MSD Part 2 Vibrations 2012

ME3 / MSD

Machine System Dynamics
Lecture Notes

2012‐2013

Lecturers:
Dr Frederic Cegla, Room 662
Dr Christoph Schwingshackl, Room 565
Dr Mike Ristic, Room 743

Mechanical Engineering Department
Imperial College London
Imperial College London
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME3 Compulsory Course
Machine System Dynamics
Part 1 Vibrations
This booklet contains the lecture notes for the first section of the course.
Please bring the booklet to each lecture. No additional copies of notes will be
available in the lecture room.
Contents
Lecture 1 Multi-degree-of-freedom systems (MDOF).
Lecture 2 Frequency Response Functions (FRF).
Lecture 3 Solution methods for continuous systems.
Lecture 4 Axial, Torsional and plate vibrations.
Lecture 5 Rotating systems.
Lecture 6 Fatigue.
Lecture 7 Measuring FRFs.
Tutorial question sheets will be issued when appropriate.
September 2012
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine
3M Machine System Dynamics
Multi-Degree-of -Freedom Systems (MDOF)
1. Introduction
Some engineering systems can be treated as a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)

spring-mass model, to predict the single resonance frequency.
The simple structure may be reduced to a rigid mass connected to a massless linear
spring, Figure 1.
m motion
Ground
Figure 1. Simple spring mass system.
The natural frequency ω is then given by ω = k m , where if m is in kilograms, k in

Newton/meter then ω is in radians per second. Note units!
If the structure is disturbed, by a force or displacement from its original stable
position and then allowed to move freely, it will vibrate about its static position at the
natural or resonant frequency. Gradually the motion will decay away as energy is
dissipated from the stored strain energy in the spring plus kinetic energy of the mass
into heat. This decay rate will depend on the damping present; internal damping of
the spring material may be the dominant mechanism, or it may be external: external
damping fluid, damping from the surrounding air or water, or by rubbing e.g. friction
contact with other parts. In many engineering systems the damping is low, so
vibrations may continue for some time, Figure 2.
6 Damped free decay

4
-2
-4
-6
Time - sec.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 2. Free vibration decay.
ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 1 of 10

If the mass is excited by a periodic force with a particular frequency, then the
response will depend both on the amplitude and the frequency of the excitation force.
The steady state solution for each frequency is of major interest to designers. The
ratio of response/force may be plotted against frequency, it is referred to as a BODE
PLOT, and Figure 3 shows a typical example for a spring mass system.
-4 Log Receptance.
10
Receptance Log Mag.
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Phase angle
0
Phase degrees
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Figure 3 Typical Bode plot for SDOF system.
Note the two parts, both the magnitude ratio and the phase ratio are important.
In the majority of engineering structures this assumption of a single mass and spring
is not completely valid, and so the structure may be modelled as a series of rigid
masses and massless springs, connected together. This very rapidly leads to using
computers to solve the numerous equations, but we can develop a good understanding
of the methods used with just a two degrees of freedom model.
2. Two degree of freedom model
Consider two rigid masses and three massless springs connected as shown in Figure
4.
x1 x2
:
x1 x2
m1 m2
k1 k c k2
Figure 4 Two spring mass system.

The free body diagrams for the two masses can be set up as shown below, for time
varying input forces F1(t) applied to mass m1 and F2 (t) applied to mass m2.
x1
x1
:
k 1x1 m1 kc(x2 - x 1)
m1 x F1
:
x2
:
k c(x 2 - x 1 ) x2
m2 k2x2
:
m 2 x2 F2
Figure 5 Free body diagrams of the two masses
For mass m1
(1)
For mass m2
(2)
Rearranging these equations:

(3)
(4)
These are a set of linear differential equations of second order, coupled by the centre
spring kc.
They can be rearranged in matrix form:
0 (5)
0
The first term is the Mass matrix, the second is the Stiffness matrix.
Note that both of the matrices are symmetrical, and that the mass matrix is always
diagonal for a lumped mass system.
If we assume that the response is harmonic we can substitute 2 and

1 1
2 , then this equation can be reduced to the form :
2 2
(6)

where K is the stiffness matrix, M is the mass matrix and F is the forcing function.
For free decay F = 0 hence:
2 0
The non-trivial solution of this equation gives the natural frequencies ω of the system:
(Eigen-values), and X is the relative motion of each mass, called the mode shape or
Eigen-vectors associated with each natural frequency.
NOTE that same mode shape cannot occur at two different natural frequencies of the
same system. Each mode shape is related to the pattern of strain energy and inertia
terms and can only occur at one resonant frequency in free vibration.
If a structure appears to have more than one resonance frequency with the same mode
shape then you are not measuring all of the significant parts of the structure.
The equations may be solved in several ways.
Assuming that the responses are harmonic x1=A1 sin (ωt) , x2=A2 sin (ωt) then the
accelerations are 1 2 2
1 and 2 2
Substituting in equations 3 and 4 for F = 0 gives:
0 (7)
0 (8)
These are satisfied for any A1 and A2 only if the following determinant is zero:
0 (9)
Multiplying out we obtain a quadratic equation in ω4 which can be solved if the k

and m terms are known. The solution of this quadratic gives two positive
frequencies ω1 and ω2, the two natural frequencies of the system.
From equation (7) or equation (8) the ratio of the motions A1 and A2 can be
determined for the two natural frequencies. This ratio is the mode shape, and will
include magnitude and phase information.
(10)
This equation is only valid at the two natural frequencies, ω1 and ω2, of the system
and the phase will be given by the positive (in phase) or negative (out of phase)
values of the ratio.

3. Dynamic Absorber.
The two degree of freedom model can be used to predict how a forced vibrating
system AT ONE FREQUENCY can be modified to experience no movement at that
frequency.
Suppose the SDOF spring mass system of Figure 1 is modified by having a small
spring-mass system attached to it as shown in Figure 6:
m2
kc
m1
k 1
Ground
Figure 6 Dynamic absorber.
In this case an external harmonic force F1 sin ωt is applied to the main mass only,
hence F2 = 0. Note also that in this case k2 = 0 in the previous analysis.
From equations (3) and (4) if we assume that the response is harmonic then we can
substitute x1 X1 sin ωt and x2 X2 sin ωt
then 2 and 2
1 1 2 2,
we can calculate the response of each mass to the exciting force.
(11)
Δ
and
(12)
Δ
where
Δ (13)
Δ can be expanded to produce a quadratic equation in ω2, the roots of which are the
two natural frequencies of the system. When Δ = 0 the ratio of X1/F1 becomes
infinite, as does X2/F1.

The numerator in equation (11) becomes zero when kc ω2 m 2 ,
i.e. when at the frequency given by
k (14)
ω
Hence whatever the force applied at that frequency, the main mass m1 will always
remain stationary.
However the second mass m2 will ALWAYS vibrate if there is an excitation force F1.
Note that the original natural frequency of the single spring-mass system:
ω2= k1 /m 1 will change, as calculated from equation (13) to give 2 new natural
frequencies, one below and one above the original value. See later, Section 4.2 for
further analysis.
4. Application of Dynamic Absorber
4.1 General setup
If a system is running at one particular frequency ω, and vibration is present, then

attach an absorber tuned to the SAME frequency i.e. ω2= kc /m2 and in line with the
applied force.
The dynamic absorber will vibrate on the main mass, producing an opposing force
which will balance the input force F1. The main mass will remain stationary.
ωT
1 he frequency
-3
response for the various masses is shown below in Figure 7.
10
Log Receptance.
X/F
10
-4
ω0
ω1
-5
ω2
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Figure 7 Frequency Response of Dynamic Absorber.
4.2 Frequency split
If the dynamic absorber is tuned to the original resonance frequency ω0 of the single
degree of freedom system, then ω0 = k1/m1 = kc /m2
Let μ = m 2/m 1 i.e. ratio of the two masses.
(Also Note μ = ratio of stiffnesses if tuned to original natural frequency.)
Then expanding equation (13) to find the natural frequencies gives:

0
or dividing by m1.m2 gives:
k k k k k (15)
ω ω 0
but ω02 = k1/m 1 = kc/m2 hence:
2 0
solving the quadratic equation gives:

ω 2 µ 2 4 (16)
ω 2 4
Hence the two NEW frequencies :
µ µ µ (17)
ω ω 1
2 2 4
Thus the new frequencies shift away from ω0 depending on the mass ratio μ as
shown in Figure 8 below:
3
F re q u e n c y ra tio
2 .5
1 .5
0 .5
M a s s ra tio m 2 /m 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8 Effect of mass ratio
4.3 Damping of the Tuned Absorber.

