Article

Clothing and Textiles

Research Journal

Development and Comfort 2018, Vol. 36(3) 199-214

ª 2018 ITAA
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DOI: 10.1177/0887302X18768048
Auxetic Fabric for Wearable journals.sagepub.com/home/ctr

and Medical Textile Applications

Mumtaz Ali1,2, Muhammad Zeeshan1,

Sheraz Ahmed1, Bilal Qadir3, Yasir Nawab1,
Aima Sameen Anjum1,2, and Rabia Riaz2

Abstract
Knitted auxetic fabrics (AF) are in common practice but their stability and thickness are major
problems in commercial applications. Therefore, a simple method of developing woven AF is pro-
posed here. Differential shrinking property of different weaves is utilized to visualize auxetic honey
comb geometry in fabric structure. Based on this fabric structure, auxeticity is induced in 2-D-woven
fabric. AF is developed using conventional nonauxetic materials (i.e., cotton in warp and elastane
[Lycra] yarn in the weft). Auxetic nature and auxetic structure in the fabric were characterized by
microscope. Comfort properties (air permeability, thermal resistance, stiffness, and wicking) of
AF were compared with conventional nonauxetic fabrics (NAF). Piezoresistive nature of conductive
AF and NAF is also compared. AF showed superior comfort properties and higher sensitivity as
compared to conventional NAF. Based on results, AF can be considered better replacement of
conventional NAF in wearable and medical applications.

Keywords
auxetic textiles, woven auxetic fabric, auxetic honey comb geometry, comfort properties, medical
textiles

Auxetic smart materials are known for their negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR). When such materials
are stretched longitudinally, they expand in at least one lateral dimension, whereas conventional
materials show inward lateral shrinking. Shrinking is due to the flow of material along the stress,

1
Textile Composite Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
2
Department of Organic and Nano Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea
3
Department of Yarn Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Corresponding Author:
Yasir Nawab, Textile Composite Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, National Textile Uni-
versity, Sheikhupura Road, 37610 Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Email: yasir.nawab@yahoo.com
200 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

Figure 1. (a) Auxetic honey comb geometry and its components. (b) Face of auxetic fabric structure developed
(top) cross-sectional view of S1 and S2 sections in microscope and schematically (bottom).

whereas auxetic materials have a lateral flow of material, thus causing swelling. Swelling of auxetic
materials is due to their chain orientation in auxetic geometries (Alderson & Alderson, 2007). Many
such geometrical orientations have been proposed and their auxetic natures confirmed (Elipe &
Lantada, 2012). Among all auxetic geometries, auxetic honey comb (AHC) geometry exhibits the
best auxetic nature inherently, as demonstrated in Figure 1 (Elipe & Lantada, 2012).
Human body parts (bone tissues, tendons, skin) are auxetic in nature (Gatt et al., 2015), and
auxeticity is therefore mimicked in artificial biomedical devices to increase their compatibility with
the body. Biomimetic auxetic foams are used as an artificial bone scaffold since they have similar
structure to bone tissues (Friis, 1991). Auxetic foams also have higher load bearing capacities and
moldability than conventional foams do (Bezazi & Scarpa, 2007). Due to these properties, auxetic
foams have replaced conventional foam-based scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering and in
spinal implants (Baker, 2011). Similarly, stents of almost all kinds are now being replaced by auxetic
stents because the anisotropic nature of both (body and auxetic stents) increases their mutual
compatibility. For the same reason, the auxetic esophageal stent is developed using rotating squares
geometry (Ali & Rehman, 2011), whereas arterial stents are mostly based on AHC geometry.
Ali et al. 201

