SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 2007-01-2434

Engineering Challenges with Vehicle Noise

and Vibration in Product Development
Abdul Hafiz Afaneh and Mohamed Khalid Abdelhamid
Robert Bosch Corporation

Mohamad S. Qatu
Ford Motor Co.

Noise and Vibration Conference and Exhibition

St. Charles, Illinois
May 15-17, 2007

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-0790 Web: www.sae.org
The Engineering Meetings Board has approved this paper for publication. It has successfully completed
SAE's peer review process under the supervision of the session organizer. This process requires a
minimum of three (3) reviews by industry experts.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of SAE.

For permission and licensing requests contact:

SAE Permissions
400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001-USA
Email: permissions@sae.org
Tel: 724-772-4028
Fax: 724-776-3036

For multiple print copies contact:

SAE Customer Service

Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)
Tel: 724-776-4970 (outside USA)
Fax: 724-776-0790
Email: CustomerService@sae.org

ISSN 0148-7191
Copyright © 2007 SAE International
Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE.
The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper. A process is available by which discussions
will be printed with the paper if it is published in SAE Transactions.

Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication by SAE should send the
manuscript or a 300 word abstract to Secretary, Engineering Meetings Board, SAE.

Printed in USA

Engineering Challenges with Vehicle Noise and Vibration
in Product Development
Abdul Hafiz Afaneh and Mohamed Khalid Abdelhamid
Copyright © 2007 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Vehicle noise and vibration (NVH) is among the
important attributes of the vehicle. This attribute has
to be designed for in the product development
process. This produces challenges that are usually
overlooked by researchers in the field.
These challenges are assessed in this manuscript.
The emphasis here is on the NVH phenomenon at
the vehicle level. Little work is being done to study
the vehicle noise and vibration from a system or
customer perspective. This manuscript brings to the
attention of researchers and the NVH community at
large the various NVH challenges that constitute
complexities to the development engineer and may
deserve closer attention.
INTRODUCTION
There is considerable emphasis by researchers
world-wide to study vehicle noise, vibration, and
harshness (NVH) at the component or subsystem
levels. Such work include research done at the
engine level (e.g. [1,2]), other powertrain
subsystems (e.g. [3]), other vehicle subsystems like
brakes (e.g. [4]) or seats (e.g. [5-6]). There have
been important improvements there. On the other
hand, there are a wide variety of other issues and
challenges that are faced by the NVH development
Page 1 of 9
2007-01-2434
Robert Bosch Corporation
Mohamad S. Qatu
Ford Motor Co.
engineer. Little work is done on such challenges
(e.g. [7]).
Vehicle noise and vibration is one of many
attributes of the vehicle. Other attributes include
styling, ride, handling, performance, cost, safety,
reliability, durability, fuel economy as well as others.
These attributes are on the customers' mind when
they shop for a new vehicle. Customers' priorities
regarding these attributes vary depending on many
factors. Some customers give high priority in their
vehicle selection to styling, while other give more
priority to vehicle safety or its reliability. Vehicle
noise and vibration is rarely the top attribute when
purchasing a vehicle, but is always among the top
regardless of the customer. In fact, there is
evidence that vehicle noise and vibration is almost
always among the top five attributes of the vehicle
in any customers' mind when purchasing a vehicle.
Many of the vehicle attributes can be determined
from the literature available on the internet or by the
government about the vehicle. These attributes
include cost, weight, fuel economy, and
performance. Other attributes can be assessed by
visiting a dealer and assessing the vehicle. These
attributes include its package and styling. Attributes
like vehicle durability and reliability require the
vehicle to be in service for a certain period of time.
Three months in service (MIS) and 36 months in
There are two other main pillars of such marketing
studies. The first is to recognize where the
competition is (and will be) regarding meeting the
customer's wants and needs. This will make it
necessary to develop corporate intelligence. In
addition, it will require significant efforts by vehicle
manufacturers to perform benchmarking studies.
The second pillar is to recognize the fact that typical
customers require conflicting demands. They will
always demand the 'best' vehicle at the lowest cost.
It is the work of business analysts and engineers to
find out how much of the 'best' vehicle can they
produce and deliver to the market where the
product remains competitive and the customer is
still willing to pay more than the cost of developing
and building the vehicle.
Market analysts should not only find what the
market demands now, but what it will demand in 2,
5, 10 years (and longer). A vehicle should be ready
when the market is ready. Vehicle development is a