If the Dynamic Absorber is modified to include a damping element between the main
mass and the absorber mass then the frequency response function of the combined
system is changed, as shown below in Figure 9:

-4 Log Receptance.
10
Original
Plus dyn absorber
-5
Receptance Log Mag.
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Figure 9 Damped - Tuned Absorber
5. Setting up MDOF Equations
A systematic approach is required to avoid errors in the solution of MDOF problems.

Consider the three-degree-of-freedom system shown in Figure 10, together with the
defined co-ordinate system.
k1 Y
k2
θ
X
a 0
b
O k3
Figure 10 Rigid box on three springs, free to move within plane of paper only.
In this case the box can move in both the x and y direction, and rotate about its centre
of gravity 0. Its mass is m and its moment of inertia about the C of G is Io. The
springs are assumed only to act in the line of their length.
Define motion of the box in terms of motion of the C of G in x, y, and θ as shown.
Step 1 Write down the spring deflections
Compression of spring k1 y–aθ

Compression of spring k2 y bθ
Compression of spring k3 x
Step 2 Obtain forces and Moments
Force on box in x direction
Force on box in y direction
Anticlockwise Moment T on the box about 0 comes from the effect of springs k1 and
k2 hence:
T force in y direction from k1 a ‐ force in y direction form k2 b
or :
Step 3 Equations of Motion.
From Newton's Second Law: ; ;

hence:
0
Step 4 Write in Matrix notation.
Assume harmonic solution we can substitute:
, ,
and obtain the matrix equation:
where
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
Step 5 Check Stiffness and Mass Matrices are symmetrical

The stiffness and the mass matrix must both be symmetrical about the leading
diagonal. Checking this often reveals errors about the equation assembly, particularly
in signs.
The mass matrix of a lumped mass system is always diagonal.
Step 6 Solution
For the matrix equation ( K - M ω 2 ) X = 0 to have a non-trivial solution, the

matrix ( K - M ω 2 ) must be singular, i.e. its determinant must be zero.
For a two degrees of freedom system this can be solved by calculating the
determinant and solving the resulting quadratic equation in ω 2 for the natural
frequencies. Finally the mode shape for each natural frequency can be obtained by
substitution of ω2 in the equations of motion to obtain the Eigen-vector elements.
NOTE: This will not give a unique answer, but will give the ratio between the
relative motion of the masses. Often the largest Eigen-vector is normalised to 1, and
the relative motion of the other masses is then given as a value less than 1.
For higher order models a computer program is useful. MATLAB provides an ideal
environment for solving such matrix equations and the first tutorial sheet examples
require you to use this method, see handout.
The Matlab command [vec,val]=eig(k,m) will solve the eigenvector problem

and give the eigenvectors as a matrix vec and eigenvalues as a diagonal matrix val .
If units are kg and N/m then eigenvalues are ω where ω is radians per
2
second. Don’t forget to change the units.

Frequency Response Functions (FRF)
1. Introduction
For a single degree of freedom system (SDOF) with no damping, the
Frequency Response Function (FRF) may be shown as a Bode plot, Figure 1.
This diagram shows the normalised response (response per unit force) for
steady state forced sinusoidal excitation at any given frequency. The
graph may therefore be used to determine the amplitude of response of a
single mass when excited by a known sinusoidal force at any known
frequency.
Log Receptance.
-2
10
Receptance Log Mag.
-4
10
-6
10
-8
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
frequency Hz.
Phase angle
50
0
Phase degrees
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
frequency Hz.
Figure 1a Bode Plot for SDOF system with virtually no damping.
-4 Linear amplitude
x 10
1.5
0.5
agnitudelinear part
0
M
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
frequency Hz.
Figure 1 b Alternative form of Bode plot for SDOF system with virtually no damping.
At resonance ( ωn2 = k/m ) the theoretical response is infinite.
2. Damping.
ME3 MSD FRFs. DAR/CS Page 1 of 9

In practice virtually all systems include some damping. This may be
considered by simply using a viscous damping model, in which case the
equation of motion is:
(1)
The steady state solution of this equation for an excitation force F (sin ω t ), is
a response x sin ( ωt - θ) where θ is the phase delay angle relative to the
input force. If the solution is differentiated to obtain velocity:
cos
and again to obtain the acceleration:
sin
These terms can be substituted to the original equation of motion below:
sin cos sin
This is displayed graphically in Figure 2:
-m ω2 x
cωx
θ
kx
ωt
Figure 2 Force and response vector diagram.
The relationship between the force and response may therefore be deduced
for any given frequency :
1
(2)
and the phase angle θ is determined from :
tan (3)
Note the three terms. At Low Frequency the mass term is insignificant ,
hence the stiffness term is dominant The shape of the curve is like a
SPRING and the displacement is virtually in phase with the force.

At High Frequency the mass term is dominant due to the ω 2 hence at high
frequencies the system behaves like a free MASS.
Around resonance the three terms are of similar magnitude, and the resultant
phase angle changes rapidly. Consider when k = m ω2 . The diagram
now becomes a rectangle, and the phase angle becomes 90o. The response
at resonance is given by :
1 (4)

i.e. it depends strongly on the amount of damping present.
3. Critical Viscous Damping
If the solution of the equation of motion is expressed in the form x= e st where

s is a constant to be determined, then we obtain the equation :
(5)
0
this is satisfied for all values of t when :
(6)
0
This equation has two roots, given by :

(7)
,
2 2
The radical of equation 7 determines the behaviour. When the radical = 0 the
two roots are identical and this is referred to as CRITICAL DAMPING.
The value of damping co required to make the two roots equal is given by :
2√ 2 (8)
Any other damping value can then be expressed in terms of the critical
damping value by the non-dimensional DAMPING RATIO ζ where
(9)
Hence c = ζ * co = ζ * 2m ωn
Substituting in equation 4 gives :
1
2

But
Hence
1
2
Inverting this relationship Fr / xr gives the Dynamic Stiffness or effective

stiffness at resonance.
(10)
2
Thus the response x at resonance to a force F is 1/ 2ζ times the static

response to the same force (k) . This is called the Dynamic Amplification
or Q factor. Hence a system with viscous damper 1% critical damping will
have a Q factor = 1/.02 = 50 times amplification. Figure 3 shows the
FRF for a SDOF system with 1% critical damping.
-3
Log Receptance.
10
-4
Dynamic
10
Magnification * 50
Receptance Log Mag.
-5
10
-6
10
Mass line
Static stiffness k
-7
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
frequency Hz.
Figure 3 SDOF with 1% critical damping
Hence the static stresses are increased by the Q factor if the system is
excited at resonance. The mass and stiffness lines are also shown.
4. Nyquist Plot or Argand Diagram
A very useful form of display is the NYQUIST Plot or ARGAND diagram. This
display shows the relationship between the input force vector and the output
response vector in both magnitude and phase. In fact if we plot velocity/force
for a viscous damper we can show that the locus is exactly a circle , figure 4.

-5 Nyquist Plot of SDOF
x 10
0
40 0 Real -0.2
35 5 -0.4
-0.6
im ag part
30 -0.8
10
-1
25 15 -1.2
ωn 20
Imaginary -1.4
-6 -4 -2 0
Real Part
2 4 6
-6
x 10
8
Figure 4 Nyquist display of SDOF system (sketch and real plot) .
Figure 4a shows a sketch of the NYQUIST plot for a single degree of freedom
system as a continuous line. The frequency is not an explicit value on this
type of graph, we have to write in the frequency values. Figure 4 b shows a
Matlab display of a real Nyquist plot, with straight lines between measured
points. Each point represents one frequency value, the vector for one
frequency is shown by the black arrowed line.
The advantage of the NYQUIST plot is that it emphasises the region round a
resonance, whereas the Bode plot concentrates the data in the same region.
The information is the same in both plots, however the NYQUIST plot allows
a much clearer interpretation of the response round resonance.
Try the Matlab file: sdof.m to explore the various forms of data plotting.
Figure
5. Multi-degree-of-freedom systems
Equation 2 can be slightly reorganised by dividing the right hand side by the
mass m, both top and bottom, hence:
1
(11)
The numerator (1/m) is referred to as the Modal Constant A and may be

considered as the strength of the mode. (Smaller effective mass gives larger
response) .
k /m ωn2 the natural frequency .
The damping term may be expressed in terms of the damping ratio, from
equation 7
hence :
(12)

2

For a multi-degree of freedom system the response can be considered to be
the sum of a series of single degree of freedom models:
For each Mode of vibration r. there is a characteristic Modal Constant Ar, and
a characteristic natural frequency ωr and damping ratio ζ r. Hence the total
response can be written as a series:

(13)
2
The summation is for all the modes present in the system.
Using the form of Bode plot shown in Figure 1b, the phase information can be
included.
Consider the Bode plot for a two degree of freedom system as shown in
Figure 5.
Summation Mode 2
Mode 1
Anti-
resonance
Figure 5 MDOF Bode Plot
Note that the positive and negative values can exactly cancel, giving a
frequency of zero response or ANTI-RESONANCE . This is much more
clearly seen in Figure 7a, where the same data are plotted to a log scale.
This summation method provides an extremely powerful method of analysing

systems with more than one degree of freedom, as in general the response
close to one resonance is dominated by that resonance and we can therefore
examine that region of the FRF as though it were just a SDOF, then add up
the effects of each SDOF to obtain the total response.
4.1 Point and Transfer measurements.
The Frequency Response Function FRF is the ratio x/F and is often written
as H(ω), indicating that it is frequency dependent. For a multi-degree-of-
freedom system the location of the force and response points can be
throughout the system, and hence there will be a series of possible FRFs for
a MDOF system. In fact for a N DOF system there will be N2 possible
FRFs, ( N different possible inputs and N possible outputs).
In mathematical terms the Modal Constant in the FRF can be considered as

the product of two eigen-vector elements for the particular mode of vibration.
If the force and response are at the same point i then the Modal Constant for
mode r is given by :
Note that this value will always be positive.
For a transfer FRF between a force at point i and the response at point j
the Modal Constant is given by:
In this case, the product can be either positive or negative, depending on the
relative signs of the two elements. This can lead to a different shape for the
Bode plot, and the Nyquist plot. Consider the two degree of freedom system
discussed previously in lecture 1, figure 6 :
x1 x2
:
:
x1 x2
m 1 m 2
k1 k c k2
Figure 6 Two Degree of freedom system
If we apply a force at point 1 and also measure the response at point 1, then
we will obtain an FRF similar to that shown below figure 7, which also shows
the form of the Nyquist plot. Arrows indicate increasing frequency and must
rotate clockwise.
-3
Log Receptance.
10
-4
10 -4
x 10 Nyquist Plot of SDOF
0
Receptance Log Mag.
-0.2
-5 -0.4
10
-0.6
imag part
-0.8
-6
10
-1
-1.2
-7
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 -1.4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
frequency Hz.
Real Part -5
x 10
Figure 7 FRF for Input and response at point 1: a Bode & b NYQUIST Plot.
The two resonances are separated by an Anti-resonance, where there is no

response of this part of the structure when excited by a sinewave at this
frequency, applied at this point in the structure. The Nyquist plot shows that
both resonances occur on the same side of the origin.

If we apply the force input at point 1 but measure the response at point 2,
then one mode of vibration will occur with the two masses in phase, but the
other mode will occur with the two masses out of phase, figure 8.
-3
Log Receptance.
10
-4
x 10 Nyquist Plot of SDOF
1.5
-4
10
1
Receptance Log Mag.
0.5
-5
10
im a g p a r t
0
-6 -0.5
10
-1
-7
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 -1.5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
frequency Hz. Real Part -5
x 10
Figure 8 FRF for input at point 1 and response at point 2.
In this case the Nyquist plot shows a different response for each resonance,
with one locus being below the origin ( both masses in phase) and the other
above the origin (second mass out of phase with mass 1) . In the transition
between the first and second mode the response does not go to zero, and the
Bode plot shows a minimum between the two resonances.
Look at the Matlab file dof2.m to see the effects of two modes in different
display formats. Try changing the sign of the mass m2 and its magnitude.
Note also that if we reverse the input force and response locations, i.e. put
the force at point j and the response at point i, then we will get the same
Modal Constant. This is a very important conclusion, called the Principal of
Reciprocity, and is of major benefit when making measurements on
structures, where we cannot always apply a force to every required point.
As we saw in the MDOF analysis, the Principle of Reciprocity enables us to

measure FRFs by applying a force at point i and measuring the response at
point j, or by applying the force at point j and measuring the response at point
i. This provides two methods for experimental measurements on structures.
We can put the force in at one point on the structure i, and measure a series
of points j . This method is normally used for shaker excitation, where it is
often not practical to apply a force at many points on the structure. As the
eigen-vector element i is common to all modal constants we can determine
the relative value of each eigen-vector element. From the Point
measurement, where force and response are measured at the same position,
if we can calculate Ar then we can determine φi . Hence we can determine the
relative motion of each measured point on the structure.
An alternative method is to put the accelerometer at one position on the

structure and apply the force at varying positions using an impact hammer.
This fixes j and varies i. . The same method of analysis can be used to
determine the ratio of eigen-vector elements.
A computer display of the relative magnitudes of each element may be used

to produce an animation of the Mode Shape. This is a highly visual method of
displaying the modes, and allows designers to anticipate problems and to
propose modifications to reduce vibration or its effects. Figure 9 shows three
modes of a flat plate.
Figure 9 Mode shapes of a flat plate

Solution Methods for Continuous Systems
1. Introduction
So far we have considered systems made from massless springs and rigid masses
connected together to produce one or several natural frequencies, depending on the
number of masses involved. There are clearly a finite number of degrees of freedom
and hence a finite number of modes of vibration. This analysis is useful for structures
such as vehicles and axles, where the components can be approximated by rigid
masses, but fails for structures such as aircraft bodies and wings, where the mass and
stiffness are both provided by the construction elements. Many real systems require
treatment as continuous systems, e.g. beams and plates, which we will examine in
some detail. Unlike the multi-degree-of-freedom models discussed so far, where only
the displacements at the discrete masses are specified, these solutions will involve the
description of the displacement as a continuous function (mode shape). Both types of
model have continuous time solutions.
Alternative solution methods may be appropriate for different types of system.
2. Energy method
Consider a single spring mass system with no damping. Once displaced from its mean
position the oscillations will continue for ever. As the structure moves from the mean
position the strain energy in the spring increases i.e. increase in Potential Energy (PE)
and the Kinetic Energy (KE) due to the velocity of the mass reduces. At the extreme
positions of the motion there is no Kinetic Energy but the energy stored in the spring
is a maximum. At the mid-point of the motion there is no strain energy, only KE. As
total energy is conserved (there is no loss due to damping which would dissipate it as
heat) the sum of Kinetic Energy T and potential energy (often strain energy) U at any
time is a constant:
i.e. T + U = constant. Similarly the maximum K.E. must equal the maximum P.E.
Hence
(1)
Consider the torsional system shown in Figure 1:
I0

Figure 1 Torsional system
ME3 MSD Continuous Systems DAR/FC Page 1 of 11
The disc has a mass moment of Inertia Io (kg m2) and the spring has a stiffness of k
(Nm/rad). NOTE Units. Assume free harmonic motion so that .
The velocity is then , hence and .
For the max KE therefore:
and the max PE is:
from (1) hence rearranging and cancelling A2 :
  
(2)
This method may be developed further as the Raleigh method, see Appendix at end of
these notes for examples. It may be developed still further, see Lagrange equation in
vibration text books.
3. Transverse (flexural) vibration of beams
3.1. Equations of Motion

v
Consider an element of a beam in flexure
F M + M.x
Lateral displacement = v. x
Cross-sectional area =A A
Density =  M
Modulus =E
Second moment area =I
x F + F.x
From the standard strength of materials equations: x
and so
These equations are for a Bernoulli-Euler beam and assume that plane sections remain
plane and normal to the mid- surface, i.e. shear deformation is neglected.
The net vertical force on the element shown is:
The mass of the element is A..x so, if we ignore rotary inertia, the vertical force is
balanced by an inertia force (mass * acceleration) = and by Newton’s
second law the equation of motion is ( cancelling x) :
(3)

let  then


(4)
3.2 Solution of equation of motion for free motion
Assume a solution of the form:
i.e. displacement v is a continuous function of distance along the beam (mode shape),
and of time. Substitution into (4)
gives:
(5)
As 2 and n4 are always positive so q2 must be negative, hence
         
(6)
From (5):
say where   

(7)
The solutions of this quartic equation are:
The solution of the equation of motion is therefore:
(8)
The solution may also be expressed in the form:
(9)
The constants Q1… Q4 or C1 … C4 are found from the beam boundary conditions, and
will describe the mode shape of the response.
The constants A1, A2 or B1, B2 are found from the initial conditions of the excitation
(displacement, velocity or acceleration) and set the time varying parameters.

