20 FAMOUS PSYCHOLOGIST FROM HISTORY

Albert Bandura
Born in Mundare, Alberta, Canada on December 4, 1925
Affiliated Institutions: University of British Columbia, University of Iowa, Stanford University

Who is Albert Bandura?

Albert Bandura, one of the few icons on our list still living at the time of writing, is responsible
for enormous contributions to the fields of psychology and education. Indeed, at 93 years of age (at the
time of writing), Bandura is the most cited living psychologist. His greatest contributions have been in
the areas of social and personality psychology. Bandura developed the highly influential social learning
theory — the idea that we learn new behaviors by observing others in social settings — and by
extension, social cognitive theory — the idea that we also acquire knowlege as a consequence of
observing others through social interaction, engaging in our own social interaction, and even through
media. Bandura was a key figure in helping push the field of psychology from Skinner’s behaviorist
model to cognitive psychology. His Bobo doll experiment, conducted in 1961, was considered a
groundbreaking examination of social learning theory. Here, Bandura measured the impact on children
who observed adults behaving aggressively toward a rocking “Bobo doll.” The goal was to demonstrate
that behaviors are learned through observation, and that witnessing adults being punished or rewarded
for certain actions can have a profound impact on how children behave. At the heart of Bandura’s theory
was that children who observed violent behavior that was either rewarded, or which did not elicit
punishment, were themselves more likely to engage in violent behavior. Bandura also introduced
important concepts relating to personality psychology, perhaps most significant among them being self-
efficacy. This refers to an individual’s own belief in their ability to master skills, reach certian
achievements, and rebound from setbacks. An individual’s degree of self-efficacy can have a strong
impact on personality development and behavior.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Social Cognitive Theory Adolescent Aggression w/ R.H. Walters
Social Learning Theory Social Learning through Imitation
Self-efficacy Social Learning and Personality Development
w/ R.H. Walters
Mary Whiton Calkins
Born in Hartford, Connecticut (March 30, 1863–February 26, 1930)
Affiliated Institutions: Wellesley College, Harvard University, University of Columbia

Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?

An American philosopher and psychologist most noted for becoming the first woman to sit as
president of both the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association,
Calkins focused her studies on memory, dreams, and association. She studied under, and was highly
influenced by, American psychologist and educator William James during her time as a Ph.D. student at
Harvard University. Though Calkins completed her doctoral dissertation, published several studies, and
was highly regarded by her mentors and fellow students, Harvard refused her a degree on the basis of
her sex. Among her lasting conceptual contributions, Calkins explored the concept of the Right-
Associates Method (now known as the Paired-Associations Technique). Here, Calkins presented
subjects with a series of colors paired with numbers, and later found that patients readily recalled
numbers when presented with previously paired colors. This proved a compelling insight into the way
that humans create meaning and association every single day by, for instance, learning new words and
connecting them to objects or ideas. Calkins would go on to earn an honorary Doctor of Letters degree
from the University of Columbia and, with the help of research partner Edmund Sanford, set up the first
women’s psychology lab at Wellesley College. She also completed her most notable study in self-
psychology alongside Sanford, a 7-week period in which both Calkins and Sanford recorded their own
dreams in order to better understand the relationship between dreams and identity, consciousness, and
sense of self. Later, Sigmund Freud’s groundbreaking dream studies would reference Calkins’ work.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Right-Associates Method (now known as the An Introduction to Psychology
Paired-Associations Technique) The President Problems of Philosophy
Self-Psychology The Good Man and The Good
Social Justice for Women
Erik Erikson
Born in Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany (June 15, 1902–May 12, 1994)
Affiliated Institutions: Yale University; University of California, Berkeley, Harvard University;
University of Pittsburgh

Who was Erik Erikson?

