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 REVIEW OF BASICS IN
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Prepared by:

Dr. Osama Ibrahim

2015-2016

1
CHAPTER NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO
ONE INTRODUCTION 3

TWO EXTERNAL 14
FORCES

THREE INTERNAL 28
FORCES
FOUR TRUSS ANALYSIS 38

FIVE ARCHS and 49

CABLES
ANALYSIS

SIX DISPLACEMENTS 65
&
DEFLECTIONS
OF STRUCTURES

SEVEN ANALYSIS OF 100

R.C BEAMS

EIGHT STEEL TENSION 150

MEMBERS

2
 CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

3
Civil engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which is growing right from the Stone
Age civilization. American society of Civil Engineering defines civil Engineering as the
profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by study,
experience and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize economically the
materials and forces of nature for the progressive well-being of man.
In this course, scopes of the important field in civil engineering are discussed, structural
engineering and construction technology, and how to analyse and design these structures.

1.1 SCOPE OF DIFFERENT FIELDS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering may be divided into the following fields:
(i) Surveying
(ii) Building Materials
(iii) Construction Technology
(iv) Structural Engineering
(v) Geotechnical Engineering
(vi) Hydraulics
(vii) Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering
(viii) Transportation Engineering
(ix) Environmental Engineering
(x) Architecture and Town planning.

1.2 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Construction is the major activity of civil engineering which is continuously improving. As
land cost is going up there is demand for tall structures in urban areas while in rural areas need
is for low constructions. One has to develop technology using locally available materials.
Load acting on a structure is ultimately transferred to ground. In doing so, various components
of the structure are subjected to internal stresses. For example, in a building, load acting on a
slab is transferred by slab to ground through beams, columns and footings. Assessing the
internal stresses in the components of a structure is known as structural analysis and finding
the suitable size of the structural components is known as design of structure. The structure to
be analysed and designed may be of masonry, R.C or steel as shown in figure (1). Upton
considerable improvements were seen in classical analysis. With the advent of computers
numerical methods emerged and analysis and design packages are becoming popular. A civil
engineer has not only to give a safe structure but he has to give economical sections. To get
economical section mathematical optimization techniques are used. Frequent earthquakes in
the recent years have brought importance of analysis of the structures for earthquake forces.
Designing earthquake resistant structures is attracting lot of researches. All these aspects fall
under structural engineering field.
Design of members and structures of reinforced concrete is a problem distinct from but closely
related to analysis. Strictly speaking, it is almost impossible to exactly analyse a concrete
structure, and to design exactly is no less difficult. Fortunately, we can make a few fundamental
assumptions which make the design of reinforced concrete quite simple, if not easy.

4
Concrete Building Concrete Tunnel

Steel Structure

Masonry Structure

Fig.1 Different Types of Structures

5
A problem unique to the design of reinforced concrete structures is the need to detail each
member throughout. Steel structures, in general, require only the detailed design of
connections. For concrete structures, we must determine not only the area of longitudinal and
lateral reinforcement required in each member, but also the way to best arrange and connect
the reinforcement to insure acceptable structural performance. This procedure can be made
reasonably simple, if not easy.

In this course we will learn to understand the basic performance of concrete and steel as
Structural materials, and the behaviour of reinforced concrete members and structures.

The overall goal is to be able to design reinforced concrete structures that are:
1- Safe
2- Economical
3- Efficient
Reinforced concrete is one of the principal building materials used in engineered structures
because:
1- Low cost
2- Weathering and fire resistance
3- Good compressive strength
4- Formability
All these criteria make concrete an attractive material for wide range of structural applications
such as buildings, dams, reservoirs, tanks, etc.

1.3 DESIGN CODES and SPECIFICATIONS

Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code,
which is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety,
fire safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. A building code
has the force of law and is administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county, or
for some large metropolitan areas, a consolidated government. Building codes do not give
design procedures, but specify the design requirements and constraints that must be satisfied.
Of particular importance to the structural engineer is the prescription of minimum live loads
for buildings. While the engineer is encouraged to investigate the actual loading conditions and
attempt to determine realistic values, the structure must be able to support these specified
minimum loads.
Although some large cities write their own building codes, many municipalities will adopt a
“model” building code and modify it to suit their particular needs.

There are many examples of codes for structural design specifications as shown in figure (2)

Fig.2 Examples of Codes and Specifications for Structures

6
1.4 DESIGN PROCESS
Design of any structure needs the following aspects to be covered:-

1- Requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and mechanics.

2- Requires knowledge of various types of structural forms and configurations
3- Calculation of loads and load effects acting on the structure as a deflections.
4- Knowledge of structural analysis to calculate design forces.
5- Requires knowledge of designing structural members and connections
6- Ability to evaluate designs and consider other options.

In this course, 1, 2, 3 and 4 will be covered

1.5 CLASSIFICATIONS OF STRUCTURES

As an engineer, you must be able to classify structures according to their form and function
and you must also be able to recognize various types of elements composing a structure.

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM: - Composed of structural members joined together by structural

connections. Each structural system may be composed of one or more of the four basic types
of structures.

The four basic types of structures are:-

1- Trusses
2- Cables and Arches
3- Frames
4- Surface structures

1.5.1 Trusses

Trusses consists of slender members, arranged in a triangular pattern as shown in figure (3)

Fig.3 TRUSSES

7
1.5.2 Cables and Arches

Cables and arch are structures used to span long distances as shown in figure (4).

Fig.4 Cables and Arches

1.5.3 Frames

Frames are commonly used in building structures. Frames are composed of beams and columns
that are connected together as shown in figure (5).

Fig.5 Frames

1.5.4 Surface structure

Membrane, plate, or shell type with much less thickness as compared to its other dimensions.
It is subjected to tension and compression only as shown in figure (6).

8
 Fig.6 Surface Structures

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL MEMEBERS

There are five basic types of structural members. These are follows:
1- Tension members and tie rods.
2- Compression members or columns or struts.
3- Flexural members or beams
4- Members subjected to combined loading or beam-columns.

Examples of these members can be shown in figure (7), (8)

Fig.7 Tension and compression members

9
 Fig.8 Columns and Beams members

1.7 TYPES OF LOADS

1- Dead loads

It consists of the weight of the various structural members and weight of any object that
permanently attached to the structure as shown in figure (9).