3.3 Boundary conditions
For the case of beam flexural motion, with 4 unknowns, two boundary conditions are
usually determined at each end of the beam,
(a) for free end : moment = shear force = 0 so:
(b) for fixed end : deflection = slope = 0 so:
(c) simply supported : deflection = moment = 0 so :
3.4 Example
Consider a beam of length L simply supported at both ends. The general form of
solution is (from (8)):
Use the boundary conditions at the two ends (zero deflection and moment):
at
Where
At gives
and
From which
At
Hence
so
For a non-trivial solution C4 cannot be 0 so

The natural frequencies are therefore given by:
etc. (infinite number)

or
etc.
and the mode shape is defined by :
Other end conditions will lead to transcendental frequency equations which must be
solved numerically (or graphically).The natural frequencies are given by the general
formula:
where values of  are given in Table 1 for the first 5 natural frequencies for a range
of end conditions. For the simply supported (pinned-pinned) case analysed above

Table 1 values of  for different end conditions and modes
End condition Frequency Equation Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5
Clamped-free cos L * cosh L = - 1 3.52 22.4 61.7 121.0 199.9

Pinned-pinned sin L = 0 9.87 39.5 88.9 157.9 246.8
Clamped –pinned tan L = tanh L 15.4 50.0 104.0 178.3 272.0

Clamped–clamped cos L * cosh L = 1 22.4 61.7 121.0 199.9 298.6
or free-free
Pinned - free tan L = tanh L 0 15.4 50.0 104.0 178.3
The natural frequencies and mode shapes for a wide range of beams and structures are
given in Formulae for Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes by R D Blevins. (Van
Nostrand 1979)

3.5 Forced Vibration.
The steady state motion due to an applied force Feit, or an applied moment Meit, is
obtained by applying the appropriate boundary condition at the section where the
applied force or moment acts.
e.g. a uniform cantilever beam with a force F applied at the unclamped end x = L.
The new boundary conditions are
At :
at
there is no moment:
and the force is:
If a Moment M is applied to the unclamped end then:
at
there is a moment:
and no force:

Appendix. (Not needed in the course but may be of use in practice )
A1. Rayleigh's Method
For a system with distributed mass, such as a beam, the deflection of each point mass
in the system from the mean position must be known. Lord Rayleigh showed that the
fundamental frequency of such a system could be estimated with good accuracy by
assuming a reasonable deflection curve. If the assumed shape is not quite correct this
implies adding additional constraints, or stiffnesses to the system. The result is a
slightly higher frequency than the 'true' answer. The implication is that the Rayleigh
method will give an upper bound to the fundamental frequency. If the guessed shape
is correct then it will give the exact value. In general the static deflection shape for a
system is a good starting point.
Consider the spring mass system in figure A1, where the spring is not massless, but
has a mass m / unit length.
y
L k  y
x m
M
Figure A1
If the main mass M has a displacement from the mean position of xo, then the
displacement of any part of the spring at a distance y is given by:
and its velocity is
where L is the spring length in equilibrium and therefore has total mass mL.
An element of mass my at y from the fixed end, has a Maximum KE:
Integrate the total KE of spring
Add the KE of the rigid mass M:

The total potential energy stored in the spring:
Hence:
    A1
i.e. the effect of the spring mass may be represented by adding 1/3 of its true mass to
the rigid mass.

A2 . Application of Rayleigh's Method to a beam.
For a uniform beam of mass m per unit length, having a deflection of amplitude y
from the mean position, the KE is given by:
The potential energy is the work done on the beam stored as elastic energy. If M is the
bending moment and the slope of the elastic curve, then the work done is equal to

The beam deflection is assumed to have a radius R, figure A2.


x

Figure A2.
For small deflections
and
From beam theory :
where E is Young's Modulus of elasticity and I is the second moment of Area of the
beam about the neutral axis.
So
or

and
Hence:
hence as T max = Umax
A2

A 3 Simply supported beam example.
For a beam simply supported at the ends, the deflection is assumed to be a sine curve
with maximum deflection yo at the centre, figure A3:
y0
Figure A3 Assumed beam deflection shape.
A3
differentiating:
Substitution into equation 2 gives:
     A4
or
    A5
Note that m is mass/unit length of beam = A and compare with the result for a
simply supported beam obtained from the equations of motion in main lecture notes
section 3.4.
In this case the deflection shape assumed, equation 3, is the correct shape, and so the
solution is correct. If another shape had been assumed then the resulting frequency
equation would give a higher fundamental frequency as it would require more
constraints to produce that shape.

Axial, Torsional and Plate vibration.
1. Introduction.
Structural members do not only vibrate in bending, and this lecture examines some of
the other modes of vibration of simple shapes. However in practice engineering
structures do not exactly conform to these simple shapes, and although these analyses
will provide approximate answers in some cases, more powerful methods such as
Finite Element (F.E.) modelling, are usually required to predict the natural
frequencies, mode shapes and response levels of real systems. However simple
models can be used to obtain a feel for the approximate answers; they also provide an
alternative method for checking the validity of F.E. models, by modelling the simple
shapes in F.E. and comparing the results.
2. Axial Vibration of beams

Consider a uniform bar, cross sectional area A, density ρ, modulus of elasticity E in
AXIAL vibration.
x δx motion
aa bb
u
The displacement of section aa from the equilibrium position is u and the

corresponding displacement of bb is .
The strain = ( displacement) δx
Strain at aa =
P P + δP/δx.δx
Strain at bb = aa bb
The force P on section aa is given by :
And on section bb is given by:
The net force on the element is and so the equation of motion (force = mass
* acceleration) is:
or
ME3 MSD Axial and plate vibration DAR/FC Page 1 of 8

(1)
where and c is the speed of the longitudinal wave in the material.

3. Torsional vibration.
For torsional vibration an exactly analogous method can be used to derive the
rotational equations of motion ( torque = mass moment of inertia * angular
acceleration )
Hence:
(2)
where and ct is the speed of the shear waves in the material.
4. Solution of Wave equation for free motion.

Equations (1) and (2) are wave equations. They can be solved by the separation of
variables, assuming a solution of the form:
Substitution in equation (1) gives:
(3)
Since the LHS of equation (3) is a function of x only and the right hand side is a
function of t only, they must both be constant and equal to . This form of the
constant is chosen for ease of solution. Then:
0
(4)
and
0
(5)
Assume a sinusoidal form of solution:
(6)
and
(7)

The constants A1 and A2 depend on the boundary conditions while B1 and B2 depend
on the initial conditions. The complete solution to equation (1) is therefore:
(8)
Where
or

5. Example
Find the natural frequencies of a uniform bar, length L, clamped at x = 0 and free at x
=L
At the clamped end x = 0 the extension u = 0 so:
0
so A2 = 0
At the free end x = L there is no applied force so 0
so
0
for a non-trivial solution A1 cannot = 0 so 0
0 for , , etc.
hence
The deflected mode shape for the first mode is:
Remember this is axial vibration, NOT beam bending.
The deflected mode shape for the m th mode is 2 1
AXIAL motion first 3 mode shapes

10
Mode 1
5
AXIALextension
Mode 2
Mode 3
-5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
distance along beam
The figure shows the first three modes. Vertical display equals horizontal movement
at that point. It is not practical to indicate in the true direction what the motion is.

6. Forced Vibration
With forced vibration the boundary conditions at the point of application of the force
will be changed.
If a force F e iωt acts at the free end of the previous uniform cantilever beam (at x = L)
then the boundary condition at the free end is:
Hence
or
The full solution for steady state motion is therefore:
Note that for any force input, the amplitude tends to infinity if cos (λL) = 0, that is if
2
or
This technique for modifying the boundary conditions is also applicable to the
bending of beams discussed in the Continuous systems lecture 4.
7. Plate vibration
Many structures are fabricated from flat plates, and if there is little damping then
these plates may be caused to vibrate, radiating noise, and/ or inducing high stresses
in the materials. The full analysis of plate vibration is outside of this course, however
the concept of establishing a continuous equation to describe the plate motion is only
a two- dimensional version of that used for beams.
The governing differential equation of motion for the free vibration of a flat
rectangular plate may be stated as:
2 0
Where v is the vertical displacement, x and y are the directions of the flat plat, h is the
plate thickness ρ is the density and D is given by:

12 1
where ν is Poisson's Ratio.
There are many combinations of boundary conditions for each edge of the plate, free,
simply supported or rigidly clamped. For simply supported edges all round the
general solution satisfies all the boundary conditions:
, ,
Where a and b are the dimensions of the plate and i and j are the number of half
waves in the x and y directions respectively. There are (i-1) nodal lines parallel to the
y axis and (j-1) modal lines parallel to the x axis.
Some nodal lines for particular modes are sketched below:
+ - - + -
+ + -
- + + - +
i = j = 1 diaphragm mode i = 2 , j= 1 i = 2, j = 2 i = 3, j = 2
Details of the mode shapes and natural frequencies for a range of edge conditions are
given in a classic paper by Warburton (Proc I Mech E Vol 168 p 371 1954).
More recently a series of papers and reference articles by Leissa solve the equations
for a whole range of plates of varying shape, thickness etc.
Note that for square plates with identical boundary conditions many of the modes will
exist as identical pairs, and have the same natural frequency eg i = 3, j = 2 will have
the same natural frequency as i = 2, j = 3. Any error in manufacture will split the
identical frequencies into two very close modes.
8. Circular Plates & Discs