German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst Erik Erikson is best known for
coining the condition “identity crisis” to describe an individual who has failed to achieve ego identity
during adolescence. This concept stems from Erikson’s work on the psychological development of
human beings. As one of the prime proponents of ego psychology, Erikson placed tremendous
importance on the role of the self in an individual’s developmental progress. Though Erikson did not
directly connect the stages of development with age (like Piaget), his writing about “prolonged
adolescence” has given way to greater developmental awareness of a stage called “emerging adulthood.”
Key Ideas Key Writing
Theory of Psychological Development Childhood and Society
Identity Crisis Young Man Luther
Ego Psychology Gandhi’s Truth

Leon Festinger
Born New York City, NY (May 8 1919–February 11, 1989,)
Affiliated Institutions: City College of New York, University of Iowa, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, Stanford University
Who was Leon Festinger?
The work of American social psychologist Leon Festinger looms large over modern psychology,
particularly because of the important role he played in leading the field away from dominant behaviorist
practices and toward social psychology. This is because, Festinger premised, human behavior is too
complex to be accounted for fully by stimulus-response conditioning. He identified an array of
theories — social comparison theory in particular — to explain the ways in which social conditions
influence human behavior. Festinger was noteworthy for advancing laboratory experimentation in social
psychology, though he remained equally focused on field-research. This combination of laboratory
observation and field-work — especially his firsthand observations of the an apocalyptic cult during the
1950s — helped to illuminate the idea of cognitive dissonance, in which individuals use varying
dysfunctional strategies to cope with the contrast between passionately-held beliefs and contradictory
evidence.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Cognitive Dissonance Research methods in the behavioral sciences w/
Social Comparison Theory D. Katz
Proximity Effect Retrospections on Social Psychology
The Human Legacy
Anna Freud
Born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary (December 3, 1895–October 9, 1982)
Affiliated Institutions: Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute
Who was Anna Freud?
The sixth and youngest child of Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud carried on her father’s legacy in the field of
psychoanalysis. She added significantly to his body of work by focusing much of her attention on
juvenile subjects. Anna Freud stands alongside Melanie Klein — another influential Austrian-born
psychoanalyst with whom the younger Freud sometimes disagreed — as a founder of psychoanalytic
child psychology. She wrote about the importance of ego, and stressed that we are impacted by the
“developmental lines” of our ego. She noted that ego functions play a direct role in the development of
“defence mechanisms,” strategies developed in the unconscious to protect us from stressors or stimuli
perceived as harmful. Freud’s clinical work, and her application of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis
studies to younger subjects, both served to shed greater light on child psychology, behavior, and
disorder.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Child Analysis The Writings of Anna Freud: 8 Volumes (1966–
Ego Psychology 1980)
Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud
Born in Freiberg in Mähren, Moravia, Austrian Empire (now Příbor, Czech Republic) (May 6,
1856–September 23, 1939)
Affiliated Institutions: University of Vienna
Who was Sigmund Freud?
Few thinkers have levied the impact over Western thought that Sigmund Freud did both during and after
his lifetime, not just in the field of psychology, but in our everlasting desire to better understand the
human condition. Though many of his methods, ideas and approaches have since been widely debated,
refuted, and in some cases fully discredited, his contributions remain pertinent and impactful in
psychology and philosophy. Most essential among his contributions were Freud’s innovations in
psychoanalysis. He was a pioneer in the methods used to better understand mental processes, mental
health and especially mental disorder, through therapeutic conversation. It was this foundational idea
that helped Freud uncover therapeutic concepts such as free association, transference, and the human
unconscious. It was the last of these that helped to drive so much of Freud’s work, leading him to
attribute human disorders to developmental attachments; to attribute the content of our dreams to unmet
desires; and to connect so many of our behaviors to psychosexual impulses. Freud’s writing is quite
extensive, and understanding the true impact of his work and ideas requires a deeper dive into the
literature, as well as the critique thereof. But suffice it to say that his discursive approach to
psychoanalysis is widely seen as a major building block for modern psychology, psychiatry, and
psychotherapy.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Psychoanalysis Studies on Hysteria w/ J. Breuer
The Unconscious The Interpretation of Dreams
Psychosexuality "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life"
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
Civilization and Its Discontents
William James
Born in New York City, NY (January 11, 1842–August 26, 1910)
Affiliated Institutions: Harvard University

Who was William James?

Sometimes identified as the Father of American psychology, James was the very first educator to offer a
psychology course in the U.S. As one of the foremost philosophers and thinkers of the 19th Century,
James enjoys a sterling reputation in modern psychology. He is considered one of the founding figures
in functional psychology — a counterpoint to structuralism that attributes human behavior to Darwinian
impulses of survival and utility. He argued that, for each of us, true beliefs are those which prove useful
to the believer. That is, we are driven to perceive truth based on pragmatic impulses, those that best
serve our needs, desires, and interests. This framework, along with James’ emphasis on human
pragmatism, helped to usher in a new era of empirically-driven psychology in the U.S.
Key Ideas Key Writing
The Principles of Psychology William James: Writings 1878–1899
Pragmatic Theory of Truth William James: Writings 1902–1910
Essays Radical Empiricism
Jung
Born in Kesswil, Thurgau, Switzerland (July 26, 1875–June 6, 1961)
Affiliated Institutions: Burgholzli, Swiss Army

Who was Carl Jung?

