
3.8 V rms?

Amplifier

Rw
8f,}

speaker

h*t=tr
l\

n capacitoi
)_ l_

FIGURE20-41
814 T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
IN AC ANALYSIS

Solution
(a) Whenthe powerto the speakeris maximum,the sourceimpedance(R"-7X6') and
the load impedance(Rw+ jX) arecomplexconjugates,so
Xc=Xr

fi, ='"n
Solving forl
^ - ) I
t
4ntLC

" 2nf rc znr,{too-rDgt rrD

(b) The power to the speakeris calculated as follows:

Z , o , =R " * R ' , ' = 8 O + 8 ( . )= 1 6 O

V'- 3'8v =238rnA
I=
Zrn, 16 O
p**= I2R*= (238 mA)2(8Q) = 453 mW

Related Problem Determine the frequency at which maximum power is transferred

from the amplifler to the speakerin Figure 2041 if the coupling capacitor is 1 pF.

sEcTroN20-4 L. If the output impedance of a certain driving circuit is 50 O - j10 Q, what value of
REVIEW load impedancewill result in the maximum power to the load?
2. For the circuit in Question 1, how much power is delivered to the load when the
load impedance is the complex conjugate of the output impedance and when the
load current is 2 A?

20-5 r TECHnologyTheory Into Practice

In this TECH TIP, you are given a seuled band-pass filter module that hqs been
removed from a system and two schemutics. Both schematics indicate that the bqnd-
passfilter is implemented with a low-pass/high-passcomhinution, It is uncertain which
schemutic corresponds to the filter module, but one of them does, By certain measure-
ments, you will determine which schematic representsthe filter so thut the filter circuit
can be reproduced. Also, you will determine the proper load for maximum power
transfer.

The fllter circuit contained in a sealedmodule and two schematics,one of which cone-
spondsto the filter circuit, are shown in Figure 2042.

FilterMeasurement
andAnalysis
r Based on the oscilloscope measurementof the filter output shown in Figure 20-43,
determine which schematicin Figure 2042 representsthe component values of the fil-
ter circuit in the module. A 10 V peak-to-peakvoltage is applied to the input.
 THEORYINTO PRACTICET 815
TECHNOLOCY

Schematic A

Schematic B

FIGURE20-42
Filter module and schematics.

10 V peak+o-peak signal
from function

FIGURE20-43
816 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

Based on the oscilloscopemeasurementin Figure 20-43, determine if the filter is oper-

ating at its approximatecenterfrequency.
Using Thevenin's theorem, determine the load impedance that will provide for maxi-
mum power transfer at the center frequency when connectedto the output of the filter.
Assumethe sourceimpedanceis zero.

sEcTtoN20-5 L. Determine the peak-to-peakoutput voltage at the frequency shown in Figure 20-43
REVIEW of the circuit in Figure 2042 that was determined not to be in the module.
2. Find the center frequency of the circuit in Figure 20-42 that was determined not to
be in the module.

r SUMMARY r The superyosition theorem is useful for the analysis of both ac and dc multiple-source circuits.
r Thevenin's theorem provides a method for the reduction of any ac circuit to an equivalent form
consisting of an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent impedance.
r The term equivalency, as used in Thevenin's and Norton's theorems, means that when a given
load impedance is connectedto the equivaient circuit, it will have the same voltage acrossit and
the same cuffent through it as when it is connectedto the original circuit.
r Norton's theorem provides a method for the reduction of any ac circuit to an equivalent form
consisting of an equivalent current source in parallel with an equivalent impedance.
r Maximum power is transferred to a load when the load impedance is the complex conjugateof
the impedance of the driving circuit.

r GLOSSARY Theseterms are also in the end-of-book glossary.