This is a very important class of structure as many rotating machines use circular disc
shapes e.g. compressor or turbine discs. The problem noted above about square plates
is very important for circularly symmetric objects.
Consider the circular disc shown below. One mode of vibration is when the disc
pivots about a Nodal line, Fig a. The 'identical pair' mode nodal line is at right angles
to the line drawn, Fig b.
+ + -
+ -
- - +
Figure a Figure b Figure c Figure d

However Fig c and Fig d show two other orthogonal mode shapes which are equally
possible. For circular symmetric discs there is no preferred orientation, however
small added masses (possibly manufacturing errors or transducers) may disturb the
symmetry, and so the two natural frequencies will not be identical. A local heavy spot
will cause an increase in moving mass hence a reduction in natural frequency.
Disc Modes can be described in terms of Nodal Diameters (ND) and Nodal Circles
(NC):
2 ND 0 NC 0 ND 1 NC 2 ND 1 NC
9. Practical points
• The boundary conditions are vital in predicting the natural frequencies. A

reduction in restraint will reduce the natural frequencies significantly.
• Joints are very difficult to model accurately; they introduce flexibility and
possibly damping into the system.
• Soft gasket material (used to seal plates against leakage) will allow considerable
flexibility and provide damping.
• Bolts will only apply local stiffness restraints to thin plates.
• Even slight curves in 'flat ' plates will change the natural frequencies
• If the structure is in tension, then the natural frequencies will increase from those
predicted by this analysis, if in compression they will reduce.
• Welding causes thermal stresses and distortion which can lead to significant
tension or compression of various components in a structure. Nominally identical
structures fabricated by welding may have very different natural frequencies.
• Damping can often be introduced to minimize the vibration level.
• Torsional vibration modes in rotating systems may have very low damping and
this can lead to high resonance stresses. Crankshaft failure in internal combustion
engines is a common form of failure, due to the high periodic loads applied by the
combustion forces acting on the piston and connecting rod along the crankshaft.
Addition of a damper can reduce torsional oscillations.

Rotating Systems
1. Introduction
So far the dynamic analysis of structures has concentrated on systems when the mean
position of the vibrating object is stationary. This is relatively easy to measure as
input forces can be applied to one point, and the response measured at the same point.
However there are a whole class of structures which are very important in engineering
systems, but which cannot be directly measured using this method; these are systems
when a major part is rotating, typically in bearings; the response of such systems is
also dependent on the rotational speed of the system. Systems such as turbo-
machines, pumps and compressors all have significant design problems due to the
size and speed of the rotor.
Supplying force to such a rotor, and measuring the response of the rotor are non-
trivial tasks. The internal forces generated by high-speed rotation can be very
considerable. Consider a mass of 1 kg with an out of balance of 0.1mm, running at
10,000 rpm. The centripetal force generated by this rotation is 109 N; if the
radius changes to 2 mm then the force is now 2193 N. This force acts in a radial
direction causing the shaft to bend.
For a turbine blade of mass 200 gm, rotating at 10000 rpm at a radius of 20 cm, the
centripetal force is 43,860 N = about 4 tons! This force will provide an axial
stiffening of the blade which will alter the static natural frequency considerably.
2. Reciprocating and Rotating Machines.

Machines running with out-of-balance components will experience a periodic force at
the running speed, which can be calculated from the equation. This rotating
force vector will produce an excitation which can be analysed in the relevant
directions. Figure 1 shows a rotating out-of-balance mass m with eccentricity e
rotating at speed ω rad/sec acting on a single degree of freedom system in the vertical
direction.
ω
m
e
k/2 k/2
Figure 1. Out-of-balance force due to rotation.

ME3 MSD Rotating systems DAR/FC Page 1 of 10
Note that the rotating force vector also gives a sinusoidal horizontal force, which
produces a moment causing rotation of the body. Hence three degrees of freedom
are possible in such a system.
For a single degree of freedom system, running at a particular frequency, it is possible
to calculate the response X of the main mass M due to an out-of-balance mass m at a
radius e.
The applied force = . hence the SDOF model equation of motion is :
The solution is similar to the response to a force F and is given by:
This can be expressed in dimensionless terms, dividing top and bottom by M and
replacing by ωn2 hence:
2
1
The dimensionless ratio MX/me shows the magnification of response due to a known
excitation force which is frequency dependent. This is plotted in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Forced response due to reciprocating unbalance.

( from Thomson)

3. Deflection Effects, Whirl.
Rotating shafts tend to bow out and Whirl at particular speeds. These speeds are
known as the Whirling Speed, Whipping Speed or Critical speed.
There are several causes of such motion such as: mass unbalance in the rotating
system, hysteresis damping in the shaft, gyroscopic forces, oil friction in the bearings,
unsymmetrical stiffness of the shaft or bearings.
The whole field of whirling of rotational systems is outside of this course; the
whirling motion may be in the same direction as rotation, or the reverse direction, and
it may or may not be at the same speed as the shaft rotation. We will consider only
one condition, that of synchronous whirl; in this case the motion of the shaft is
directly locked to the speed of rotation of the shaft. The other types of whirl
mentioned above are post-graduate level studies.
4. Synchronous Whirl.
Consider a shaft running between two bearings and with a disc of mass m
symmetrically between the bearings. Figure 3.
The Centre of Mass G of the disc is a radial distance e from the geometric centre S of
the disc. The centre line of the bearings intersects the plane of the disc at O, and S is
deflected from O by a distance r.
O S G
*
r
e
Figure 3 Whirling of flexible shaft due to Unbalance.
Neglecting gravity and frictional forces, the shaft is under the influence of two forces:
the restoring force of the bent shaft acting from S to O, and the centrifugal force
acting radially outwards through G. It is evident that for these two forces to be in
equilibrium they must be collinear, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
hence OSG lie in a straight line, as shown in Figure 4.

O S G O G S
Below critical speed - Heavy side out Above critical speed - light side out
Figure 4 Possible phase relationships for undamped system.
The lateral deflection r of the centre of the disc may be determined from equating the
forces involved. If k is the restoring stiffness of the shaft at the disc, then the restoring
force is k.r, and the centrifugal force is mω2(r+e).
hence :
.
solving for r we get:
( 1)
If , the natural frequency of lateral vibration of the shaft and disc AT

ZERO SPEED then :
1
(2)
When ω = ωn the denominator is 0 hence the radius is infinite, and we have

resonance.
Hence the critical speed of the shaft is equal to the natural frequency of lateral
vibration ωn of the shaft and disc. The radial displacement r is positive below the
critical speed and negative for speeds above the critical speed. Hence for ω < ωn the
system rotates with the heavy side G outside of S, for ω > ωn the light side is outside
of S. These conditions are shown in Figure 4. For very high speeds ω >>ωn r = -e
hence O and G coincide, i.e. the disc rotates about its centre of gravity G.
It is often a relatively simple matter to measure the natural frequency of the shaft and
disc in its bearings, e.g. using a small accelerometer to measure the free decay
frequencies due to a radial impact. Note that this measurement will include the
stiffness of the bearings and housing, which may modify the resonance frequency,
compared with that obtained by testing the rotor hanging freely on a very soft
suspension system. The latter test gives a less accurate prediction of the critical
speeds, though it may be the only method of practical testing. If the shaft bends and
has its bending nodes at, or close to the bearing points, then the two answers are
likely to be similar, however if the bearings are not mounted close to the nodes, then
the bearing stiffness and mass may alter the results considerably.