10
 Fig.9 Dead loads

2- Live loads

It can vary both in their magnitude and location like bridge loads as shown in figure (10)

Fig.10 Live loads

3- Wind loads

It is a lateral load subjected to the building as shown in figure (11).

Fig.11 Wind loads

11
 4- Snow loads
As shown in figure (12)

Fig.12 Snow loads

5- Earthquake Load
It is a lateral load. It can be get in consider only in the earthquake regions such as Japan and
USA. This load can be shown as figure (13).

Fig.13 Earthquake load

12
1.8 LOAD TRANSFER

Loads can be transferred from one element to another as shown in figure (14) from slabs to
beams to columns to footings.

Fig.14 Load Transfer through building

13
CHAPTER (2)

EXTERNAL
FORCES

14
2.1 IDEALIZED STRUCTURES

Idealized structure is needed to the engineer to perform a practical force analysis of the whole
frame and its member. This is the reason in this section to show different members, member
connections and supports and there idealizations. If one know these models may compose
idealized model of each real structure after all perform the analysis and design.

2.1.1 Idealized Beams

Fig.15 Idealized Beams

2.1.2 Idealized Frames

Fig.16 Idealized Frames

15
2.1.3 Idealized Trusses

Fig.17 Idealized Trusses

2.1.4 Idealized Loads

There are two main loads can be idealized, concentrated loads and distributed loads as shown
in figure (18)

Fig.18 Idealized loads

2.1.5 Idealized Connections

There are six types of connections as follows showing each type with its idealization:-
1- Rigid (fixed) connections: This connection carry moment, shear and axial forces between
different members. In addition, in this case all members including in such a connection have
one and the same rotation and displacements – the nodal rotation and displacements. Typical
rigid connections between members in metal and in reinforced concrete constructions and there
idealized models are shown in figure (19).

Fig.19 Idealized Rigid connection

16
2- Hinged (pin) connections: This connection carry shear and axial forces but not moment
between different members. Hinged connection allow to the jointed members to have different
rotations but the same displacements. Typical hinged connections between members in metal
and in reinforced concrete constructions and there idealized models are shown in figure (20)

Fig.20 Idealized hinged connection

3- Fixed Support: This support carry moment, shear and axial forces between different
members. This kind of support doesn’t allow any displacements of the support point. So if the
displacement along the x axis is u, the displacement along y axis is y and the rotation is called
ϕ then we can say that: uA = 0; VA = 0 and ϕA = 0.

Fig.21 Idealized Fixed Support

4- Hinged (pin) support: This support carry shear and axial forces but not moment between
different members. The hinged support allows rotation of the support point but the two
displacement are equal zero or: uA = 0; VA = 0 and ϕA ≠ 0.

Fig.22 Idealized Hinged Support

17
5- Roller support: This support carry only shear forces between jointed members. The roller
support allows rotation and one displacement of the support point: uA ≠ 0; VA = 0 and ϕA ≠ 0.

Fig.23 Idealized Roller Support

6- Spring supports: These supports are like the previous but with the difference that they are
not ideally rigid but with some real stiffness. The spring has a stiffness constant c equals to
the force caused by displacement d = 1.

Fig.24 Idealized Spring Support

Example No.1
Draw the idealization model of the following figures to do the mathematical calculation of analysis
and design.

Solution

18
 Solution

2.2 Equivalent system of Distributed Loads

w0a
a/2
w0

2a/3 w0a/2
w0

w1a (w2- w1)a/2

w2
a/2 a/3
w1

2.3 Solving Reactions for Beams

It is possible to determine the forces and stresses in beams by utilizing the equations of
equilibrium, that is

19
For a two-dimensional beam, there are at most three equilibrium equations for each part, so
that if there is a total n parts and r reactions, we have
r = 3n statistically determinate
r > 3n statistically indeterminate
Example No.2
Classify each of the beams shown as statically determinate or statistically indeterminate

20
In this course, we will focus on determine structures only. To get reaction at any support, you
should follow the following instructions:
1- Draw free body diagram (i.e. replace supports with forces and moments as applicable)
2- Replace any uniform distributed load (UDL) with a single force acting at the midpoint
of the UDL.
3- Find the right hand reaction by taking moments about the point of action of the left
hand reaction.
4- Find the left hand reaction by adding all the forces together for the x and y directions
and putting these equal to zero.

Example No.3 Calculate the reactions for the following beam

Solution

- Use the sum of the moments must be zero (Σ M = 0) equation to calculate the magnitude
of the reactions
- Sign convention: clockwise moments positive (+ve), anti-clockwise moments negative
(-ve).
- There are to unknowns (RL and RR) and one must be eliminated to be able to calculate
the reaction. We select the rotation point at RR because reaction RR times distance is
then zero. To find RL take the moment about RR (now there is only one unknown in
our equation).

If this formula is used, you must be certain that RL is correctly calculated. At this stage, it is
better to calculate RR as well

21
Example No.4
Determination of the reactions of a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load
Solution

Example No.5

Calculate the reactions at the supports.

Solution
- For equilibrium (∑M=0)
- Sum of forces in X and Y directions = 0
∑Ma = 0 (clockwise positive)
30 *1 + (15*4)*(1+4/2) + 45*6 - Rb*8 = 0
Rb = 60 KN
∑ Fy = 0 (positive upwards)
Ra – 30 – (15*4) – 45 – 60 = 0
Ra = 75 KN

22
Example No.6
Determine the reactions on the beam shown.

Example No.7
Determine the reactions on the beam shown. Assume A is a pin and the support at
B is a roller (smooth surface).

23
Example No.8
The compound beam in figure below is fixed at A. Determine the reactions at A, B, and C.
Assume that the connection at pin and C is a roller.

Solution

24
2.4 SOLVING REACTIONs FOR FRAMES
Example No.9
Find the reactions for the shown figure

Solution

25
Example No.10
From the figure below, determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the
pin connections A, B, and C of the supporting gable frame.