Carl Jung is widely recognized for pioneering the field of analytical psychology. Of Swiss birth, Jung
shared a lengthy and ongoing correspondence with Austrian Sigmund Freud in which they collaborated
on their ideas regarding human psychology. Freud even helped his younger colleague earn an
appointment as President of the International Psychoanalytic Association. Their differing beliefs would,
however, soon place the two thinkers at odds with one another, even preventing Jung from receiving
some of his due recognition during his lifetime. Jung believed in a concept called individuation, a
lifelong psychological process of defining one’s self based on a combination of conscious and
unconscious elements. This, according to Jung, was the primary endeavor of human development. It
informed some of his most important contributions, including his conceptualization of the psychological
complex, his identification of extraversion and introversion as personality types, and his recognition of
the collective unconscious — our shared understanding and experience as human beings.

Key Ideas
Collective Unconscious Key Writing
Analytical Psychology The Collected Works of C.G. Jung
Indivdiuation

Lawrence Kohlberg
Born in Bronxville, New York (October 25, 1927–January 19, 1987)
Affiliated Institutions: University of Chicago

Who was Lawrence Kohlberg?

Lawrence Kohlberg was an American psychologist who picked up where Jean Piaget left off, building
on his predecessor’s examination of childhood development, and particularly, moral judgement. The
result of his work and writing was the emergence of an entirely new field of psychology centering on the
concept of “moral development.” Kohlberg theorized that, as part of our social development, we look to
the behavior of role models in order to navigate moral dilemmas. Kohlberg believed that universal
constructs of social life like families, peer groups, and formal institutions will have a profound impact
on our moral development as we aspire to become functional participants in our respective societies.
Kohlberg also focused on the important role played by education, and stressed the influence that formal
schooling can have on moral development. He is thus considered as influential among education
theorists as psychologists.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Stages of Moral Development The Philosophy of Moral Development
Moral Exemplars The Psychology of Moral Development
Dilemma Discussions
Abraham Maslow
Born in Brooklyn, New York City, New York (April 1, 1908–June 8, 1970)
Affiliated Institutions: University of Wisconsin–Madison, Cornell University, Brooklyn College,
Brandeis University

Who was Abraham Maslow?

American psychologist and psychology professor Abraham Maslow is best known for his humanistic
theories on achieving psychological health. Maslow deferred to Freud for his groundbreaking work in
understanding human dysfunction. But, by contrast, he focused his own work on the positive aspects of
human psychological health. He sought answers to questions about individual self-actualization and the
pursuit of personal fulfillment. These interests led him to his most lasting contribution in the field of
psychology: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. This holds that our psychological health depends on the
fulfillment of certain innate needs, and that we prioritize in order of importance, from basic survival
needs and security needs to more intrinsic needs like love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
Another compelling concept that Maslow explored in close connection with his hierarchy was the idea
of Peak Experiences (profound moments of extraordinary love, understanding, stimulation, etc.) and
Plateau Experiences (moments of great equanimity), both more likely to be achieved by those who are
more genuinely self-actualized.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Motivation and Personality
Peak and Plateau Experiences Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences
Self-Actualization Eupsychian Management

Stanley Milgram
Born in New York City, NY (August 15, 1933–December 20, 1984)
Affiliated Institutions: Queens College, New York, Harvard University

Who was Stanley Milgram?