5 Static and Dynamic Balance
Static unbalance of a rigid disc on a shaft may be determined by resting the shaft on
two horizontal knife edges. The disc will come to rest with the heavy side down. A
small mass can be added to the top point of the disc, to exactly counter this
unbalance. Figure 5a.
F
d
F
Fig 5 a. Rotor on knife edges Fig 5b. Static balance but dynamic unbalance
for Static balancing. Dynamic moment = F*d
5.1 Dynamic Balance.
If a shaft with two discs, Figure 5b, each with an out-of-balance mass is placed on the
same knife edges, it may well be in static balance, but when rotated the out-of-
balance masses produce a moment F*d, causing the rotor to vibrate on its bearings.
As this is only caused by rotation, it is called Dynamic Unbalance.
In general a rotor has its mass distributed along its length, and it will experience
dynamic unbalance. The effect of each unbalance mass may be translated to two
balancing planes at suitable points on the shaft, Figure 6. Each out-of-balance mass
m may be replaced by a pair of masses m1 and m2 at the two balancing planes where
m1 and m2 are given by and . As the radius of m is unknown, the
balancing masses are proportional to and and fixed at suitable points on the
planes. The sum of the forces in each balancing plane can be replaced by a resultant
force, which can then be corrected by a single correction weight in the same plane.
Hence balancing takes place on two selected planes on the shaft. These are designed
for ease of access and for ease of mounting small masses. On a car wheel the inner
and outer rims of the metal wheel provide suitable balancing planes for the
attachment of small weights.
m1 m2
d b
a
m L
Figure 6 Dynamic Balancing of rotating bodies

5.2 Balancing Machines.
In most cases the position and amount of unbalance are unknown. There are two
basic approaches to the design of balancing machines.
1. To mount the rotor on a pre-calibrated flexible test rig which will measure the
forces generated by the out-of-balance and their angular location, and then directly
tell the operator what masses to add and where to add them. This is the machine
commonly used in tyre balancing for vehicles. Provided that the wheel can be
mounted so that its radial location is precisely as when installed on the vehicle, the
results are normally good.
2. To test the complete machine. This involves using the inherent flexibility of the
machine to determine the effects of the out-of-balance. First measure the out-of-
balance response at two points, either shaft to stator motion using proximity probes,
or acceleration of the bearing housings, and note the magnitude and phase of the
highest response relative to a timing mark on the rotor. A trial mass is then added to
one balancing plane and the measurement repeated. The change in response due to the
trial mass measures the sensitivity of the system. The trial mass is then placed on the
other balancing plane and the measurement repeated. It is then possible, using
graphical methods or a computer program, to calculate the magnitude and location of
two correction masses which must be placed on the two balancing planes.
The theory for this calculation is given in, for example, Thomson: Vibration Theory
and Application.
5.3 Limitations of balancing machines

The above method assumes that the rotor is rigid, with a given offset of the out-of-
balance point mass. In practice rotors are flexible, and will bend due to centripetal
forces. Hence balancing in two planes will not provide totally vibration free running
under all speeds. However the rotor can be balanced for each critical speed in turn
with a pair of balancing planes. Hence the machines may be used for many
applications for constant speed operation. If damping mechanisms can be introduced
into the rotating support system then the response near resonance (critical speeds)
may be reduced, and the machines run through the speed without problem. However
damping in the rotating components can lead to instability. This again is post-
graduate material.

6. Estimation of Critical Speed of Rotor.
In many cases the rotor sits on two bearings as shown below in Figure 7. A simple
analysis can be made using Rayleigh's method for the case of a solid disc at the mid-
point of a uniform shaft. Bearings usually provide very limited angular constraint, so
the end of the shaft can be considered as pinned. The mass of the disc is m1, and the
shaft has length L and mass m2. From Rayleigh's method, if the deflection of the beam
is assumed to be sinusoidal (half sine wave) with zero bending moment 0 and
zero deflection y = 0 at the two ends.
y yo
Figure 7 Disc and flexible shaft rotor
Then sin is the mode shape, where yo is the mid-point deflection
sin and
hence : from Rayleigh method (Lecture 4 equation A2) :
so
and :
So

7 Practical Aspects of Rotor modelling.
• Bearings are not usually directly fixed to a rigid foundation, hence the
bearings can be considered on springs, which will reduce effective stiffness of
rotor support.
• Testing a rotor in its bearings may be very difficult for several reasons:
o Access due to casings etc.
o Bearings introduce damping (especially plain bearings)
o May be difficult to obtain reasonable estimate of resonance frequency.
• Often test the rotor free- free,

o Easier to test, because of access
o Much less damping ( no bearings)
o If free-free nodes are close to bearing supports then little effect on
natural frequency. However then bearings will provide little damping
and may experience severe vibration close to critical speed.
• Often run machines above first critical speed so must run through resonance
rapidly.
• Real rotors such as compressors, turbines and propellors may have significant
gyroscopic terms, which require much more complex analysis as the critical
speeds are influenced by the gyroscopic coupling.
• Oil film bearings also introduce other interactions, oil whip. etc.

Dynamics and Fatigue
1. Introduction
Operating machines often include highly stressed parts; if the stress is
varying, then the parts may fail due to material fatigue. The failure usually
initiates at one point, and a crack propagates from that point through the
material until the remaining material has insufficient remaining strength to
support the load, when it will suddenly fail. There are many factors involved in
fatigue: the material, its heat treatment and machining, local damage e.g.
cuts, any surface treatment e.g. shot peening to introduce compressive
stresses into the surface, together with operating temperatures, type of stress
variation and number of stress changes. However it is the changing stress
pattern, usually varying tensile stress, which causes the crack to propagate
once an initiation occurs. In many examples the stress pattern is cyclic, and
the component’s life can be assessed in terms of the number of cycles to
failure.
Two types of fatigue are sometimes identified:
Low Cycle Fatigue, usually defined as less than 1000 cycles to failure. This
could be e.g. aircraft landing cycles or changes in internal cabin pressure
during flight envelope.
High Cycle Fatigue: usually many more than 1000 cycles, e.g. crankshaft of
a car subjected to reverse bending for every revolution of the engine. If the
engine runs at 5000 rpm, then there are 5000 reverse bending loads every
minute, and car engines run for thousands of hours. Similarly turbine blades
in an engine are exposed to varying force every time the blade passes a guide
vane. If there are 50 guide vanes and the rotor is running at 10000 rpm then
each blade experiences 500,000 stress changes per minute.
2. Stress Patterns.
For rotating machines it is often possible to estimate the stress pattern, e.g.
an out-of-balance mass on a rotor will result in a rotating force vector
at the rotor angular rotation speed ω.
Figure 1 shows three basic cyclic load patterns:
Figure 1 three basic types of cyclic stress pattern.

ME3 MSD Fatigue Lecture DAR/FC Page 1 of 8
The actual stress pattern experienced in many machines is very complex, e.g.
off-road vehicle going over rough ground, and so experiments are often
performed to measure the stresses in critical items. This can be directly using
strain gauges, or by measuring accelerations or displacements of components
and linkages. The data are recorded and can be analysed to quantify the
stresses.
Figure 2 shows loading patterns for a ship or off-shore structure and for an
aircraft. The time axes are different for the two examples.
Figure 2 typical stress time records from operating systems.
3. Material Properties.
Standardised tests (SN curves) have been performed on many common

materials to determine the relationship between number of cycles to failure
and the applied cyclic stress. Figure 3 shows the results of a series of tests on
wrought steels as a ratio of the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS). These tests
were performed with fully reversed bending on highly polished samples.
Figure 3 : ratio of max stress/Ultimate stress against cycles to failure.
This data for about 100 tests shows considerable scatter but there is an
underlying relationship between maximum stress level and cycles to failure,
up to about 106 cycles. Beyond that point there are several samples which did
not break. This graph suggests an endurance limit, i.e. components with
stress levels below a certain value will never break. However this approach
ignores effects such as corrosion, or localised damage in ‘real’ components
acting as stress raisers see Figure 4 below.
Figure 4a the failure of a shaft with key way Figure 4b a diesel crankshaft
The shaft with keyway failed due to rotating bending, the crankshaft failed in
combined bending and torsion.
A typical SN curve for steel is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 effect of operating temperature on endurance limit.
This graph clearly shows the effect of operating temperature on the number of
cycles to failure, also that the endurance limit is temperature dependent, being
lower at 600oF than 1000oF.
As noted above, the fatigue limit depends on many operational factors. Figure
6 shows the change in fatigue limit for steels with different UTS, given
different surface effects, from highly polished, to severely notched and to

corroding. Note that corroding material shows virtually no fatigue limit, i.e. it
may fail with virtually any applied stress.
Figure 6 Effect of surface condition on fatigue limit.
Manufacturing processes also affect the fatigue limits, Figure 7 shows the
variation in SN curves for wrought, permanent mould (i.e. smooth surface)
and sand cast aluminium.
Figure 7 SN curves for different aluminium manufacturing processes
In the aircraft industry fatigue tests can be performed on the various

assemblies or even the complete airframe, (Figure 8) to assess its expected
life from a range of simulated conditions, e.g. landing loads, or cyclic pressure
changes during the flight envelope, (take-off, climb, transit flight, descent and
landing). The first Comet aircraft suffered fatigue failures of the window
openings leading to catastrophic crashes.
A prototype full Concorde fuselage was tested by applying cyclic internal
pressure changes to simulate the typical flight envelope. Testing continued

even after commercial Concorde operations had started, to determine if there
was an endurance limit within the planned life span. .
Figure 8 fatigue test frame for Boeing 757
4. Assessment of design life
The above background shows that the determination of a design’s life makes
many assumptions, which should be included in any design assessment.
However the experimental data can be used to provide some indication of
expected performance. The following example shows how a design may be
assessed.
5 Example : Dynamic Absorber design.
The dynamic absorber was introduced in Lecture 2 of this course. A single