process that takes anywhere between 2 and 5
years (possibly longer), depending on the degree of
change made to an original vehicle platform and
other factors. Keeping that in mind, marketing
analysts should always have an understanding of
where the market will be few years from now to a
very detailed degree of specificity that engineers
can transform into products. Many automobile
manufacturers lost substantial profit because their
products hit the market one or two years too late.
Vehicle development engineers, including NVH
engineers, should then of setting targets based on
where the customers needs and wants will be in the
future (when the actual vehicle is produced). This
point brings serious questions to engineers who are
always challenged with having to produce vehicles
in shorter times to respond to changing market
demands. The use of computer aided engineering
(CAE), fast prototyping and other technology
advances have become necessary tools at the
disposal of automobile manufacturers in today's
market. This challenge of 'speed to market' will
remain in the future. Advancing the tools used by
the product development teams will remain an
important field of research.
The above general description of the business case
is probably a part of any automobile manufacturer's
product development process. In addition,
frequently, it will take visionaries to define certain
attributes or features that the market may not be
demanding now, but will certainly like them when
they are produced. Developing such products,
features and attributes is always a risk. More often
than not, history taught us that automobile
Page 3 of 9
manufacturers must take such a risk often to
remain competitive and leaders in the marketplace.
These early market studies will produce a target
customer of the vehicle who represents enough
groups of potential customers to make the business
case for the vehicle. Two outcomes are key factors
that should be made from these market studies.
These are the size of the market (how many
potential buyers are out there) and how much is the
market willing to pay for the potential vehicle. If the
business case of the vehicle is met, the product
development cycle will be kicked off.
NVH engineers will begin their task with setting
objective vehicle level targets for the NVH
characteristics of the vehicle. These include
'translating' the subjective demands of the target
customer to objective targets, which can be tested
under standard tests and measured with NVH
equipment. It is of interest to vehicle manufacturers
to develop an NVH rating criteria that can be used
for the various vehicle segments available to the
customer.
TARGET SETTING
The first aspect of the target setting process is to
determine, in subjective terms, the NVH
characteristics of the vehicle. This is based on the
market studies made a priori and the verbatim of
potential customers. Subjective rating is typically
used to rate these subjective wants and needs. As
mentioned earlier, these ratings usually range from
0 (the worst) to 10 (the best). A rating of 6 is
typically the minimum acceptable in product
development for the vehicle to be competitive, while
that of 8 or higher defines leading status for that
attribute. Engineers can not engineer for subjective
measures. They first need to translate these
subjective wants by customers into objective ones.
This is shown to be a sophisticated task. What do
the customers mean by words like sporty, luxurious,
powerful and others in objective terms? What
caused them to describe the NVH phenomenon as
such? All of these questions and more is an
interesting corner of research frequently referred to
as 'psychoacoustics'. In addition, engineers need to
work hard to make sure that potential concerns of
customers are addressed. The complexity of the
issue to the engineer takes different forms:
1. Recreating the same phenomenon that
caused the concern to the customer. This requires
finding conditions like the vehicle speed,
environmental temperature, gear and others.
2. Determining what needs to be measured to
best describe the driver's interaction with the
vehicle. Is it sound pressure levels, steering wheel
vibrations or others?
3. Determining the 'annoyance' or
'satisfaction' levels of these measurements under
the given conditions. To what level these
measurements need to be brought to remove the
annoyance and replace it with satisfaction in the
customer's mind
Objective measures must satisfy certain
requirements to be acceptable objective targets for
engineers:
1. They should have a clear metric. This could
be vibration amplitude (measured in feet or meters),
vibration velocity (measured in ft/sec or m/sec),
acceleration (measured in ft/sec2 or m/sec2), sound
pressure levels (measured in Pascal, Pa, or
decibels, dB) or other metrics.
2. The metric should be measurable. In other
words, there should be devices or techniques at the
disposal of the NVH engineers to measure these
metrics.
3. The condition of the vehicle, driving
condition and environment should be well defined.
The driving condition could be idling with the
transmission in drive and the air conditioning is off.
The environment could be at a certain temperature
and atmospheric pressure (altitude). Other
parameters could be specified depending on the
target.
4. The NVH phenomenon should be