Complex conjugate An impedance containing the same resistance and a reactance oppositein
phase but equal in magnitude to that of a given impedance.
Equivalent circuit A circuit that produces the same voltage and current to a given load as the
original circuit that it replaces.
Norton's theorem A method for simplifying a two-terminal circuit to an equivalent circuit with
only a current source in parallel with an impedance.
Superposition theorem A method for the analysis of circuits with more than one source.
Thevenin's theorem A method for simplifying a two-terminal circuit to an equivalent circuit with
onlv a voltase source in series with an impedance.

r SELF-TEST L. In applying the supetposition theorem,

(a) all sourcesare consideredsimultaneously
(b) all voltage sourcesare considered simultaneously
(c) the sourcesare consideredone at a time with all others replaced by a short
(d) the sources are considered one at a time with all others replaced by their internal imped-
ances
2. A Thevenin ac equivalent circuit always consists of an equivalent ac voltage source
(a) and an equivalentcapacitance
(b) and an equivaient inductive reactance
(c) and an equivalent impedance
(d) in series with an equivalent capacitive reactance
 PROBLEMS . 817

3. One circuit is equivalent to another when

(a) the same load has the same voltage and current when connectedto either circuit
(b) different loads have the same voltage and cument when connectedto either circuit
(c) the circuits have equal voltage sourcesand equal series impedances
(d) the circuits produce the same output voltage
4. The Thevenin equivalent voltage is
(a) the open circuit voltage (b) the short circuit voltage
(c) the voltage acrossan equivalent load (d) none of the above
The Thevenin equivalent impedanceis the impedance looking from
(a) the source with the output shorted
(b) the source with the output open
(c) any two specified open terminals with all sourcesreplaced by their internal impedances
(d) any two specified open terminals with all sourcesreplaced by a short
6. A Norton ac equivalent circuit always consists of
(a) an equivalent ac cuffent source in series with an equivalent impedance
(b) an equivalent ac cuffent source in parallel with an equivalent reactance
(c) an equivalent ac current source in parallel with an equivalent impedance
(d) an equivalent ac voltage source in parallel with an equivalent impedance
1 The Norton equivalent current is
(a) the total current from the source (b) the short circuit current
(c) the current to an equivalent load (d) none of the above
8. The complex conjugateof 50 Q +j100 Q is
(a)50f2-j50O (b) 100O+js0O
(c) 100O -j50 C) (d) s0 O -1100o
9. In order to get maximum power transfer from a capacitive source, the load must
(a) have a capacitanceequal to the source capacitance
(b) have an impedance equai in magnitude to the source impedance
(c) be inductive
(d) have an impedance that is the complex conjugate of the source impedance
(e) answers (a) and (d)

r PROBLEMS More dfficult problems are indicated by an asterisk (*).

SECTION20-1 The Superposition

Theorem
1. Using the superpositionmethod, calculate the current through R3 in Figure 20-44.
2. Use the supetposition theorem to find the cument in and the voltage across the R2 branch of
Figlure 2044.

FIGURE 20-44 V
8 1 B T C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

FIGURE20-45

3. Using the superpositiontheorem, solve for the current through R1 in Figure 20-45.
4. Using the superpositiontheorem, find the current through Rr in each circuit ofFigure 20-46.

c3

1 0 0 pF
R2
40t60" v 1.0Mo
Rr
5MO
v2
20Z30'y

(aJ (b)

FIGURE20-46

*5. Determine the voltage at each point (A, B, C, D) in Figure 20-47. Assume Xc = 0 for all
capacitors.Sketch the voltage waveforms at each of the points.

FtcuRE20-47 Ll
R1 Rz vj

FTGURE20-48
9V
(peak)
R3
3.9 kO

R
I
R^
10ko

Rs
5.1ko

*6. Use the superpositiontheorem to find the capacitor current in Figure 20-48.
l R6
10ko

20a | 30f)
_J_ Xc
% T18o I.'
I)230.y | 0.52t20. A

SECTION20-2 Thevenin's
Theorem
7. For each circuit in Figwe 2049, determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the portion of
the circuit viewed by Rr.
HGURE20-49

1000 | 2 70
320"y
r. J_ X. Rr
-l-7sf) Rr X.^
l:. - 1.0kO 861o s8off

vl
1520. y

R2
100ko
Y2
10230.v

8. using Thevenin's theorem, determine the curent through the load Rl in Figure 20-50.

