Failure Theories

Why do mechanical components fail? Mechanical components fail

because the applied stresses exceeds the material’s strength (Too
simple).
What kind of stresses cause failure? Under any load combination,
there is always a combination of normal and shearing stresses in the
material.
What is the definition of Failure?
Obviously fracture but in some
components yielding can also be
considered as failure, if yielding
distorts the material in such a way
that it no longer functions properly

Which stress causes the material to

fail?
Usually ductile materials are
limited by their shear strengths.
While brittle materials (ductility <
5%) are limited by their tensile
strengths.

Stress at which point?

Stress at which point?
 Failure Theories

Load type
Material Property Application of Stress
Uniaxial
Ductile Static
Biaxial
Brittle Dynamic
Pure Shear

Static Loading
Maximum Normal Stress Dynamic Loading
Modified Mohr Goodman
Yield strength Gerber
Maximum shear stress Soderberg
Distortion energy
 Static Failure Theories
The idea behind the various classical failure theories is that whatever
is responsible for failure in the standard tensile test will also be
responsible for failure under all other conditions of static loading.
 Ductile Material Brittle Material
Characteristic Yield Stress Ultimate Stress
Failure Stress

Important 1. Maximum Shear Stress 1. Maximum Normal

Theories 2. Maximum Octahedral Stress
Shear Stress 2. Modified Mohr.

Maximum Ductile Materials

Shear Stress Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in
the part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile test
Theory
specimen (of the same material) at yield.
Hence in a tensile test,
Sy
τ max =
2
For a general state of stresses
σ1 − σ 3 S y
τ max = =
2 2
This leads to an hexagonal
failure envelop. A stress system
in the interior of the envelop is
considered SAFE

The Maximum Shear

Stress Theory for Ductile
Materials is also known
as the Tresca Theory.

for design purposes, the failure relation can be Sy

n=
modified to include a factor of safety (n):
σ1 − σ 3
Several cases can be analyzed in
plane stress problems:
Case 1: σ 1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ 0
In this case σ3=0
σ1 − σ 3 σ1 S y
τ max = = =
2 2 2
σ1 ≥ S y
Case 2: σ 1 ≥ 0 ≥ σ 3
Yielding condition

σ1 − σ 3 Sy
τ max = =
2 2
σ1 − σ 3 ≥ S y
 Distortion Energy Theory
Based on the consideration of angular distortion of stressed elements.
The theory states that failure occurs when the distortion strain energy
in the material exceeds the distortion strain energy in a tensile test
specimen (of the same material) at yield.
Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
εy
Modulus of resilience Ur U r = ∫ σ dε
0
If it is in a linear elastic region,

1 ⎛σ y ⎞ σ y
2
1
U r = σ yε y = σ y ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
2 2 ⎝ E ⎠ 2E
For general 3-D stresses: u = (σ 1ε 1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ 3ε 3 )
1
2

2E
(
Applying Hooke’s Law u = 1 σ 2 + σ 2 + σ 2 − 2ν (σ σ + σ σ + σ σ )
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 )
There are two components in σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 σ x +σ y +σ z
this energy a mean component σM = =
and deviatoric component. 3 3
σ 1, D = σ 1 − σ M σ 2, D = σ 2 − σ M σ 3, D = σ 3 − σ M

The energy due to the mean stress (it gives a volumetric change but
not a distortion:

u Mean =
1
2E
(
σ M2 + σ M2 + σ M2 − 2ν (σ M σ M + σ M σ M + σ M σ M ) )
1 − 2ν 2
u Mean =
1
2E
[
3σ M (1 − 2ν ) =
2
] 6E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 + 2σ 1σ 2 + 2σ 2σ 3 + 2σ 3σ 1 )
 1 +ν 2
u D = u − u Mean =
3E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1 )
Compare the distortion energy of a tensile test with the distortion
energy of the material.
1 +ν 2 1 +ν 2
uTensile =
3E
S y = uD =
3E
(
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1 )

S y = σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 3σ 1
S y = σ + σ − σ 3σ 1
2
1
2
3
Plane Stress

Von Mises effective stress : Defined as the uniaxial tensile stress

that creates the same distortion energy as any actual combination of
applied stresses.
 This simplifies the approach
since we can use the following
failure criterion
σ VM ≥ S y
Sy
n=
σ VM