Solution

26
CHAPTER (3)

INTERNAL
FORCES

27
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Recall from mechanics of materials that the internal forces P (generic axial), V (shear) and M
(moment) represent resultants of the stress distribution acting on the cross section of the beam.
Internal Axial Force (P) ≡ equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant) of the components in the direction parallel to the axis of the beam of all external
loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section being considered.
T ≡ Tension
C ≡ Compression
Internal Shear Force (V) ≡ equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant) of the components in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all
external loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section being considered.
Internal Bending Moment (M) ≡ equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
algebraic sum of the moments about (the centroid of the cross section of the beam) the section
of all external loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section being considered.
Positive Sign Conventions: Tension axial force on the section, Shears that produces clockwise
moments, and Bending moments that produce compression in the top fibres and tension in the
bottom fibres of the beam as shown in figure (25) and (26).
Shear and bending moment diagrams depict the variation of these quantities along the length
of the member. Proceeding from one end of the member to the other, sections are passed. After
each successive change in loading along the length of the member, a FBD (Free Body Diagram)
is drawn to determine the equations expressing the shear and bending moment in terms of the
distance from a convenient origin. Plotting these equations produces the shear and bending
moment diagrams.

Fig.25 Beam Sign Convention for Shear and Moment

28
 Fig.26 Sign Convention for Shear and Moment on a Portal Frame

3.2 FINDING SHEAR FORCE AT ANY SECTION

1- Draw Free Body Diagram: - replace supports with forces and moments as applicable.
2- Find Reactions: - Take moments about one of the supports to determine one reaction, sum
forces in x and y directions to determine the other reaction, draw deflected shape.
3-Find Shear Forces:- Determine SFs by taking cuts just before and just after each applied
load and reaction, Draw the SF diagram remembering +ve shear convention.

29
3.3 FINDING BENDING MOMENTS
There are two methods in finding BM at any section Theoretical method and Simplified
method
a) Theoretical Method: - Determine BMs by taking cuts at each applied load. In civil
engineering, a positive BM is usually drawn on the tension side of the beam.
b) Simplified Method: - BM is the area under the shear force diagram (SF is the
gradient of the BM diagram).

SF = 0 when the BM is a maximum or minimum.

BM = 0 at points of contra flexure.

3.4 COMMON RESULTS OF BEAM ANALYSIS

3.5 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example No.1
Determine shear forces and BMs at points B, C, D and E in the following Beam

30
 1- Reaction at point A = 4.4 KN.
2- Determination of shear forces from point A
- Cut just left of B: SFB- + 4.4 = -4.4 KN
- Cut just right of B: SFB+ + 4.4KN – 12KN = +7.6 KN
- Cut just right of C: SFC + 4.4KN -12 + 17 + -9.4 KN
- Cut just right of D: SFC + 4.4 -12 + 17 -8 = -1.4 KN
- Cut just right of E: SFC + 4.4 -12 + 17 -8 -12 + +10.6 KN
3- Determination moments at sections from left:
- At B: MB = -4.4 * 2 = -8.8 KN.m
- At C: MC = -8.8 KN.m + 7.6 * 3 = + 14 KN.m
- At D: MD = 14 KN.m + 3 * -9.4 = -14.2 KN.m
- At E: ME = -14.2 + 1.5 * -1.4 = -16.3 KN.m
- At F: MF = 0
Example No.2
Draw SFD and BMD for the following beam

SOLUTION

31
Example No.3
Draw SFD and BMD for the following beam

SOLUTION

1- Calculate reactions: Sum moment about A:

6kN*3m + 10kN*5m – RD*10m = 0

Therefore RD = 6.8 KN
Sum forces: RA – 6kN -10kN +6.8 = 0
Therefore RA = 9.2 KN

32
Example No.4
Draw SFD and BMD for the following frame

1- Draw the deflected shape.

2- Find reactions. Take moments at one support and then sum forces to find other reaction.
3- Find BMs. Take cuts at bend and where a force acts. Draw the BM on the compression
side of the beam.
4- Find SFs. Take cuts from an end and remember +ve shear rule. The shear force is the
slope of the BM diagram.

33
 - Solving for shear forces diagram:

Start from an end say C: Take a cut at D: SFD – 5 = 0; SFD = 5kN. Either +5KN or – 5KN is
acceptable.

The shear force at D from D-C becomes an axial force in member DE. Hence there is no shear
force in DE but the axial force is 5kN. You do not need to show the axial force.

Take a cut just above A: SFA- – 5KN = 0 (SFA- = 5KN ).

Take a cut just to the right of A: Summing all the forces in the vertical direction on the structure
to the left SFA+ + 4.375 = 0 (SFA+ = -4.375kN).

34
- Solving for Bending Moment diagram:

35
Note: The BM here is drawn on the tension side of the beam. Drawing on the compression side
means that the shear force represents the slope of the BM with the correct sign. (Either method
is correct).

36
 CHAPTER (4)

TRUSS ANALYSIS

37
4.1 INTRODUCTION
- A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points.
- If a truss, along with the imposed load, lies in a single plane then it is called a planar truss.
- A simple truss is a planar truss which begins with a triangular element and can be expanded
by adding two members and a joint.
- In simple truss, the members act as two-force members. They are loaded in either tension or
compression. Often compressive members are made thicker to prevent buckling as shown in
figure (27).

Fig.27 Tension and Compression in truss members

- Analysis of Truss means obtaining the force in the truss member as a quantity and if
this force is tension or compression. To analyse truss members, there are two methods
can be used, Joint method and sections method what we will focus in this chapter.

4.2 METHOD OF JOINTS

When using the method of joints to solve for the forces in truss members, the equilibrium of a
joint (pin) is considered. All forces acting at the joint are shown in a FBD. This includes all
external forces (including support reactions) as well as the forces acting in the members.
Equations of equilibrium (ΣFX= 0 and Σ FY = 0) are used to solve for the unknown forces acting
at the joints as shown in figure (28).

Fig.28 Method of Joints

38
4.2.1 Procedures of Joint Method
1- OVERALL EQUILIBRIUM: If the truss’s support reactions are not given, draw a FBD of
the entire truss and determine the support reactions (typically using scalar equations of
equilibrium).
2- Draw the free-body diagram of a joint with one or two unknowns. Assume that all unknown
member forces act in tension (pulling the pin) unless you can determine by inspection that
the forces are compression loads.
3- Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium, Σ FX = 0 and Σ FY= 0 (particle analysis) to
determine the unknown(s). If the answer is positive, then the assumed direction (tension)
is correct, otherwise it is in the opposite direction (compression).
4- Repeat steps 2 and 3 at each joint in succession until all the required forces are determined.

4.2.2 Zero Force Members

If a joint has only two non-collinear members and there is no external load or support reaction
at that joint, then those two members are zero-force members. For example in figure (29), DE,
DC, AF, and AB are zero force members.