degree of freedom spring-mass k1 , m1 system was modified by adding a
second spring mass in series. The effect of an external sinusoidal force
applied to the main mass at frequency ω could be countered by tuning the
second spring-mass system k m to have a natural frequency :
Figure 9 shows two cantilevered beams clamped to the main mass, and with
masses m which can be adjusted along the beams to adjust the resonant
frequency. Provided that the force applied to the main mass is through its
centre of gravity, and the two absorber masses are adjusted to give the same
natural frequency ω; at that frequency the main mass will remain stationary
and the absorber masses will vibrate at an amplitude to exactly counteract the
external force.
m1 Absorber
mass m
Force = F *sin(ω t)
Figure 9 dynamic absorber
In principle it would be possible to design the cantilever beams to have the
correct natural frequency, see earlier lecture. However manufacturing errors,
or changes in the system would mean that the dynamic absorber may not be
correctly tuned, hence allowing the main mass to vibrate. The use of
adjustable masses allows the exact frequency for zero motion of the main
mass m1 to be adjusted. REMINDER it does not need to be at the original
natural frequency.
An approximate analysis can be made by assuming that the absorber masses’

motion will generate the cancelling forces to F (ignoring the mass of the
cantilever). Thus the vibration amplitude is a measure of the applied force F.
If each mass m vibrates with a total amplitude 2h ( i.e. effective radius h) at
the tuned frequency ω then the total peak force 2 for the two
masses.
The bending stress in the cantilever due to the vibration will depend on the
deflection shape. Figure 10 shows the deflection shapes for three cantilever
beams:
• Mode 1 is derived from the continuous beam theory described in
lecture 4 for a uniform beam vibrating at its first mode.
• UDL is the deflection shape for a cantilever beam with a uniform
distributed load along its length.
• Point is for a point load applied at the free end.
The three deflection shapes have been adjusted to give the same
displacement at the free end.
Cantilever deflection
0
Displacement
-0.5 mode 1
-1
UDL
-1.5
point
-2
-2.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Distance along beam
Figure 10 cantilever deflection shapes for different loadings.
The variation in deflection from the three curves is greatest at the clamped
end, (around ± 10% difference ).
Reminder: From basic beam theory the bending stress is given by:
where E is Young’s Modulus, M is applied Bending Moment, σ is bending

stress, R is radius of curvature, I is second Moment of Area and y is distance
of fibre from Neutral Axis.
If the point mass m acts at a distance L from the clamp, then the maximum
bending moment

For a given beam section the maximum stress can be deduced and checked
against the given material properties.
6. Practical Fatigue Assessment.

For more complex designs, the local stresses must be calculated, usually
using a Finite Element model of the structure under expected operating
conditions. Figure 11 shows FE models of a piston, connecting rod and
engine crankshaft.
Figure 11 FE models of engine components
The maximum predicted local stress can then be identified, and a life
prediction performed. Note that the accuracy of the FE model depends very
much on the chosen mesh type and mesh size, also on the accuracy of the
loading conditions. Figure 12 shows the FE mesh and stress pattern for a
‘Footprint’ type hand wrench, note the increased mesh density around the
holes where the forces are applied.
Figure 12 Hand wrench: FE model and stress pattern.
Similar FE models can analysed for dynamic performance. As the FE model

includes both stiffness and mass terms for each element it is possible to
calculate the Mode shapes and for a given deflection amplitude, calculate the
stress distribution. Figure 13 shows an FE model for a single turbine engine
fan blade. The high density of elements round the blade root is required to
investigate the local stresses.
Figure 13. FE of engine Fan blade
7. Rotating systems.
It may not always be obvious whether rotating components are exposed to
cyclic loads, and therefore liable to fatigue problems.
In a previous lecutre we looked at rotating systems and showed that a flexible
rotor would bend if out-of-balance components were fixed to the rotor. At a
certain speed - the critical speed -, the deflection amplitude would be
extremely high ( theoretically infinite if there was no damping) The deflection
would be in phase with the out-of- balance force below the critical speed and
out of phase above the critical speed. Figure 14 shows a flexible rotor with an
out of balance mass (black block) running below the critical speed. The black
block will always remain furthest from the centreline at a constant rotational
speed. Hence a strain gauge on the shaft will show a constant strain and
there will be no cyclic loading, except on start-up and switch-off .
Figure 14 Out of balance disc on rotating shaft.
However if a belt or chain drive system is used, Figure 15, then the rotating shaft will
see a cyclic load once every revolution and fatigue failure may occur.
Pulley Bearing Rotor Bearing

T1 Pulley loads T2
Figure 15 Belt driven rotor.
Many of the diagrams in this lecture are from:
Machine Design an integrated approach R L Norton Prentice Hall

Measuring FRFs
1. Introduction
The Frequency response function ( FRF ) is a graphical or tabular statement of the
response of one point on a structure to a steady state sine wave excitation applied at a
single point on the structure. The response per unit force is calculated, and displayed
for each measured frequency. Figure 1 shows a typical FRF.
-4 Log Receptance.
10
Receptance Log Mag.
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Phase angle
0
Phase degrees
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 100 200 300 400 500
frequency Hz.
Force X direction point 1, response Z direction point 21.
Figure 1 typical Bode plot.
Note that the position and direction of the applied force and the response must be
indicated, a change in either will produce a different FRF. The data may be displayed
in a Bode plot, and sometimes uses log scales to cover a wide frequency range.
1.2 Decibel scale.
For the vertical axis of FRFs we often use the Decibel scale. This allows for very
large dynamic ranges to be displayed.
The original scale was developed for power calculations, and is given by:
As power is proportional to voltage squared, it could also be defined as :
ME3 MSD FRF measurements DAR/CS Page 1 of 9

We use dB scales to express other units, such as displacement, force, acceleration. As
energy is proportional to the square of these values we always use the 20 log 10
calculation. Hence 20 dB is an order of magnitude (factor of 10).
The Decibel Scale dB, always provides a ratio between the measured parameter and a
reference parameter. The value of the reference parameter should be stated, e.g. -18
dB re 1 m/sec. = 10 -18/20 = 0.1259 m/sec.
1.3 Different formats of FRF

a. Receptance = displacement/Force
b. Mobility = velocity/Force
c. Inertance (Accelerance) = acceleration /Force
Note this is the same data plotted on a log-log scale to show the low frequency and
high frequency asymptotes as straight lines.

2. Measurement set-up
The basic method of testing a structure is to mount it in some appropriate way, to
apply a single force at one point in the structure, and to measure the response at the
required location. The force or response transducers may then be moved to other
points of interest to determine other FRFs. The simplest method to explain is step sine
testing.
Figure 2 shows a typical test set-up. The experimental set-ups will be very similar for
other techniques to be discussed later.
Shaker
Push-rod
Power Amp
Force gauge
CA
Test st ructure
'scope
Accelerometer
FRA
CA
Figure 2 typical test set-up.
A Frequency Response Function Analyser (FRA) is used to provide a sine wave

command signal to an exciter. The force actually applied to the structure is measured
using a Force Gauge, and the response is measured using an Accelerometer. The
charge output from each transducer is converted into a voltage by a Charge
amplifier (CA in diagram) , and the voltages returned to the FRA. This computes the
amplitude and phase of the force and response signals at the original command
frequency. The ratio between response and input force can then be calculated in
magnitude and phase by the FRA. The command signal is then changed to the next
frequency and the process repeated. An oscilloscope is provided to monitor the
signals from the transducers.
2.1 Structure support conditions.
Components can be tested 'free-free' as though they were floating in air, or attached
into a larger structure, or clamped to a 'rigid' ground.
In practice the ground is never 'rigid' and this may reduce the bending frequencies
compared with a totally rigid clamp.
'Free-free' suspension can only be approximated unless you test in outer space with no
gravity, otherwise some gravitational support is required. In practice a very soft
suspension is required so that the six rigid body modes of the test structure are well
below the flexing modes of the component.
Figure 3 shows possible forms for the two set-ups.

support Test st ruct ure
light
strings
Structure Ground
Figure 3 Free-free suspension system Grounded system,
3. Excitation.
This can be by an external shaker: electro-magnetic or hydraulic; or by impact
hammer.
3.1 Electro-magnetic: Similar to a hi-fi loudspeaker. A command signal is passed to

a power amplifier which passes a high power alternating voltage to a coil suspended
in a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be from permanent magnet or from a
second would coil, see figure 4. The suspended coil tries to move in the magnetic
field at a frequency set by the alternating voltage. Good for a wide range of
frequencies but relatively low force levels.
Magnet: permenant or
electromagnet.
Controlled
Motion
Coil
Figure 4 electro-magnetic shaker.
3.2 Hydraulic shaker: a servo-valve controlled hydraulic ram powered by external

pressure. It receives a command signal to operate the servo-valve causing the ram to
extend and contract. Again the frequency is set by the command signal. Can produce
high forces but at lower frequencies, perhaps up to 200 Hz.
3.3. Impact hammer. A carefully designed hammer with a force gauge (see below)
in the tip to measure the force applied to the structure. It has a series of
interchangeable soft and hard tips which can be used to vary the frequency content of
the applied force: Soft tip gives low frequency, Hard tip gives high frequency. The
Hard tip may mark the surface of the test item.