Social psychologist Stanley Milgram was born to a Jewish family in the Bronx at a time when millions
of Eastern European Jews — including many of his relatives — faced the horrors of the Holocaust. His
historical proximity to these events had a profound impact on his work, and most particularly, on his
academic interest in authoritarianism. Most notably, Milgram would secure his legacy and cast a shadow
over his own reputation with the very same achievement. In 1963, while serving as a Professor at
Harvard, Milgram submitted his “Behavioral Study of Obedience” to the APA. In the study, subjects
were told that they were part of a test of memory and learning, and that they were to administer electric
shocks of elevating intensity to unseen subjects for each wrong answer supplied. As part of the
experiment, the unseen subject could be heard crying out in pain, also with greater intensity, even as the
experimenter urged subjects to continue administering shocks. Milgram was startled by his own
findings, which revealed that subjects were more likely to engage in behavior that was harmful to others
if goaded by an authority. 65% of participants administered shocks to the highest level ordered. The
study caused an uproar, with many decrying Milgram’s methodology as unethical — participants were
not made aware that they were being studied. Many others expressed shock over the findings. Such
behavior may perhaps help to explain, Milgram suggested, how ordinary Germans helped perpetuate the
Holocaust. It is noteworthy that Milgram was a one-time classmate of Phillip Zimbardo, who would
become equally influential and notorious for his controversial experimental methods surrounding
authoritarianism. Milgram would explore other compelling concepts, including the idea that every
person in the world is connected through personal acquaintanceship by an average of six degrees of
separation; and the theory that violent media consumption can contribute to anti-social behavior. By and
large, Milgram was a controversial figure in his time, but his studies in obedience to authority remain
central to our understanding of fascism and the willingness of otherwise ethical individuals to behave
unethically under instructions from perceived authorities.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Obedience to Authority Liberating Effects of Group Pressure
Six Degrees of Separation Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View
Anti-Social Behavior The Individual in a Social World: Essays and
Experiments
Neal E. Miller
Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (August 3, 1909–March 23, 2002)
Affiliated Institutions: University of Washington, Yale University, Stanford University
Who was Neal E. Miller?
American experimental psychologist Neal Elgar Miller was a man of many interests, a disposition which
made him a well-suited figure to bridge the seemingly irreconcilable gap between psychoanalysis and
behaviorism. Where Skinner and Jung seemed at conceptual odds, Miller explored the behavioral
Stimulus-Response Theory through Freud’s psychoanalytic lens. This led Miller into deeper
consideration of both anxiety and fear, as well as the behavioral impulses that drive us to find relief from
these conditions. Among Miller’s most notable contributions was his work in the area of biofeedback,
the process of monitoring bodily functions like brainwave activity, heart rate, and pain receptors based
on response to physiological and emotional stimuli.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Biofeedback Social Learning and Imitation
Stimulus-Response Theory Psychological research on pilot training
Fear Personality and Psychotherapy an Analysis in
Terms of Learning, Thinking and Culture
Ivan Pavlov
Born in Ryazan, Russian Empire (September 26, 1849–February 27, 1936)
Affiliated Institutions: Saint Petersburg University, Imperial Military Medical Academy

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

A physiologist and the first Russian Nobel laureate, Pavlov made his most important contributions in the
study of Classical Conditioning. This theory holds that we can be made to have certain unconscious
responses to stimuli based on their association to certain rewards. Also sometimes known as Pavolvian
conditioning, the concept is best exemplified in Pavlov’s most famous study. Herein, Pavlov conditioned
a group of dogs to expect a feeding in connection with various stimuli, including tuning forks,
electroshock, and whistles. Eventually, he found that the dogs salivated simply at the sound of certain
stimuli, even without the presence of food. The reflex action was based on a biological process
happening within the digestive track of the dog, meaning that Pavlov’s experiments had successfully
conditioned the subjects to the point of influencing reflexive biological processes at the occurrence of
seemingly otherwise unrelated stimuli. This inclined Pavlov to observe that certain behaviors are
unconsciously learned based on their connection to expected rewards.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Pavlov’s Dogs Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the
Classical Conditioning Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex
Reflex Actions I. P. Pavlov: His Life and Work by Asratyan, E.
A.
Jean Piaget
Born in Neuchatel, Switzerland (August 9, 1896–September 16, 1980)
Affiliated Institutions: University of Neuchâtel, University of Geneva, University of Paris

Who was Jean Piaget?