Fig.29 Zero Force members

Zero-force members can be removed (as shown in the figure) when analysing the truss as
shown in figures (30, 31).

Fig.30 Removing Zero Force members

39
 Fig.31 Removing Zero Force members
Example No.1
Find the forces in each member of the truss.

As shown in FBD at joint D

Σ FX = – 450 + FCD cos 45° – FAD cos 45° = 0

Σ FY = – FCD sin 45° – FAD sin 45° = 0
FCD = 318 lb (Tension) or (T) and FAD = – 318 lb (Compression) or (C)

- Analysing pin A:

Σ FX = FAB + (– 318) cos 45° = 0; FAB = 225 lb (T)

40
Example No.2
Find the force in each truss element

- By applying the equilibrium equations, we find:

Ay = -2100 N
Bx = -1500 N
By = 2100 N
- For zero force members, EC = 0
- FBD of point D
From geometry, tan-1(1/2) = 26.57°

Σ FX = 600 + FCD sin 26.57 = 0

FCD = -1341 N (Note that FCD = FBC)
Σ FY = 1341 cos 26.57 – FDE = 0 FDE = 1200 N = 1.2 KN

- FBD of pin E

ΣFX = 900 + FEB sin 45° = 0

FEB = - 1273 N
ΣFY = 1200 - 1273 cos 45° – FEA = 0
FEA = 2100 N = 2.1 KN (T)

41
4.3 METHOD OF SECTIONS
In the method of sections, a truss is divided into two parts by taking an imaginary “cut” (shown
in figure (32) as a-a) through the truss. Since truss members are subjected to only tensile or
compressive forces along their length, the internal forces at the cut members will also be either
tensile or compressive with the same magnitude. This result is based on the equilibrium
principle and Newton’s third law.

Fig.32 Method of sections

4.3.1 Procedures of sections Method
1- Decide how you need to “cut” the truss. This is based on:
a) Where you need to determine forces, and, b) where the total number of unknowns does not
exceed three (in general).
2- Decide which side of the cut truss will be easier to work with (minimize the number of
reactions you have to find).
3-If required, determine any necessary support reactions by drawing the FBD of the entire truss.
4-Draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. We need to indicate the unknown forces
at the cut members. Initially we may assume all the members are in tension, as we did when
using the method of joints. Upon solving, if the answer is positive, the member is in tension
as per our assumption. If the answer is negative, the member must be in compression. (Please
note that you can also assume forces to be either tension or compression by inspection.
5- Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium to the selected cut section of the truss to solve for
the unknown member forces. Please note, in most cases it is possible to write one equation to
solve for one unknown directly. So look for it and take advantage of such a shortcut!

Example No.3
Find the force in members KJ, KD, and CD.

42
Solution

Analysing the entire truss for the reactions at A, we get

ΣFX = AX = 0. Then do a moment equation about G to find AY.
ΣMG = AY (18) – 20 (15) – 30 (12) – 40 (9) = 0; (AY = 45.6 KN).

Now take moments about point D.

+ MD = – 45.6 (9) + 20 (6) + 30 (3) – FKJ (4) = 0

FKJ = − 50.1 KN or 50.1 KN (C).

Now use the two force equations of equilibrium

ΣFY = 45.6 – 20 – 30 – (4/5) FKD = 0; FKD = − 5.5 KN, or 5.5 KN (C)

Σ FX = (– 50.1) + (3/5) (–5.5) + FCD = 0; FCD = 53.4 KN (T).

43
Example No.4
(a) Find the forces in AB , AD and AC in the following Figure.
(b) Find the forces in EG , FG and FH in the following Figure.

Solution
FBD of the whole system:

44
Force in AB = 22.5 kN (Compression).

Force in AD = 37.5 kN (Tension).

Force in AC = 30.0 kN (Compression).

(b) Take a section through EG , FG , FH and consider the equilibrium of part at the right side

Force in EG = 36.0 kN (Compression).

Force in FG = 22.5 kN (Tension).

Force in FH = 18.0 kN (Compression).

Example No.5
Find the forces in all members in the Figure below.

Solution
From equilibrium of the whole body

45
46
47
 CHAPTER (5)

ARCHS and
CABLES ANALYSIS

48
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Cables and arches are efficient forms of structure to span large openings. Normally beams
and girders are used to span small openings. However, self-weight of a structure increases
with the span and for long spans it is often more than the live load. To obviate this difficulty
cables and arches are used to san large openings.

A cable can resist tension only. It is flexible and as such cannot directly resist axial
compression, bending or twisting moment. In a cable the full cross-section is uniformly
stressed and as such use of material is very efficient. This is not so in the case of beams or
girders subjected to bending moment, shear force or twisting moment as all the cross-
section is not fully stressed to its maximum value.

When a cable is inverted it takes the shape of an arch. Just as a cable is subjected to tensile
force only, an arch under the same loading, shape and span as an inverted cable is subjected
to only compressive force. However, unlike a cable, an arch is a rigid structure and cannot
change its shape with change of loading. Hence except in particular cases when shape of
the arch and loading correspond such that it is subject to compressive stress only, normally
an arch is subjected to bending moment (reduced), shear force and axial force
(predominant).

In the field, there are many examples on using cables and arches especially in bridges as
shown in figure (33).

Fig.33 Examples on Arches and Cables

49
1.2 ARCHES
An arch is a curved member with solid or braced rib. In develops inward horizontal and vertical
reactions at its supports when it is subjected to transverse vertical loads in its own plane. The
cross-section of an arch remains primarily under compression. As large axial forces develop in
the arch, it is necessary to provide unyielding type of supports at the ends to carry the horizontal
component of force imparted by the arch rib on the supports as horizontal outward force. So
far as the vertical reaction components at the supports, are concerned the structural behaviour
of an arch is similar to that of a hinged-hinged beam having equal horizontal span and similar
vertical loads. Therefore the arch behaves like a beam with the added effect of the horizontal
reaction at the supports.
In analysis of arches, it is assumed that the plane of curvature of the arch rib, the plane of
symmetry of each cross-section of the arch and that of the external loads applied, including
reactions, all lie in one plane. Under these conditions, the deformation of the arch takes place
only in the plane of symmetry and the problem of analysis gets simplified to a two-dimensional
plane system of forces. Depending on the support conditions, the arches are classified into
following three categories.
1- A Three Hinged Arch: This type of arch has two hinges, one at each end supports
and one additional intermediate hinge generally at the crown as shown in figure (34).
This type that will be considered in this course.