σ VM =
(σ x − σ y )
2
+ (σ y − σ z )
2
+ (σ z − σ x )2
+ 6 τ(2
xy + τ 2
yz + τ 2
zx )
2
σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 2D
Case of Pure Shear

σ VM = 3τ xy ≥ S y
Sy
τ Max = = 0.577 S y
3

Brittle Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of
brittle materials, such as:
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
Modified-Mohr Theory
Maximum Normal Stress Theory

σ1 > σ 2
Failure occurs when one of the three principal
stresses reaches a permissible strength (TS).
Failure is predicted to occur when
σ1=St and σ2<-Sc
Where St and Sc are the tensile and σ2
compressive strength St
For a biaxial state of stresses
-Sc St
σ1

-Sc
 Coulomb-Mohr Theory or Internal Friction Theory (IFT)
This theory is a modification of the maximum normal stress theory in
the which the failure envelope is constructed by connecting the opposite
corners of quadrants I and III.

The result is an hexagonal failure envelop.

Similar to the maximum shear stress theory but also accounts for the uneven material
properties of brittle material
 Mohr’s Theory
The theory predicts that a material will fail if a stress
state is on the envelope that is tangent to the three
Mohr’s circles corresponding to:
a. uni-axial ultimate stress in tension,
b. uni-axial ultimate stress in compression, and
c. pure shear.
Modified Mohr’s Theory

σ 2 σ1
− ≤1
σC σT

This theory is a modification of the Coulomb-Mohr theory and is

the preferred theory for brittle materials.
Maximum Normal-Strain Theory
Also known as the Saint-Venant’s Theory.
Applies only in the elastic range.
Failure is predicted to occur if σ 1 −νσ 2 = ± S y or σ 2 −νσ 1 = ± S y
Where Sy is the yield strength.
σ2
For a biaxial state of stress
Sy

-Sy Sy
σ1

-Sy
 Maximum Strain-Energy Theory
Yielding is predicted to occur when the total strain energy in a given
volume is greater than or exceeds the strain energy in the same
volume corresponding to the yield strength in tension or compression.
The strain energy stored per unit volume (us) S y2
us =
during uniaxial loading is 2⋅ E
ε1 ⋅ σ 1 ε 2 ⋅σ 2
In a biaxial state of stress uσ = +
2 2
uσ =
1
2E
(
σ 12 + σ 22 − 2 ⋅ν ⋅ σ 1 ⋅ σ 2 )
This theory is no longer used
Example:
Given the material SY , σx , σv and τxy find the safety factors for all the
applicable criteria.
a. Pure aluminum
SY = 30 MPa σ x = 10 MPa σ y = −10 MPa τ xy = 0 MPa
σ 1 = 10 MPa σ 3 = −10 MPa τ Max = 10 MPa
Is Al ductile or brittle? Ductile
Use either the Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST)
or the Distortion Theory (DT)
-10 10 MSST Theory
Sy 30 30
n= = = = 1.5
σ 1 − σ 3 10 − (−10) 20
DT Theory σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 = 300 = 17.32MPa
Sy 30 MPa
n= = = 1.73
σ VM 17.32 MPa
b. 0.2%C Carbon Steel
SY = 65 Ksi σ x = −5 Ksi σ y = −35 Ksi τ xy = 10 Ksi
In the plane XY the principal stresses are -
1.973Ksi and -38.03Ksi with a maximum
shear stress in the XY plane of 18.03Ksi
In any orientation
σ 1 = 0 Ksi σ 2 = −1.973Ksi σ 3 = −38.03Ksi
τ Max = 19.01Ksi
Sy Ductile
65
MSST Theory n = = = 1.71
σ 1 − σ 3 0 − (−38.03)

σ VM = σ 12 + σ 3 2 − σ 1σ 3 = 38.03Ksi
DT Theory
Sy 65 Ksi
n= = = 1.71
σ VM 38.03MPa
 C. Gray Cast Iron