FIGURE20-50
Rz R3

*9. Using Thevenin's

FIGURE 20_51

3.3kO ..
Lc
Rr 5ko
1.0ko

*10. Simplify the circuit external to R, in Figwe

20-52 to its Thevenin equivalent.

FIGURE20-52
B 2 O T C I R C U I T H E O R E MISN A C A N A L Y S I S

SECTION20-3 Norton'sTheorem
11. For each circuit in Figure 2049, determinethe Norton equivalent as seenby Rr.
12. Using Norton's theorem, find the current through the load resistor R. in Figure 20-50.
*13. Using Norton's theorem, flnd the voltage acrossR4 in Figure 20-51.

SECTION20-4 Maximum PowerTransferTheorem

14. For each circuit in Figure 20-53, maximum power is to be transferred to the load R . Deter-
mine the appropriate value for the load impedance in each case.

v" I, F s.zto
$20"v
f = 3kHz

:
(al

F I G U R E2 0 - 5 3

*15. Determine Zl for maximum power in Figure 20-54.

FlcuRE20-54

*16. Find the load impedancerequired for maximum power transfer to Zlin Figure 20-55. Deter-
mine the maximum true Dower.

FIGURE20-55

r2Q 12o'
41,

*17, A load is to be connected in the place of R2 in Figure 20-52 to achieve maximum power
transfer. Determine the type of load, and expressit in rectangular form.
 ANSWERS
TO SECTION . 821
REVIEWS

EWBTroubleshooting
and Analysis
Theseproblems require your EWB compact disk.
18. Open file PRO20-18.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
19. Open file PRO20-19.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
20. Open file PRO20-20.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
21. Open file PRO20-21.EWB and deterrnineif there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
22, Open fiIe PRO20-22.EWB and determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit by measuremenl
looking from Point A.
23. Open file PRO20-23.EWB and determine the Norton equivalent circuit by measurementlook-
ins from Point A.

I ANSWERS Section20-1
TO SECTION 1. The net current is zero.
REVIEWS 2. The circuit can be analyzed one source at a time using superposition.
3. 1^=12*4

Section20-2
1. The componentsof a Thevenin equivalent ac circuit are equivalent voltage source and equivalent
series impedance.
2. See Fieure 20-56.

FIGURE20-56 z*

3. Z,h=21.5A * j15.7Q; V,o= 4.14253.8'y

Section20-3
1. SeeFigure20-57.

FIGURE20_57

ln
520" mA

2. Z,= RZ| = 1.220'kdl;1,=

1020" mA

Section20-4
l . Z L =5 0Q + i l 0 O
2. Pt=2ggl^r
822 r lN AC ANALYSIS
CIRCUITTHEOREMS

Section20-5
mYPP
l. Yo,,=1662-66.7'
=
2. fo 4.76kHz

r ANSWERS 20-l l.'772-752"mA

TO RETATED 20-2 30290" mA
PROBLEMS 20-3 1.69147.3"mA ridingon a dc levelof 3 mA
FOR 20-4 18.2243.2"V
EXAMPLES 20-5 4.032-36.3"V
204 4.552244'V
20-7 34.3243.2"g>
20-8 1.3'7t-47.8"kQ
2cF9 9J02-65s'kfJ
20-10 SeeFigure20-58.

F I G U R E2 0 - 5 8

v
18.2143.2"

20-L1 SeeFigure20-59

F I G U R E2 0 - 5 9

V
4.032-36.3"

20-12 SeeFigure20-60.

FIGURE20-60
A
l--------.
/0 (r' 8.28ko

4.55224.4"v

20-13 7172135" mA
20-14 r172-78.7 A
20-15 SeeFigure20-61
 ANSWERS . 823
TO SELF-TEST

FIGURE20-61 A

R
22.9A
l l 7 2 1 3 5 "m A
^c
1 1 5f )

2Ul6 47 O + j723 A
20-17 503 Hz

I ANSWERS 1. (d) 2.(c) 3. (a) 4.(a) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d)

TO SELF-TEST (d)
e.