Fig.34 Three hinged Arch

2- A Two Hinged Arch: In this case, only two hinged supports are present, i.e. one
support at each end of the arch as shown in figure (35).

Fig.35 Two hinged Arch

3- A Fixed or Hingless Arch: In such arches, the ends are fixed to unyielding supports.
Besides horizontal and vertical reactions at the hinged supports, as in case of two and
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 three hinged arches, here fixity moments also develop due to moment resistant at the
supports as shown in figure (36).

Fig.36 Fixed Arch

A three hinged arch is a statistically determinate structure since only four independent reaction
components, with two reactions at each end support, develop in such arches. Since four
equations of statistical equilibrium are available (i.e., three equations governing general
equilibrium of the arch and one conditional equation making moment at central hinge zero) for
a three hinged arch, it is possible to analyse such arches using simple statics.

1.3 ANALYSIS OF THREE HINGED ARCHES

These arches could be of solid ribs in steel or masonry or they could be trussed or braced using
structural metal sections. In analysis of the arches, the radius of curvature of the member is
usually so large, in comparison to the depth of the member that the effect of the curvature is
neglected in locating the neutral axis of the member and so the centroid axis of the member is
taken as the neutral axis for bending. The axial force, shear force and bending moment, at any
section along the curved axis of the arch, can be readily obtained on similar lines as that for
simple members like beams. However, the location of a point along the curved axis is specifies
by two coordinates (x, y) instead of one, i.e., x for the straight members. The geometry of the
arch axis is usually parabolic or circular. The slope of the tangents at various points along the
curve can be determined from the geometric equation of the arch axis. Curved geometry as
such provides no difficulty in analysing such arches.
- Reactions at the Supports
Let us consider a three hinged arch, shown in figure (37) with two segment AC and BC, hinged
at two strong unyielding supports A and B and with pinned connection at C. Let there be two
loads W1 and W2 at distances a and b from the supports A and B respectively.
The vertical reactions at the supports A and B of the Arch will be the same as the reactions RB
and RA in the straight beam AB of equal span length L with loads W 1 and W2 placed at
distances a and b from the supports A and B respectively. This is shown in figure (38).
Considering equilibrium of beam: ∑y = 0; RA + RB = W1 + W2
∑MA = 0; RB * L = W1 a + W2*(L-b)
𝑾𝟏 𝒂+𝑾𝟐(𝑳−𝒃)
RB = 𝑳

𝑾𝟏(𝑳−𝒂)+𝑾𝟐 𝒃
RA = 𝑳

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 Fig.37 Given the hinged arch

Fig.38 Simply supported beam of the same span as that of the arch
The arch, due to its curved geometry, would like to spread outwards at the supports under the
vertical loads W1 and W2 but it is not free to do so due the restraint provided by the unyielding
supports A and B. The supports therefore apply inward horizontal forces HA and HB, called
horizontal thrusts, on the arch rib at its ends. Now since the arch is subjected to vertical loads
only, the horizontal thrust remains constant on all the cross-sections, from one end of the arch
to the other along its curved axis, and so the horizontal thrust, HA = HB = H. Consider the
equilibrium of right segment BC as shown in figure (39), and equate the moment at the crown
to zero.
∑MC = W2 (L/2 – b) + H * h – RB * L/2 = 0

Fig.39 Free body diagram of the right half part of the arch
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1.4 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example No.1
Obtain the internal force diagram ( NFD , SFD and BMD ) for the arch in Figure below.

Solution

FBD of the whole system:

FBD of part BC:

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Internal forces at an angle ɵ in AB:

At point B:

Internal forces in BC:

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For curved structures, for example an arch, internal forces are often expressed as x and y
components instead of axial and shear forces. Note that bending moment remains same.

Following same procedure as before we can obtain the variation of these internal forces as well,
Try to find out diagrams for Fx and Fy for the same arch. The next example illustrates such
internal force diagrams.

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Example No.2
Obtain the internal force diagram (Fx, Fy, and bending moment diagram) for the symmetric
arch in Figure below.

Solution
FBD of the ABC:

It is a symmetric structure, so we need to consider only half of the system, either AB or BC .

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1.5 CABLES ANALYSIS
There are two types of cables based on loads, cable subjected to concentrated loads and cables
subjected to uniform distributed loads.
a) Cables subjected to concentrated loads:

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Example No.3
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown in the figure below.
Also, what is the dimension h?

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 b) Cables subjected to uniform distributed loads:

Example No.4
The cable shown supports a girder which weighs 12kN/m. Determine the tension in the cable
at points A, B, and C.

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Solution

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Example No.5
The suspension bridge in the figure below is constructed using the two stiffening trusses that
are pin connected at their ends C and supported by a pin at A and a rocker at B. Determine the
maximum tension in the cable IH. The cable has a parabolic shape and the bridge is subjected
to the single load of 50 KN.

Solution

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Example No.6
The tied three-hinged arch is subjected to the loading shown. Determine the components of
reaction at A and C and the tension in the cable.

Solution

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 CHAPTER (6)

DISPLACEMENTS
&
DEFLECTIONS OF
STRUCTURES

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is often the case that the amount a beam deflects or rotates due to the applied transverse loads
has a limit placed on it. For this reason we now need to determine the deflection and slope of
a transversely loaded beam. This can be done in one of three ways: (1) Double integration
method; (2) Moment area method; (3) Energy method; (4) Conjugate Beam; (5) Virtual Work

1.2 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

Elastic Curve Equation
Consider a loaded beam as shown in figure (40):

Fig. 40 Loaded beam indicating its deflection and slope due to the applied loads

Look at a FBD of element dx, and consider only the bending moment that it is experiencing:

Fig. 41 The curvature of deflection Fig. 42 Infinitesimal segment dx showing

Angle and vertical displacement

From Engineer's Theory of Bending (ETB), we know that a beam under an applied bending
moment deflects with a curvature equal to the radius of a circle (arc), and that this radius is
related to the applied bending moment by:

From Fig. 41, we can approximately compute arc dx = Rdθ, therefore,

Where θcan be considered to be the slope of the beam. But from the a more detailed diagram
showing Fig. 42, when dx approximates to zero and the slope is small enough, we have
relationship as

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Combining the previous two equations, we can obtain:

and then substituting the part from ETB, the first equation, it gives Elastic Curve Equation:

Or (1)

Here EI is referred to as flexural rigidity. Furthermore, from the relationship between

distributed load w(x) and shear force V(x) established before, one can have

And

Knowing the material and cross sectional properties of the beam, i.e. flexural rigidity (EI), Eq.
1 can be integrated ONCE to give an equation for the slope (θ) and TWICE to give an equation
for the displacement (v) of the beam as a function of x as:

Kinematic Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions of the Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams can be seen from
figure (43).