repeatable. In other words, if the measurements are
retaken on the same vehicle under the same
conditions, they should be reasonably close to the
original measurements.
5. The NVH phenomenon should be
reproducible. There should be enough description
of the phenomenon or test that if another NVH
engineer (who could be elsewhere in the world)
applies the same conditions of the phenomenon or
test, he or she will find similar results.
It is interesting to find how many engineers spend
considerable time trailing a phenomenon or a
customer demand that can not satisfy the above
conditions. The danger of doing that is, even if
success is claimed in meeting the customer's
subjective demands, it generally is not possible to
recognize how these demands are met and thus is
difficult (or even impossible) to engineer for them.
Page 4 of 9
Target setting is typically performed based on the
following input:
1. Customer wants and needs. As described
earlier, translating the customers' needs and wants
into target will constitute the first step in target
setting.
2. Benchmarking. For well-established targets
where the customers' needs and wants are clear,
target setting can be based on benchmarking. This
is done by testing the competitive set of vehicles
under the same conditions and finding where the
competition is regarding such target. It is assumed
that bringing the NVH levels closer to the customer
wants as compared with the competition will put the
product in a competitive status.
3. Cross-functional optimization (trade-off).
Based on customers' insight, it may be decided to
move certain target levels (like NVH) to a less
competitive status in favor of other targets that are
moved to a more competitive level, where
customers are known to pay more attention to
these targets in their buying decision. This should
be done very carefully; otherwise the competitive
edge of the products can be lost.
Targets should be set at the customers' level. For
NVH, these targets should be set for the customers
touch points like steering wheel, transmission
shifter, seat, gas pedal, floor pan and customers
ears. They should be set for various standard
conditions and potentially for some of the special
condition where NVH concerns are known to
surface.
In theory, the next step is down-cascading these
vehicle level targets into subsystem and component
level targets. The difficulties and challenges
engineers face in this process is that the process is
not robust enough and the down-cascading
technology is not deterministic. Following this
process for years taught NVH engineers that they
frequently end up with under-designing some
systems or components while over-designing
others systems or components. Under-designing
the system is the case when the down-cascade
process ends with certain requirements at the
subsystem or component level that even when they
are met, NVH concerns surface at the vehicle level.
Over-designing, on the other hand, will occur when
down cascading results in requirements that are
difficult or costly to meet at the component level
and yet when released, no issues surface at the
vehicle level. Both under-designing and over-
designing in the down cascading process are
experienced by the NVH community at large. This
raises the issue that the system engineering
process of down cascading lacks maturity to be
implemented for NVH. Research is much needed to
relate component and sub-system requirements to
the NVH phenomenon at the vehicle level.
The second challenge the down cascading process
presents is the trade-off nature between various
components in delivering the vehicle level target.
For example, over achieving in the vehicle sound
package will allow under achieving in the engine
noise. Thus the engineers face the questions of the
NVH design impact on other attributes, mainly cost,
packaging and weight. Which process or design
achieves better over all vehicle design, whether to
invest in the sound package of the vehicle (adding
cost and weight there) or apply strict requirements
at the subsystem level, which typically adds cost
and/or weight there. Frequently, engineers may
need to visit the business case of the
enhancements seeked to make their case for
added NVH performance.
The third challenge met by engineers using the
down-cascading process to develop component
level target is cross functional optimization. Ultimate
cross-functional optimization is performed on actual
prototypes. It is there, where there is no or little time
left for the product to hit the market, that NVH
engineers may find out that there down-cascaded
NVH targets, although met or can be met, cause
undesirable effects to other attributes like safety
and durability. With the little time left, NVH
engineers frequently scramble their way and
implement 'solutions' that are costly and not
competitive.
In engineering practice, it is not a straight forward
task to translate these vehicle NVH targets into
specific hardware designs. The down-cascading
process, although theoretically 'neat', produces
challenges to the practicing engineers and is not a
robust method in product development. Instead, we
propose here component and subsystem target
setting based on component and subsystem
benchmarking. This will require component (or
subsystem) level test procedures and test bench
development. This, although challenging and will