Sut = 30 Ksi S uc = 120 Ksi σ x = −35 Ksi σ y = 10 Ksi τ xy = 0 Ksi

σ 1 = 10 Ksi σ 2 = 0 Ksi σ 3 = −35 Ksi

τ Max = 22.5Ksi

-35 10 Brittle
Use Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST),
Internal Friction Theory (IFT), Modified Mohr
Theory (MMT)
Sut 30
MNST Theory (tensile) n= = = 3.0
σ 1 10
Suc 120
MNST Theory (compression) n= = = 3.4
σ 3 35
 IFT σ 2 σ1
− ≤1
σC σT
σ 1 ≥ 0 σ 3 ≤ 0 4th _ quadrant
S uc
line _ equation σ 3 = − Suc + σ1
S ut
1 σ 1 σ 3 10 − 35
= − = − = 0.625
n Sut Suc 30 120
n = 1.6
MMT
σ 1 ≥ 0 σ 3 ≤ 0 4th _ quadrant
S ut 1 S uc S ut
σ1 − σ3 =
S uc − S ut n S uc − S ut 1
= 0.54
30 1 (120)(30) n
10 − (−35) =
120 − 30 n (120 − 30) n = 1.84
 Example 1
The cantilever tube shown is to be
made of 2014 aluminum alloy
treated to obtain a specified
minimum yield strength of
276MPa. We wish to select a stock
size tube (according to the table
below). Using a design factor of
n=4.
The bending load is F=1.75kN, the axial tension is P=9.0kN and the
torsion is T=72N.m. What is the realized factor of safety?

Consider the critical area ( top surface).

 P Mc
σx = +
A I
Maximum bending moment = 120F
⎛d ⎞
120mm × 1.75kNx⎜ ⎟
σx =
9kN
+ ⎝ 2⎠
A I
⎛d ⎞
72 × ⎜ ⎟
Tr
τ zx = = ⎝ 2 ⎠ 36d
=
J J J
σ VM = (σ + 3τ )
1
2 2 2
x zx

Sy 0.276
σ VM ≤ = GPa = 0.0690GPa
n 4

For the dimensions of that tube

Sy 0.276
n= = = 4.57
σ VM 0.06043
Example 2:
A certain force F is applied at D near the end of the 15-in lever, which
is similar to a socket wrench. The bar OABC is made of AISI 1035
steel, forged and heat treated so that it has a minimum (ASTM) yield
strength of 81kpsi. Find the force (F) required to initiate yielding.
Assume that the lever DC will not yield and that there is no stress
concentration at A.
Solution:
1) Find the critical section
The critical sections will be
either point A or Point O. As the
moment of inertia varies with r4
then point A in the 1in diameter
is the weakest section.
2) Determine the stresses at the ⎛d ⎞
critical section M⎜ ⎟
My ⎝ 2 ⎠ 32 × F × 14in
σx = = = = 142.6 F
I πd 4
πd 3

64
3) Chose the failure
⎛d ⎞
criteria. T⎜ ⎟
Tr ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16 × F × 15in
τ zx = = = = 76.4 F
The AISI 1035 is a J πd 4
π (1in) 3
ductile material. Hence,
we need to employ the 32
distortion-energy
theory.
σ VM = σ x 2 + σ y 2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 = σ x 2 + 3τ zx2 = 194.5F
Sy 81000
F= = = 416lbf
σ VM 194.5
Apply the MSS theory. For a point undergoing plane stress with
only one non-zero normal stress and one shear stress, the two non-
zero principal stresses (σA and σB) will have opposite signs (Case 2).

σ A −σ B ⎛σx ⎞
2
Sy
τ max = = = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ zx2
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛σx ⎞
2

σ A − σ B ≥ S y = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + τ zx2 = σ x 2 + 4τ zx2
⎝ 2 ⎠
(
81000 = (142.6 F ) + 4 × (76.4 F )
2 2
)
1
2

F = 388lbf
 Example 3:
A round cantilever bar is subjected to torsion plus a transverse load at
the free end. The bar is made of a ductile material having a yield
strength of 50000psi. The transverse force (P) is 500lb and the torque
is 1000lb-in applied to the free end. The bar is 5in long (L) and a
safety factor of 2 is assumed. Transverse shear can be neglected.
Determine the minimum diameter to avoid yielding using both MSS
and DET criteria.
Solution

1) Determine the critical section

The critical section occurs at the

wall.
 ⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
PL⎜ ⎟ T⎜ ⎟
σx =
Mc
= ⎝ 2 ⎠ 32 PL
= Tc ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16T
πd 4
πd 3 τ xy = = = 3
I J πd 4
πd
64 32