Fig. 43 Kinematic boundary conditions

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Example (1)
Determine the slope and displacement equations of the Simply Supported (SS) beam with a
point load P.

Solution
Step 1: Determine the ground reactions at supports A and B;

RAY = P/2 and RBY = P/2

Step 2: Bending moment equation via equilibrium for FBD of Section I-I.
By cutting the beam just before the RHS (Section I-I), the bending moment can be determined
as discussed in Chapter 5. Take moments about RHS:

Step 3: Double Integration for the elastic curve equation.

Substituting M(x) into the elastic curve equation Eq. (1), gives that:

Step 4: Determine the integration constants based on Kinematic Boundary Conditions

Our beam is simply supported at both ends, so kinematic boundary conditions are as
explained before: when x = 0, v = 0

When x = L, v = 0

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Step 5: Express the Slope and Elastic Curve Equations respectively:

1.3 MOMENT-AREA METHOD

The Moment-Area Method uses the Elastic Curve Equation derived above, but the integration
is done graphically and by doing so the kinematic boundary conditions are not considered.
Let’s look at elastic curve equation:

To integrate this equation graphically, you firstly need to draw the Bending Moment M(x)
diagram and then the M(x)/EI diagram. So look at a beam with arbitrary loadings as illustrated
in figure (44):

Fig. 44 bending moment and M/EI diagrams for beam with arbitrary loading
1st Theorem of Moment Area
Integrating the elastic curve equation with respect to x, between two points x1 and x2, gives:

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Which can be reduced to:

(2)
This equation gives the change in slope of the beam between x1 and x2. It is represented by the
area in the M/EI diagram between x1 and x2, and this equation is called the 1st THEOREM
OF MOMENT AREA. Note that the AREA should be considered in an algebraic sense, i.e.
can be positive or negative. In this theorem, if dv/dx is known at x1, dv/dx at x2 can be very
easily found via Eq. (2). A useful side effect of this is that if I varies along the length of the
beam, it can easily be accommodated for, as to be shown in Example 2 below.

Example (2)
Look at a cantilever beam where I = I0 for the left half of beam and I = I0 / 2, for the right half.
Find the slope θ = dv/dx at the end C.

Solution

We know that at x = 0, dv/dx = 0, so use the 1st Theorem of Moment Area

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Which can be computed by adding those three sub areas as shown,

Example No. 3
Compute the slope ɵB and the deflection vB at the tip of the cantilever beam in Figure belowe.
EI is constant.

Example No. 4
Determine the maximum deflection δ in a simply supported beam of length L carrying a
concentrated load P at midspan.

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Solution

The negative sign indicates that the deflection is below the undeformed neutral axis.
Therefore,

Example No. 5
For the beam loaded as shown below, determine (a) the deflection and slope under the load P
and (b) the maximum deflection between the supports.

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Solution

Part (a): Slope and deflection under the load P Slope under the load P: (note x = a + b = L)

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Example No. 6
The cantilever beam shown in Figure below has a rectangular cross-section 50 mm wide by h
mm high. Find the height h if the maximum deflection is not to exceed 10 mm. Use E = 10
GPa.

Solution

Example No. 7
Compute the deflection and slope at a section 3 m from the wall for the beam shown in Figure
below. Assume that E = 10 GPa and I = 30 × 106 mm4 .

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Solution

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Example No. 8
A simple beam supports a concentrated load placed anywhere on the span, as shown in Figure
below Measuring x from A, show that the maximum deflection occurs at x = √[(L2 - b 2 )/3].

Solution

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1.4 CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam as shown in figure (45).
Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment
at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam as shown in figure (45).

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Example No.9
The beam shown is subjected to a load P at its end. Determine the slope and displacement at
C. EI is constant.

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Example No.10
Use the conjugate beam method for Determine the slope and deflection at points B of the
beam shown in the figure. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 250(106) mm4.

84
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Example No.11
Use the conjugate beam method for Determine the maximum deflection, the slope and
deflection at points C of the beam shown in the figure. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 60(106) mm4.

max

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Example No.12
Determine the slope and deflection at points C of the beam shown in the figure. Take E = 200
GPa and I = 250(106) mm4

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Example No.13

(a) Determine the deflection and slopes at point B.

(b) Draw shear, bending moment diagrams and deflected
curve.
E = 200 GPa
I = 200(106) mm4

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1.5 VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
1.5.1 Principle of Virtual Work

1.5.2 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses (External Loading)

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1.5.3 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses (Temperature)

1.5.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses (Fabrication Errors and Camber)

Example No.14
The cross sectional area of each member of the truss show, is A = 400mm2 & E = 200GPa.
a) Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN force is applied to the truss at

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95
Example No.15
Determine vertical displacement at C where A = 0.5 in2 & E = 29 (10)3 ksi

Solution

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Example No.16

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 CHAPTER (7)

ANALYSIS OF R.C
BEAMS

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

Concrete cracks. In fact, it is designed to crack to be able to fully engage the reinforcing steel.
Concerns with concrete cracking come up when owners and maintenance workers are unsure
of what to look for or are unaware of the implications of certain cracks. Some types of cracking
indicate a structural issue, when others do not indicate any type of issue other than normal
weathering. There are many different causes of cracks, which can lead to different types of
cracking patterns. Each type of cracking pattern can be associated with a likely cause. If this
cause is recognized, it can be identified as structurally vital or non-vital. It is of particular
interest in discerning between these two so that the failure and damage of these can be avoided
or at least predetermined to minimize economic damage, future deterioration, and in severe
cases the loss of human life.