Swiss-born psychologist Jean Piaget played an instrumental role in our understanding of child
development. Though his ideas only gained true popularity toward the end of his life, he would
ultimately rank second only to behaviorist B.F. Skinner as the most cited psychologist of the late 20th
Century. This is due in large part to his theory of cognitive development, which provides a structural
framework for understanding how human beings acquire, construct and use knowledge. Piaget pioneered
the idea of genetic epistemology, a way of understanding the validity of our knowledge based on the
strength of the constructs informing that knowledge. Here within, Piaget’s development stage theory
examines the unique ways in which children think, absorb knowledge, and solve problems. His
examination of childhood cognitive abilities continues to inform progressive and child-centric strategies
of education today.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Theory of Cognitive Development The Early Growth of Logic in the Child
Genetic Epistemology "Piaget's theory" in Handbook of Child
Piaget's Stages of Development Psychology, History, Theory, and Methods
(Volume 1), Mussen, Paul H. (ed).
Structuralism
Genetic Epistemology
Carl Rogers
Born in Oak Park, Illinois (January 8, 1902–February 4, 1987)
Affiliated Institutions: Ohio State University, University of Chicago, University of Wisconsin–Madison,
Western Behavioral Sciences Institute

Who was Carl Rogers?

American psychologist Carl Rogers is recognized as one of the founders of the humanist approach to
psychology. Also known as the person-centered or client-centered approach, this strategy was the basis
for Rogers’ groundbreaking work in psychotherapy research. Rogers believed that counseling and
education could both be more successful when centered around individual needs, with a focus on
helping the subject move toward growth, fulfillment and self-actualization. This gave way to more
empathetic ways of counseling subjects and instructing learners. Rogers was also guided by these ideas
as he pioneered a new way of approaching rhetorical dialogue. Articulating the Rogerian model, Rogers
conceptualized a revision of the Aristotelian framework for rhetoric. His method of debate required each
side to clearly restate the other’s position before proceeding with an argument. This has helped to form
the very basis for much of academic persuasive writing, in which it must be made clear that you
understand the counterpoints to your position before persisting with your own argument. The Rogerian
method continues to serve as a valued framework for constructive ways of engaging in academic debate
and rhetorical dialogue.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Humanism Counseling And Psychotherapy
Person-Centered Approach Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice,
Rogerian Rhetorical Approach Implications and Theory
A Theory of Therapy, Personality and
Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the
Client-centered Framework (1959)
On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of
Psychotherapy
Stanley Schachter
Born in Flushing, Queens, New York (April 15, 1922–June 7, 1997)
Affiliated Institutions: Yale University, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, Columbia
University

Who was Stanley Schachter?

American social psychologist Stanley Schachter explored human emotion and how it connected to our
understanding of events and experiences. He conceived the two factor theory of emotion to explain the
way that physiological stimuli and cognitive recognition connect in order to provoke emotional
responses to feelings of arousal. Schacter applied this theory to various dimensions of human life,
including addiction, over-eating and socially deviant behavior, areas in which the misattribution of
arousal could incline individuals to mistakenly perceive unhealthy behaviors as being emotionally
fulfilling. His research in these areas would also lend greater insight into the ways that group dynamics
can impact our behavioral tendencies.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Two Factor Theory of Emotion Social Pressures in Informal Groups
Misattribution of Arousal When Prophecy Fails, with L. Festinger and H.
Group Dynamics Riecken
The Psychology of Affiliation
Emotion, Obesity and Crime
B.F. Skinner
Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania (March 20, 1904–August 18, 1990)
Affiliated Institutions: Hamilton College, Harvard University

Who was B.F. Skinner?

American psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner was best known for his work as a behaviorist and
social philosopher. Skinner believed that human behavior is driven by consequence rather than free will.
This led him to identify his school of thought as radical behaviorism, a philosophy that looks only to
environmental histories of reinforcement to understand human behavior. This is in sharp contrast to
psychoanalytical strategies that instead examine the individual’s internal mental life. This strategy
underscored Skinner’s work on operant conditioning, the idea that the persistence of behaviors can be
modified by positive reinforcement or negative punishment. His most influential experiments were with
his Operant Conditioning Box, now more commonly known as the Skinner Box. This device was the
basis for observing the behavior of laboratory pigeons and rats when exposed to certain stimuli based on
repeated actions.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Operant Conditioning The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental
Radical Behavioralism Analysis
Reinforcement Science And Human Behavior
Walden Two
Edward Thorndike
Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts (August 31, 1874–August 9, 1949)
Affiliated Institutions: Wesleyan University, Harvard University, Columbia University

Who was Edward Thorndike?