require time, is the direction that should be adopted
to develop a robust NVH target setting process. It
will also enable automobile manufacturers to
compare various supplier products and make
decisions about suppliers early in the development
process. In order to achieve this, however,
standardized test benches must be developed for
all the components and/or subsystems that affect
the NVH characteristic of the vehicles. In addition, a
Page 5 of 9
database of the NVH behavior of various
components and subsystems should be developed.
Developing test benches and database will require
investment early in the process to make educated
decisions about hardware. Once implemented,
however, it will make the product development
process more robust and faster.
VEHICLE NVH ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION
There are probably tens of possible NVH
evaluations that can be performed on vehicles to
assess their characteristics. These include many
conditions under idle, acceleration with certain
throttle including wide open throttle (WOT),
decelerating or coast down, braking, steering,
driving over different roads, driving over different
road holes, driving at various speeds, driving with
different transmission gears engaged, and many
more. These driving conditions may reveal certain
types of desired and/or undesired NVH
phenomenon. An experienced vehicle evaluator will
spend up a good amount of time (hours) trying to
assess the NVH characteristics of a vehicle
subjectively. At various stages of product
development, such assessment is needed for
various types or levels of prototypes. Error states or
undesired noises and vibrations are distinguished.
Objective data can then be collected for these
conditions that gave the undesired noises and
vibrations for possible root cause analysis. It is
quite time consuming to try to assess vehicle
behavior objectively under all possible driving
conditions. Instead, the vehicle is evaluated, with
objective data collected, under the possible
conditions encountered by most of the customers
most of the time. These conditions are also used to
benchmark vehicles against their competitive sets.
There are two different types of NVH phenomenon
experienced by customers:
1. Usual or expected NVH. These include the
types of noises that are expected by the customer.
These include powertrain, road and wind NVH
(Figure 2). The question to the vehicle development
team is to bring these levels to a competitive, or a
leading status. This includes reducing noise and/or
vibration levels, eliminating characteristics that are
annoying to the customer, and enhancing those
that are delightful to the customer. Delightful NVH
phenomenon includes producing the sounds that
give the customer the needed impression about the
vehicle like its sportiness, responsiveness or
There is another reason for engineers to voice their
assessment as early as the program starts. That is,
at that point they have more freedom in making
changes and thus build all the NVH enabler into the
hardware. This is proven to make their task in
product development more robust, relatively
straightforward and more economical.
It is thus desired for engineers to give the most
important directions early in the program, with the
least amount of information. This dilemma is real
and engineers must face it very cautiously. They
need to implement every assessment tool they
have early in the program to give a good judgment
about the capability of the hardware and alter
design to the favor of NVH, talking into account the
impact on all related other attributes. For that
reason, engineers need to be aware of all tools
available to them and use them effectively as early
as possible. Among these tools are:
1. Testing actual hardware. While the vehicle
goes through serious changes in every new product
cycle, many systems or components do not
change. Even in totally new vehicle development,
many systems are carried over from existing
products. Testing actual hardware, even at the
system or component level, is the most accurate
assessment one can present to minimize the risk
and build confidence about the product.
2. Testing surrogate hardware. In many
cases, major systems or components are changed
only slightly from an existing (in production) system
or component. Surrogate testing requires testing
the closest in-production, as produced or slightly
modified, system to that desired. Modifications can
be made to the existing product before testing it to
mimic design direction. While this is not perfect,
practical experience proved that testing of
surrogate hardware gives important information
about the hardware capability.
3. Computer-aided-engineering (CAE). This is
fast becoming a must-have capability in today's
engineering environment. CAE is quite mature in
many areas like solid mechanics and structures
using powerful codes that implement advanced
technology like finite element methods (FEM). This
includes assessment of many NVH issues and
concerns. On the other hand, CAE still needs quite
many improvements in areas like computational
fluid dynamics (CFD), boundary element methods
(BEM) and multi-body dynamic modeling.
Engineers should not be handcuffed with the
question of correlation in a 'hostile' engineering
environment, instead, they should make sure that
the models are accurate and every piece of