1.2 CAUSES OF CRACKES

a- Overloading
The cross section of concrete is designed with both calculated and estimated loads, determined
from building codes. Design includes such factors as the strength of the concrete, the number,
sizing, and placement of reinforcing bars, and size and shape of the concrete cross section.
When a structure is overloaded to the extent not covered in safety factors, concrete may be
damaged or fail. Overloading may be in shear, flexure, or tension, or may be a result of fatigue
or cyclic loading. Each of these has a different cracking pattern will be discussed below.

b- Corrosion
Corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete can be a major structural issue. Under normal
conditions, the pH level of concrete is high (above 12.5). The high pH of concrete allows an
inactive layer of ferric oxide to form around the reinforcement, preventing rust (Khan 2006, p.
14). There are two major causes of corrosion in the reinforcing steel: chloride penetration and
carbonation. Chloride penetration reduces the pH level of the concrete when oxygen, chlorides,
and moisture all penetrate the concrete (Pirro 2012, p. 20). Chlorides can be found in potable
water, which should never be used to mix concrete. They are also an environmental factor that
may add up over the lifespan of a structure. For instance, buildings exposed to salt water or de-
icing salts may experience faster chloride build up from the salts (Emmons 1993, p. 12). These
cracks can be shown in figure (45).

FIG. 45 Corrosion Cracks

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 c- Freeze/Thaw
Freezing and thawing cycles can be very detrimental to concrete over time. Unless a protective
coating is applied to the concrete, each cycle allows more moisture to penetrate into the
concrete. The stress of the moisture freezing inside the concrete causes larger defects with each
cycle. Air-entrained concrete can be used to help alleviate some of the expansive stresses of
harsh temperature changes. However, not all freeze/thaw effects can be assuaged in this way
and many structures may succumb to cracking either caused or worsened by these cycles.
Manufacturers of crack repair kits suggest that cracks less than 1/16" in thickness can be
repaired without professional contractors ("Types" 2012). However, tolerable crack widths
may be significantly less than this (0.016" and less depending on the environment) because
cracks may allow deteriorating chemicals to damage the concrete in other ways (Emmons 1993,
p. 13).

d- Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)

AAR refers to chemical reactions taking place within the concrete mix. Certain aggregates
inside the concrete may react with alkalis, causing concrete expansion. The alkalis may be also
be from within the concrete mix, or may be from outside sources like sea or ground water, or
deicing salts. Depending on the type of aggregate, AAR also goes by other names. In siliceous
aggregates, the reactions are called "alklali silica reactivity" (ASR). In dolomitic carbonate
rocks, the reactions are called "alkali-carbonate reactivity" (ACR) (Khan 2006, p.15).
When these types of ractions occur, they create a gel-like substance that swells when moisture
reaches it. The stresses from the swelling create internal tensile forces, which may crack the
concrete from within (Khan 2006, p.15).

e- Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage may occur throughout a structure’s life cycle for different reasons with the
majority occurring within the first few months or years after casting. There are two primary
categories of shrinkage: plastic (before hardening), and drying (after hardening). Immediately
after concrete is poured, there can be settlement shrinkage, construction movement (e.g.
formwork movement or removal), and drying shrinkage. After the concrete has fully hardened,
a structure will undergo temperature, volume and chemical changes throughout the years
(Winterbottom, p. 2). Each of these may also cause concrete shrinkage.
Shrinkage is an expected phenomenon in a concrete structure, and can often be controlled with
stress-relieving joints and properly placed reinforcing steel.

f- Poor Workmanship
Concrete itself is so variable that properly constructing a concrete structure can be difficult.
Some issues related to workmanship are as follows: over/under consolidated aggregates,
improper location of rebar, over watering for workability, finishing surface before bleeding
occurs. Each of these may end up not mattering overall, or may contribute to a structural failure.

1.3 TYPES OF CRACKS

Concrete cracking and defect patterns can often indicate its cause or causes and can help to
define whether the crack is architectural (affecting aesthetics only) or structural (may affect the
load carrying capacity). Some of the main types of cracking are described below.

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 a- Crazing
Crazing is a web-like series of fine cracks, usually at the surface of the concrete. These can be
caused by surface shrinkage, which can occur in low humidity, hot air or sun, and wind (PCA
2001, p. 3). Since these cracks occur on the surface and do not penetrate deeper into the
concrete, they do not indicate a deeper structural issue. A general pattern of crazing can be seen
below in Figure (46).

FIG. 46 crazing pattern [Image Credit: Victoria Interval]

b- Disintegration
Concrete disintegration can be a result of freeze/thaw cycles on the surface. Moisture enters
concrete pores and expands. The expansions can cause micro cracking or they may force off a
small amount of the surface. Figures 47 and 48 depict disintegration on concrete surfaces.
When tiny pieces of the surface come off, it is called disintegration (Pirro 2012, p. 38).

FIG.47 Concrete disintegration around column base FIG.48 Sidewalk disintegration

c- Plastic Cracks
Plastic cracks occur before the concrete has hardened. They are caused by rapid loss of water
during curing or settlement in the concrete itself (PCA 2001, p. 2). Hot, dry air and excessive
water in the mix may both cause cracking. Hairline cracks may occur in as little as a few hours
after a concrete pour, depending on the weather. The thin lines may be misleading; although
they may be very thin, these hairline cracks may extend through the entire thickness of the slab
(VandeWater 2012, p. 1). See Figure 49 below for an example of plastic cracking. This kind
of cracking mostly affects slabs and other large flat surfaces, whose surface area is high relative
to the volume of the concrete. This allows the water to evaporate quicker than it can bleed to
the surface, causing the cracking (Khan 2006, p. 9). These kinds of cracks may initiate other

102
cracking issues because the plastic cracks sometimes are initiation points for drying shrinkage
(Emmons 1993, p. 68).

FIG.49 Plastic cracks

d- Hardened Cracks
Hardened cracks occur after the concrete has hardened, and are generally caused by drying
shrinkage, settlement of the structure below grade, and thermal contraction effects. The cracks
form because while the concrete is drying, its volume is being reduced. The condition of the
concrete is restrained, so instead of just shortening the slab or member length, cracks form
throughout to allow the reduction in volume (Emmons 1993, p. 30). This kind of crack is
depicted below in Figure 50. Drying shrinkage is the shrinking (or reduction in volume) of the
concrete due to loss of water (evaporation through the concrete surface) (Barth 2001, p. 2).
These kinds of cracks may indicate improperly spaced joints (PCA 2001, p. 2).