Figure 5 Impact Hammer
 Use a large hammer for large structures e.g. ships, small hammer for small
structures. Maximum frequency may be about 50 Hz, or 13 kHz depending on
size and tip.
 Requires a lot of practice to make good measurements. but has advantage of easy
to apply, need no supporting frame, external amplifiers etc.
 High impact forces may damage the structure, and are not often required to obtain
meaningful results.
4. Force measurement
A force gauge is connected directly to the test object, and the force applied through
the push-rod. The force gauge Figure 6, uses the piezo-electric effect to convert
applied strain in the crystal gauge into electrical charge. This charge is converted by a
charge amplifier into a voltage proportional to the applied force.
Piezo-elect ric
crystals
Applied force Applied

moment
Figure 6 Force gauge principle Moment has no effect on output.
5. Response measurement
Several response measurements are possible, to measure: displacement, velocity or

acceleration.
5.1 Displacement.
Displacement requires a reference which does not move, this may be difficult.
5.1.1 LVDTs can be used for low frequency relative motion, but may be damaged as
need mechanical connection between fixed and moving part. Figure 7 shows a
schematic arrangement. A transformer with single input and two output coils is
excited by a sine wave. The central core may be moved left or right and produces
different outputs in each coil dependent on its position. If the core is connected to one
item and the coils to another, then the output voltage is proportional to their relative
position.

vo x
~
vo
Figure 7. LVDT principle , input and output signals.
5.1.2 Proximity probes use change in capacitance to detect relative motion. Very
small range, typical 0.5 - 5 mm depending on diameter of the gauge, but they are non-
contacting and can measure high frequency response. Figure 8 shows a typical set-up
and equivalent circuit. A frequency modulated (FM) amplifier converts change in
capacitance into change in voltage, which is non-linearly proportional to the air gap.
Structure
relative motion.
Air gap
Central core = plate of capacitor
Insulator Vary air gap
varys capacitance.
Outer casing = plate of capacitor
Figure 8 Capacitance probe
Proximity probes are often used in rotating machines to measure shaft motion in
bearings, where small motions should exist, and where oil contamination may affect
the air gap, but this capacitance change causes negligible error.
Variable inductance gauges can be designed in a similar way, and use similar FM
circuitry to estimate relative motion.
5.2 Velocity measurement
5.2.1 Magnetic pick-up which induces a voltage proportional to velocity, Figure 9.

Often used for shock measurements, but units are rather heavy and bulky for many
tests.
Magnet Output
Voltage
Motion
Fixed coil
Figure 9 magnetic velocity gauge.

5.2.2. Laser Doppler vibrometer. A laser beam from a stationary laser unit shining
onto a target moving in the direction of the line of the laser beam, will receive a
reflected beam of frequency dependent on the target velocity. (Doppler effect) This
signal can be processed to determine the velocity of the target. Expensive, heavy and
needs line of sight from laser to target but can provide non-contacting measurement.
A scanning mirror system may be used on the laser to produce a series of
measurements at different locations without major adjustment.
5.3 Acceleration,
Majority of response measurements use accelerometers. The principle is shown in

figure 10.
Seismic mass
mass
piezo-electric crystal.
Mount ing base

spring
base
Figure 10 accelerometer principle. Spring-mass model of accelerometer.
The piezo-electric crystal transmits force from base to a known inertial mass in the
accelerometer. Newtons 2nd Law : Force = mass * acceleration, hence output from
piezo crystal is proportional to acceleration.
WARNING : At high frequency the piezo-electric crystal is elastic and acts as a

spring, hence the transducer has a resonance frequency; around this frequency
response/unit acceleration is not the same value as at lower frequencies.
Many different sizes are manufactured. A small mass gives a small signal but can be
used at higher frequency. Large mass gives high signal but has low resonant
frequency. Adding a large transducer mass to a structure may change its dynamic
behaviour. A typical sensitivity curve for an accelerometer is given in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Typical sensitivity calibration curve.
Note that mounting an accelerometer will change its effective sensitivity, reducing the
mounting stiffness will reduce the resonant natural frequency, as it then becomes two
springs in series. Hence use of soft adhesives or mounting wax can cause unexpected
problems.
6. System Calibration
The measurement system described can be used to measure FRFs of a wide range of
structures, and the FRF will indicate the peak values at each resonance. However it is
also important to know the ratio in engineering units. Each transducer is issued with a
sensitivity value by the manufacturer, however it is prudent to check the complete
measurement system and this can be done as shown in Figure 12.
support
light
strings
Force Acceleration
input Response
10 kg mass
Figure 12 System calibration using known mass.
A steel block of known mass M e.g. 10 kg is suspended by light wires as shown. The
force is applied to one end and the response measured at the other end.
From Newton's second law, force = mass * acceleration, as the mass is known, the
ratio of acceleration/ mass = 1/M .
Thus if the sensitivities of the transducers are set correctly in the Analyser, or the
charge amplifiers, and acceleration FRF is measured for the 10 kg mass, it should
produce a horizontal line at 0.1 or - 20dB. Slight changes can occur due to signal,
leads slight change of transducer sensitivity etc, but if a significant deviation is found
then STOP as something is wrong with the set-up.
8. Practical Warnings
• Some transducers require special purpose conditioning amplifiers, use of the

wrong manufacturer's equipment will result in no output signals and may cause
damage.
• Shaker excitation can produce large forces and generate large responses at
resonance. Make sure you know how to stop the equipment before you start it.
• Always connect an oscilloscope to the force and response signal to give a visual
monitor for overloading, broken leads or no shaker signal. 95% of experimental
problems can be identified by using a scope and your eyes and ears.
• If in doubt ask.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME3 Compulsory Course

Machine System Dynamics

Lecture 1 Multi-degree-of-freedom systems (MDOF).

Lecture 2 Frequency Response Functions (FRF).

Lecture 3 Solution methods for continuous systems.

Lecture 4 Axial, Torsional and plate vibrations.

Lecture 5 Rotating systems.

Lecture 7 Measuring FRFs.

Tutorial question sheets will be issued when appropriate.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3M Machine System Dynamics

Multi-Degree-of -Freedom Systems (MDOF)

Some engineering systems can be treated as a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)

The natural frequency ω is then given by ω = k m , where if m is in kilograms, k in

6 Damped free decay

Figure 2. Free vibration decay.

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 1 of 10

Figure 3 Typical Bode plot for SDOF system.

2. Two degree of freedom model

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 2 of 10

Rearranging these equations:

They can be rearranged in matrix form:

If we assume that the response is harmonic we can substitute 2 and

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 3 of 10

The equations may be solved in several ways.

Substituting in equations 3 and 4 for F = 0 gives:

Multiplying out we obtain a quadratic equation in ω4 which can be solved if the k

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 4 of 10

we can calculate the response of each mass to the exciting force.

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 5 of 10

4. Application of Dynamic Absorber

4.1 General setup

If a system is running at one particular frequency ω, and vibration is present, then

Figure 7 Frequency Response of Dynamic Absorber.

4.2 Frequency split

Then expanding equation (13) to find the natural frequencies gives:

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 6 of 10

or dividing by m1.m2 gives:

but ω02 = k1/m 1 = kc/m2 hence:

solving the quadratic equation gives:

Hence the two NEW frequencies :

Figure 8 Effect of mass ratio

4.3 Damping of the Tuned Absorber.

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 7 of 10

Figure 9 Damped - Tuned Absorber

5. Setting up MDOF Equations

A systematic approach is required to avoid errors in the solution of MDOF problems.

Step 1 Write down the spring deflections

Compression of spring k1 y–aθ

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 8 of 10

Step 2 Obtain forces and Moments

Force on box in x direction

Force on box in y direction

T force in y direction from k1 a ‐ force in y direction form k2 b

Step 3 Equations of Motion.

From Newton's Second Law: ; ;

Step 4 Write in Matrix notation.

Assume harmonic solution we can substitute:

and obtain the matrix equation:

Step 5 Check Stiffness and Mass Matrices are symmetrical

ME3 MSD MDOF systems. DAR/CS Page 9 of 10

For the matrix equation ( K - M ω 2 ) X = 0 to have a non-trivial solution, the