information is used in their modeling before
Page 7 of 9
presenting the data. They should also present their
confidence level of the model at hand as they
present the results. Furthermore, results that are
presented should make engineering sense. This is
important to increase the level of confidence in the
method and model in the eyes of the users and the
engineering community at large.
4. Engineering judgment. In brainstorming
sessions, where many ideas pass through the table
and need fast assessment, experienced engineers
should go back to their experience and lessons
learned as they deliver their fast on the spot
assessment. In other areas where there is simply
little information to build any reasonable
assessment using hardware (even surrogate one)
or build models, engineering judgment should be
used to deliver program direction. Obviously,
engineers should be aware of the substantial risk
associated with using judgment only and should
always test such judgment as the hardware
assumptions become more clear.
Engineers should be always aware of the
assessment tool they use (surrogate testing, CAE
modeling, judgment, … ), its strengths and
weaknesses, and the risk associated with using
such tool. They should also be aware of the
consequences of the decision that will be based
upon information received using these tools and
how important it is in the overall development
process. They may need to be stubborn and insist
on testing actual hardware in some cases where
the technology is quite new, the risk is high or the
consequences of the decision are serious.
There is continuous pressure on the marketing
teams to respond to the markets and market
changes fast. This requires the use of more
sophisticated tools for assessment, and taking
some risk. Engineers, however, should not kid
themselves about the engineering process, and
should insist on having the resources needed
upfront to deliver the best assessment of the
attributes in general and NVH in particular.
One more point that must be made in regard to
NVH and that is NVH is an attribute where
surprises may still happen. The development and
assessment technology is not mature to implement
hardware solutions early in the development
process to refine NVH. Many characteristics of NVH
are typically not found until a reasonably
representative hardware is built. NVH engineers
frequently find themselves spending much more
time solving unintended NVH concerns later in
product development than engineering-in intended
NVH characteristics. More attention need to be
made to manufacturing processes, quality and
control. This will minimize unintended NVH
concerns.
POST PRODUCTION
NVH work should not end with job 1 or start of
production. In fact, there is considerable work that
should be done after that point. The first is probably
to continuously measure or evaluate the produced
vehicles for error states and production variability.
These error states can be due to improper
assembly practices, large vehicle to vehicle
variability or malfunctioning components. Root
cause(s) of the problems discovered must be
identified. Solutions can then be developed for the
short and long terms. Typically, short term solutions
are focused more on the path while long term ones
emphasize improving the hardware that is the root
cause of the NVH concern.
The second task NVH engineers face in a
production environment is considering the NVH
actions that are fought for and implemented during
the product development cycle to avoid the
occurrence of an NVH concern (adding dampers,
using sophisticated technology, … ). These actions
need to be re-evaluated in the post production
environment to make sure that the customer
receives the best value. If the hardware dictated by
NVH is not delivering the signals desired and
costing added material and cost, then it is waste
that should be eliminated. Having the production
vehicle as the test vehicle will build the needed
confidence for the removal of certain cost and
weight, as long as it does not compromise the
vehicle NVH performance.
In addition, NVH engineers should keep a close eye
on the quality system implemented through out the
company to identify any NVH concerns reported by
the customer. NVH can count 20 % of the total
concerns the customers report. This shows the
significant opportunity a company has by fixing
NVH concerns. This reduces warranty costs and
achieves higher levels of customer satisfaction.
As advances are made in the NVH technical world,
it is expected that engineers will put less effort in
the post production period. This, however, seems at
the present time to be quite a distance away.
ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS
The NVH phenomenon is distinguished by the fact
that it is sensed by human senses. While much of
the noise and vibration result from periodic (or semi
Page 8 of 9
periodic) motion of surfaces, others result from a
transient phenomenon which decays with time. This
vibration energy (form of elastic energy) is 'born' at
a certain component and/or location. In most cases,
the 'birth' of the vibration or noise (i.e. sound)
energy happens at a solid component. This could
be a rotating component like the crank shaft of the
engine, the vanes in a pump, the magnets/brush in
a motor or a stationary component like the vehicle
mirrors for wind noise. Such energy can migrate to