FIG.50 Hardened cracks

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 e- Scaling
Scaling appears as small diverts in the concrete surface in which aggregate may be exposed.
Scaling is often caused by freeze/thaw cycles (PCA 2001, p. 10). Because scaling is a surface
defect, it does not generally indicate a more serious structural issue.

f- Delamination
Delamination occurs when the surface of a slab is finished prematurely. When concrete cures,
it is necessary for the excess water to escape to the surface (a process called “bleeding”). If a
slab is finished before bleeding has occurred, it can trap the water below the surface. When the
water does escape, it leaves hollow patches just below the surface. These patches may break
open, resembling shattering, to expose the aggregate below as seen in Figure 51 (PCA 2001,
p. 12). This type of defect occurs near the surface, and does not indicate a structural threat
(unless over a cantilever, where the reinforcing steel is near top portion of the slab).

FIG.51 Delamination of concrete caused by premature finishing

g- Overloading Cracks
Overloading a concrete member may cause several types of cracks. Depending on the direction
and location of the crack (vertical, diagonal, top, bottom, etc), the type of loading stress can be
identified. For example, vertical cracks at the bottom of a simply supported beam and in the
center indicate positive flexural cracks. Negative flexural cracks show up over the supports on
the top of the beam, also as vertical cracks (Pirro 2012, p. 47). It should be noted that flexural
cracks may be related to longitudinal splitting cracks. This relationship is based on splitting
cracks allowing moisture to reach the steel pieces in the concrete and corrode them, reducing
their ability to resist flexure cracks. Reduction in resistance may cause additional flexural
cracks (Giuriani 1998, p. 1). Shear cracks may appear as diagonal cracks at quarter points along
the beam member (Pirro 2012, p. 47). See the diagram below in Figure 52 for better
understanding of locations of cracking. These cracks can indicate a deeper structural issue if
the crack width or lateral displacement exceeds 1/4" (CFA 2005, p. 3).

104
 FIG.52 Diagram of locations and directions of overloading cracks

h- Spalling
Spalling is primarily a result from the corrosion of the reinforcing steel and/or embedded
objects such as clips, chairs, anchors, etc. When the steel corrodes, the rust expands to 10 times
the original volume, creating internal tension forces in the concrete. Concrete is unable to
handle the tension forces, and the pieces between the corroded steel and the nearest surface
will break off, called "spalling" (PCA 2001, p. 12). Even just a small spall can indicate a much
larger issue for two main reasons. First, a small spall can expose the steel, leaving it ultra-
vulnerable to more corrosive elements. This can been seen in Figure 53. If the steel corrodes
more, there will be more spalling, as seen in Figure 54. Second, a spall in one area may be the
first piece of a larger issue beneath the surface. It is likely that other rebar in the immediate
area has also been affected by the corrosive effects and will begin to spall soon. Small spalls
are relatively simple and inexpensive to fix, and repairing these early on can help to avoid large
spalling areas. A large spall area in a slab may indicate immediate danger to a structure. If
enough concrete has spalled off of the bottom, exposing the reinforcing grid, then the concrete
and steel are no longer working together to handle the compressive and tension forces.
Essentially, when the concrete reaches its tensile limit, it will fail. The steel is not engaged by
the concrete to take the excess tensile forces, and is only acting as a cage to hold up the concrete.
At this stage, repairs may be enormously expensive. Figure 55 shows a whole building spalling
failure.

FIG.53 Small spall area caused by corrosion of reinforcement

FIG.54 Large spall area [Photo Credit

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FIG.55 Large spall area on all balconies of building

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 CHAPTER (8)

STEEL TENSION
MEMBERS

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The Tension member considered for the design is a linear member which carries an axial pull.
The members undergo extension due to this axial pull. This is one of the common types of
force transmitted in the structural system. Tension members are very efficient since the entire
cross section carries uniform stress unlike flexural members. The tension members do not
buckle even when stressed beyond the elastic limit. Hence the design is not effected by the type
of section used i.e., Plastic, Compact or Semi-compact. Some of the common examples of
tension members in structures are; Bottom chord of pin jointed roof trusses, bridges,
transmission line and communication towers, wind bracing system in multi-storey buildings,
etc. The objective of this exercise is to determine the tensile strength of a given member having
a specified end connection. The strength of these members is influenced by several factors such
as the length of connection, type of connection (by bolts or welds), connection eccentricity,
size and shape of fasteners, net area of cross-section and shear lag at the end connection.

1.2 Gross section yielding

Steel members (plates, angles, etc.) without bolt holes can sustain loads up to the ultimate load without
failure. However, the members will elongate considerably (10 to 15 % of its original length) at this load,
and hence make the structure unserviceable. Hence the design strength T dg is limited to the yielding of
gross cross section which is given by

Tdg = fy Ag /γm0
Where fy = yield strength of the material in MPa,
Ag = gross area of cross section in mm2
γm0 = 1.10 = partial safety factor for failure at yielding

1.3 Net section rupture

This occurs when the tension member is connected to the main or other members by bolts. The holes
made in members for bolts will reduce the cross section, and hence net area will govern the failure in
this case. Holes in members cause stress concentration at service loads. From the theory of elasticity,
the tensile stress adjacent to a hole will be about two to three times the average stress on the net area
(Fig. 48). This depends on the ratio of the diameter of the hole to the width of the plate normal to the
direction of the stress.

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 FIG. 48. Stress-distribution in a plate adjacent to hole due to tensile force.
When the tension member with a hole is loaded statically, the point adjacent to the hole reaches the
yield stress fy first (Fig. b). On further loading, the stress in other fibres away from the hole
progressively reaches the yield stress fy. Deformations of the member continue with increasing load
until final rupture of the member occurs when the entire net cross section of the member reaches the
ultimate stress fu (Fig. c).

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 REFERENCES
1- http://www.sut.ac.th/engineering/civil/courseonline/430331/pdf/05_C
ables.pdf
2- https://prezi.com/a-6ovp9nhjpg/internal-and-external-forces-act-on-
structures-gr-7-science/
3- https://www.cengagebrain.co.nz/content/kassimali95655_0495295655
_02.01_chapter01.pdf
4- https://www.udemy.com/truss-analysis/
5- http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3121/notes/notes_08a.pdf
6- http://www.sut.ac.th/engineering/Civil/CourseOnline/430431/RC04_
Bending2.pdf
7- https://www.egr.msu.edu/~harichan/classes/ce405/chap4.pdf

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