American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike is best known for his work in comparative psychology
and the learning process. His theory of connectionism was founded on his pioneering clinical
experiments with animal subjects. Primarily using cats as subjects in “puzzle boxes,” in which certain
behaviors would be rewarded with escape, Thorndike proved that animals show gradual learning as a
consequence of stimulus-response. This provoked Thorndike to identify the “law of effect” which
argued that responses resulting in a satisfying effect — like the reward of freedom — were more likely
to occur again, whereas responses resulting in discomforting effects — such as continued captivity in
Thorndike’s puzzle box — were increasingly less likely to occur. Thorndike’s findings also helped to
justify the value of using animal learning processes as a way of understanding human learning
processes. Thorndike’s well-known trial-and-error experiments would play a part in defining the
functional psychology movement which swept the United States in the late 19th Century. His law of
effect would also have a profound impact on educational strategies and pedagogy in the U.S.

Key Ideas Key Writing

Stimulus-Response Animal Intelligence
Connectionism The Measurement of Intelligence
The Puzzle Box Human Learning
John B. Watson
Born in Travelers Rest, South Carolina (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958)
Affiliated Institutions: Furman University, University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins University

Who was John B. Watson?

American psychologist John Broadus Watson is noteworthy for establishing the psychological school of
behaviorism, and for bringing scientific rigor to the field through experimental methodological
behaviorism. Watson examined the motives behind observable human behavior in areas such as child
rearing and susceptibility to advertisement. Watson is perhaps most noted, and notorious, for his highly
controversial “Little Albert” experiments. Here, Watson set out to demonstrate the effect of classical
conditioning by connecting fear to certain stimuli. Little Albert, an infant who was likely used without
parental permission, was placed in a laboratory setting and exposed to a distressing loud noise while
playing with a rat. The goal was to determine whether Albert could be conditioned to have a fear
response that was generalized to all furry objects. Watson proved that this general fear response could
indeed be conditioned. This helped form the basis for Watson’s ideas about classical conditioning and
the ways in which behavior modification may occur as a result of certain external stimuli. The Little
Albert experiments, while informative, are regarded today as deeply unethical in nature.
Key Ideas Key Writing
Methodological Behaviorism Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It
Behavior Modification Psychological Care of Infant and Child
Classical Conditioning Behaviorism

Phillip Zimbardo
Born in New York City, New York (March 23, 1933)
Affiliated Institutions: Brooklyn College, Yale University, Stanford University

Who is Phillip Zimbardo?

As noted earlier, American social psychologist Phillip Zimbardo actually attended school alongside
fellow social psychologist Stanley Milgram. This is fitting, and not just because each of their
experiments was so controversial, but also because these experiments stand side by side in our historical
understanding of authoritarian behavior and morality. His Stanford Prison Experiment is among the
most famous and troubling chapters in 20th Century psychology. Like Milgram, Zimbardo was
compelled to better understand the recent horrors of the Holocaust and their connection to authoritarian
behavior. In 1971, with funding from the U.S. Office of Naval Research, Zimbardo divided his college
students into two groups: prisoners and guards. Creating a makeshift prison in the basement of an
academic hall, Zimbardo observed the behavior of both groups as they descended further into their roles.
He was shocked to watch as ordinary students rapidly assumed their divergent roles with a very real
sense of emotional consequence. Prisoners became increasingly dependent, rebellious, and distressed;
guards became more punitive, cruel, and sadistic. Originally designed as a two-week study, Zimbardo
suspended his experiment after just six days, as evidence emerged to suggest that participants were
experiencing real emotional trauma from their involvement. While Zimbardo remains a controversial
figure for his ethically unsound methods, the experiment is yet another stage in our troubling journey to
understand the clear connection between authority and ethical compromise. It helped Zimbardo to later
outline the Lucifer Effect, which postulates that humans are neither good nor evil, that we are all capable
of both as a given situation may dictate. Among only two subjects on our list who is still living today,
Zimbardo commented on the pertinence of his Lucifer theory to the events at Abu Ghraib prison during
the Second U.S. War in Iraq.

Key Ideas Key Writing

The Stanford Prison Experiment The Lucifer Effect
The Lucifer Effect The Time Paradox
The Time Cure

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

The term theory is used with surprising frequency in everyday language. It is often used to mean a
guess, hunch, or supposition. You may even hear people dismiss certain information because it is "only
a theory." It is important to note as you study psychology and other scientific topics that a theory in
science is not the same as the colloquial use of the term.

What Is a Theory?
To the average layperson, the word theory means something of a guess. It might be true, or it might not
be. But the word has a very different meaning in the realm of science when researchers are talking about
empirical research that is back by scientific evidence.