the driver through air, structure or fluid. If the
energy is transformed from the source through the
structure to the customer as vibrations and it
manifests it self potentially as noise sensed by the
driver's ears were the only air pulsation along the
path), it is referred to structural born noise (SBN). If
the energy path from the source was a fluid, where
the noise was or had become pulsation in the fluid,
the noise is then referred to as fluid born noise
(FBN). Also, if the noise is directly born as air
pressure pulsations at the source, then it is referred
to as air born noise (ABN).
To distinguish these three types of noises, one
needs to think of any component and/or subsystem
as a 'black box', that emits energy in a periodic (or
semi periodic) fashion to its surroundings. If it emits
this energy as pulsation in fluids (like pumps), the
noise perceived at the customer is FBN, if it emits
this energy as vibration traveling through solid
connections like brackets, the noise is referred to
as SBN, and finally if it emits this energy as
pulsation in the surrounding air, the noise is ABN.
It should be mentioned that the level of the
transferring energy as it moves from the source to
the driver may increase or reduce depending on the
path. If this energy passes in its path through a
component at the frequency of its resonance, the
levels are magnified. All options in root cause
analysis and solution finding process must be
considered. These include controlling the vibration
energy at the source, modal separation with all
systems the energy goes through as it passes
another system or component on its way to the
customer and potentially reducing NVH levels at the
customer by using barriers. The task in these cases
is to work on the frequency separation between the
NVH emitted by the source and that of the
components along the path of this energy to
eliminate the possibility of resonance On the other
hand, if the energy passes through components
with considerable internal damping, like rubber, the
levels are reduced.
Defining the NVH source and path is critical in
finding an effective solution to the undesired NVH
phenomenon at hand. The NVH engineers need [3] Saeed J. Siavoshani, Dale W., "Converse
often to way many potential solutions to the NVH Methodology to determine component shell
concern including some that will solve the problem noise targets of vehicle induction systems,"
at the sources and others that will control the NVH International Journal of Vehicle Noise and
phenomenon in the path. Solving an NVH problem Vibration 2006 - Vol. 2, No.2 pp. 91-100.
is simply bringing the NVH levels from values that
[4] Huajiang Ouyang, Wayne Nack, Yongbin
cause driver discomfort or dislike to levels that are
Yuan, Frank Chen, Numerical analysis of
tolerable or even pleasing to the customer.
automotive disc brake squeal: a review,
International Journal of Vehicle Noise and
Vibration 2005 - Vol. 1, No.3/4 pp. 207-231.
CONCLUSIONS
[5] Jian Pang, Mohamad Qatu, Rao Dukkipati,
NVH engineers working in a product development Gang Sheng. "Nonlinear seat cushion and
environment face considerable challenges during human body model," International Journal of
their daily practice. They have to translate Vehicle Noise and Vibration 2005 - Vol. 1, No.
subjective terms used by the customer to objective 3/4 pp. 194–206.
metrics. They also have to be aware of market
trends and changes and build the intelligence [6] Jian Pang, Mohamad Qatu, Rao Dukkipati,
needed to know where NVH will be competitive in Gang Sheng, William N. Patten ,"Model
the future. identification for nonlinear automotive seat
cushion structure," International Journal of
NVH engineers will have to address the conflicting Vehicle Noise and Vibration 2004 - Vol. 1,
demands of the customer to perform proper No.1/2 pp. 142–157.
optimization or trade-off studies. They should seek
new technologies to increase their speed of [7] Klaus Genuit, "The sound quality of vehicle
producing vehicles to remain competitive. This interior noise: a challenge for the NVH-
makes it necessary to stay at the cutting edge of engineers," International Journal of Vehicle
technology both in NVH control and NVH Noise and Vibration 2004 - Vol. 1, No.1/2 pp.
assessment technologies like CAE. 158 –168.
Another challenge engineers face is cascading
vehicle level NVH requirements into hardware
physical requirements. They not only have to
performe trade-off studies with other attributes, but
also perform these studies with various
components under certain conditions. They
frequently find that the tools they use are not
necessarily mature and the results they get using
these tools are at best marginal (in accuracy).
Also, assessment needs to be delivered early in the
development process, where less information is
available. This makes it important to develop simple
models or 'rules of thumb' instead of sophisticated
tools of analysis.

REFERENCES

[1] Mark French, Maria Nowland, Dan Hedges,

David Greeley, "Reducing noise from gasoline
engine injectors," International Journal of
Vehicle Noise and Vibration 2004 - Vol. 1,
No.1/2 pp. 83–96.
[2] J.A. Calvo, V. Diaz, J.L. San Roman, "
Controlling the turbocharger whistling noise in
diesel engines," International Journal of
Vehicle Noise and Vibration 2006 - Vol. 2,
No.1 pp. 17–28.

Page 9 of 9