⎛σ x +σ y ⎞ ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎛σ ⎞ ⎛σ ⎞
2

σ 1, 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = ⎜ x ⎟ ± ⎜ x ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
⎛ 16 PL ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ 16 ⎡
σ 1, 2 =
16 PL
± ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 3 ⎢
PL ± (PL )2 + T 2 ⎤⎥
πd 3
⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠
3 3
πd ⎣ ⎦

= 3 ⎡500 × 5 ± (500 × 5) + 1000 2 ⎤

16
σ 1, 2 2

πd ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
 26450 980.8 The stresses are in the wrong
σ1 = σ2 = − 3 order.. Rearranged to
d3 d
26450 980.8
σ1 = σ3 = − 3
d3 d
σ1 −σ 3 26450 − ( − 980 . 8 ) 13715 . 4
τ MAX = = 3
=
MSS 2 2d d3
Sy 50000
σ 1 − σ 3 = 2τ MAX ≤ = = 25 , 000
n 2
d ≥ 1 . 031 in
2 2
⎛ 26450 ⎞ ⎛ 980.8 ⎞ ⎛ 26450 ⎞⎛ 980.8 ⎞
σ VM = σ 1 + σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜ − 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ − 3 ⎟
2 2

⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
DET
26950 S y 50000
σ VM = 3
≤ =
d n 2
d ≥ 1.025in
Example 4:

In the wheel suspension of a car, the spring motion is provided by a

torsion bar fastened to the arm on which the wheel is mounted. The
torque in the torsion bar is created by the 2500N force acting on the
wheel from the ground through a 300mm long lever arm. Because of
space limitations, the bearing holding the torsion bar is situated 100mm
from the wheel shaft. The diameter of the torsion bar is 28mm. Find
the stresses in the torsion bar at the bearing by using the DET theory.
 Solution

The stresses acting on a torsion bar are:

d
( F × arm _ length)( )
1. Torsion τ = Tc = 2 = 32 (2500 × 0.3)(0.014 ) Pa = 174 MPa
J πd 4 π (0.028)4
32
⎛d ⎞
( F × bearing _ length )⎜ ⎟
2. bending
σ=
Mc
= ⎝ 2⎠
= 64
(2500 × 0.1)(0.014)
Pa = 116MPa
I πd 4 π (0.028) 4

64
The principal stresses are:

⎛σ x +σ y ⎞ ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎛σx ⎞ ⎛σx ⎞
2

σ 1, 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = ⎜ ⎟ ± ⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
⎛ 116.0 ⎞
⎟ + (174.0 )
116.0
σ 1, 2 = ± ⎜
2

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ 1 = 241.4MPa σ 2 = −125.4 MPa
 DET

σ VM = σ 1 + σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 =
2 2
(241.4) + (− 125.4) − (241.4)(− 125.4)
2 2

Sy
σ VM = 322.6MPa ≤
n

MSS

σ1 − σ 3 241.4 − (− 125.4 )
τ Max = = = 183.4 MPa
2 2
SY
2 ×τ Max = 366.8MPa ≤
n
 Example 5:
The factor of safety for a machine
element depends on the particular
point selected for the analysis.
Based upon the DET theory,
determine the safety factor for
points A and B.

This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn steel (Sy=280MPa) and it is

loaded by the forces F=0.55kN, P=8.0kN and T=30N.m
Solution: ⎛d ⎞
Fl ⎜ ⎟
Point A σ x =
Mc
+
P
= ⎝ 2⎠ P
+ 2 =
32 Fl 4 P
+ 2
I Area πd 4
πd πd 3
πd
64 4

σx =
( ) +
( )
32(0.55) 103 (0.1) 4(8) 103
= 95.49 MPa
π (0.02)3
π (0.02)2
 Tr 16T 16(30)
τ xy = = 3 = = 19.10 MPa
J πd π (0.020 )3

(σ ) = [95.49 + 3(19.1) ]
1
σ VM = 2
x + 3τ 2
xy
2 2 2
= 101.1MPa
Sy 280
n= = = 2.77
σ VM 101.1
Point B 4 P 4(8) 103
σx = 2 = = 25.47 MPa
( )
πd π (0.02)2

τ xy
16T 4V
= 3+ =
16(30)
+
4(0.55) 103
= 21.43MPa
( )
πd 3 A π (0.02 )3
⎛π ⎞
3⎜ ⎟(0.02)
2

⎝4⎠
[
σ VM = 25.47 + 3(21.43) 2 2
] 1
2
= 45.02 MPa
280
n= = 6.22
45.02