While the parlance of everyday language suggests that a theory is just a hunch, it is important to
understand that the word has a very different meaning in science.

In science, a theory is not merely a guess. A theory is based on a hypothesis that is backed by evidence.
A theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon.

A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable. Scientists can test the theory through empirical
research and gather evidence that supports or refutes it.

Scientific American listed "theory" as one of their seven most misused scientific terms.1 It is these
misconceptions about the term's meaning that leads people to dismiss topics such as evolution and
climate change as "merely theories" despite an abundance of overwhelming scientific evidence.

A scientific theory presents an explanation about some aspects of human behavior or the natural world
which is supported through repeated testing and experiments. This means that scientists have repeated
these experiments and replicated these findings. They have also collected evidence that supports the
theory. Many different researchers have gathered evidence that supports the theory.

Purpose of a Psychology Theory

In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors.
A psychological theory has two key components:

It must describe a behavior

It must make predictions about future behaviors

Throughout psychology's history, a number of theories have been proposed to explain and predict
various aspects of human behavior. Some of these theories have stood the test of time and remain well-
accepted today. Others have not held up under close scientific scrutiny and may have been rejected
altogether or only partially accepted by researchers today.

Each theory has helped contribute to our knowledge base of the human mind and behavior. Some
theories such as classical conditioning are still well-accepted today.2 Others, like Freud's theories, have
not held up so well and have been mostly replaced by new theories that better explain human
development.

The overall strength of a scientific theory hinges on its ability to explain diverse phenomena. What
makes a theory so different from a mere guess or hunch is that a theory is testable.

As new evidence and research are added, a theory may then be refined, modified, or even rejected if it
does not fit with the latest scientific findings.

Types Different of Psychological Theories

There are many psychology theories, but most can be categorized as one of four key types:

Developmental Theories
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and
learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding
these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain
human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a particular quality, such
as Kohlberg's theory of moral development.3 Other developmental theories focus on growth that
happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Grand Theories
Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud,
Erik Erikson,4 and Jean Piaget.

Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and cognitive theory.
These theories seek to explain much of human behavior but are often considered outdated and
incomplete in the face of modern research.
Psychologists and researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration but consider smaller
theories and recent research as well.

Mini-Theories
Mini-theories describe a small, very particular aspect of development. A mini-theory might explain
relatively narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed5 or early childhood socialization.

These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to
describe and explain the whole of human behavior and growth.

Emergent Theories
Emergent theories are those that have been created relatively recently and are often formed by
systematically combining various mini-theories. These theories often draw on research and ideas from
different disciplines but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as grand theories.

The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky is a good example of an emergent theory of
development.6

Examples
Some of the best-known theories of psychology focus on specific branches within psychology. Some of
these include:

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B.
Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the
twentieth century.7

Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills
and behaviors.

Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem-solving,
decision-making, thinking, and attention. Such theories strive to explain different mental processes
including how the mind processes information.

Humanistic Theories
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s.8 While earlier theories
often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized
the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists included Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow.

Personality Theories
Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person
unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality
including the trait theory of personality, the "big 5" theory of personality, and Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development.9

Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are
generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior,10 prosocial behavior, social
influence, love and much more.

Why Theories Matter

In your psychology courses, you may find yourself questioning how necessary it is to learn about
different psychology theories, especially those that are considered inaccurate or outdated.

However, all of these theories provide valuable information about the history of psychology, the
progression of thought on a particular topic and a deeper understanding of current theories.

By understanding how thinking has progressed, you can get a better idea not only of where psychology
has been, but where it might be going in the future.

Studying other scientific theories provides a background in what researchers understand about how the
natural world works. A solid scientific education can help you make a better sense of what researchers
mean when they talk about scientific research as well as improving your understanding of how scientific
explanations for behavior and other phenomena in the natural world are formed, investigated, and
accepted by the scientific community.

While the debate continues to rage over hot topics such as climate change and evolution, it is worthwhile
to study science and the theories that have emerged from such research, even when what is often
revealed might come as a harsh or inconvenient truth.

As Carl Sagan once explained, "It is far better to grasp the universe as it really is than to persist in
delusion, however satisfying and reassuring."

A Word From Verywell

Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology
theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new
information and behaviors.

Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed
tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these
theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present, and future.