Monitoring health during life activities has increased the demand for highly sensitive wearable
sensors. Auxetic substrates are the best candidate for such applications because they render higher
resistance variation in the sensor. Higher resistance variation is attributed to the simultaneous
increase in tunneling and contact resistance because of the bidimensional expansion of the auxetic
substrate. Auxetic foam (with a Poisson’s ratio of 0.5) had 3 times higher sensitivity relative to the
nonauxetic carbon nanotubes coated foam (Li, Luo, Yang, Liang, & Zeng, 2016). Similarly, in other
research, a highly sensitive, hand-rehabilitation-assisting force sensor was developed using nonwo-
ven auxetic fabric (AF). Nonwoven AFs were developed by laser cutting conventional fiber webs at
rotating square geometries; gold nanoparticles were sputter coated to make them conductive. The
force sensitivity of conductive AFs was tested to be 5 times higher than conventional nonauxetic
fabrics (NAFs; Ko, Bhullar, Lee, & Jun, 2015).
Like the above auxetic biomedical devices, the fabrics used for wearable or medical applications
also need to be auxetic because AFs are considered to be more compatible with the body. The
compatibility of AF is important in different situations, such as during knee/elbow bending: There is
a longitudinal stretch on fabric, while at the same time, thigh/biceps muscles are swelling. If NAF is
used under such situations, it exerts opposite pressure on the muscles since fabric (lateral shrinking
on longitudinal stretch) behaves opposite to muscular activity (swelling). Due to this mismatch, a
constant cyclic pressure is generated on muscles, thereby causing muscular fatigue (Wang & Hu,
2016). In addition to this mismatch, NAF presents a problem of higher pressure development at body
joints (like knee or elbow) because of its stiffness. NAFs also lack in body shape adoption when
employed for complex body shapes such as skulls, whereas the problems caused by pressure,
stiffness, and poor drape can be minimized by inducing auxeticity in fabric; AFs have an anisotropic
nature, lower stiffness, and higher formability. Other than such compatibility issues, the “smart”
nature of AF (higher sensitivity, pores opening under stretch, etc.) is also highly demanding in
medical textiles. A very common example of such applications is the bandage used for swelling
wound care. When a NAF-based bandage is used for such applications, higher pressure develops on
the wound along with a decrease in porosity, thus impeding the wound-healing process. This is also a
critical problem in compression garments when used for burn care after plastic surgery (to avoid scar
formation). The sensitivity of conventional fabrics is much less when compared to auxetic ones used
for smart biomedical devices (e.g., health monitoring sensors; Ko et al., 2015). AFs can solve such
issues in medical textiles by creating an automatic pore opening under the pressure of a swelling
wound. This pore opening increases breathability and drug permeability, thus accelerating the
wound-healing process. Due to NPR, AFs also show a higher change in the surface area, thus
exhibiting a higher change in resistance or sensitivity by the same proportion.
In order to solve the above-stated problems of wearable textiles, researchers have tried to develop
auxetic textiles. For this purpose, auxeticity is induced at fiber, yarn, and fabric structure levels by
visualizing auxetic geometries in different textile structures. Auxetic fibers of polypropylene, nylon,
and polyester have been manufactured through a novel melt-spinning technique (Alderson, Alder-
son, Smart, Simkins, & Davies, 2002). However, due to the high cost of auxetic fibers, a simple
method for development of auxetic yarns was proposed by using a wrap-spinning technique. Wrap-
spun auxetic yarn was developed by wrapping a highly stiff fine yarn on the coarse, low-modulus
core yarn. Auxetic yarn–based AFs also were manufactured and characterized for smart composite
applications (Bhattacharya, Zhang, Ghita, & Evans, 2014). But as auxetic yarns are based on
elastane materials, their initial extension is very high. This high extension is a hurdle while pro-
cessing them on high-speed machines; therefore, fabric-level auxeticity is of critical focus currently,
due to its continuous production.
Inducing auxeticity at the fabric level is of interest as it offers low cost and a continuous
manufacturing process. The limitation of using synthetic materials is also omitted when auxeticity
is induced at the fabric structure level. Weft- and warp-knitted structures are generally utilized for
202 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

the development of AFs due to their flexibility, versatility in design, and high-speed manufacturing.
Knitted AFs had superior comfort properties with respect to pressure distribution and body shape
adoption (Ge & Hu, 2016; Hu, Wang, & Liu, 2011). Weaving technology was combined with knitted
AFs to increase their stability (Wang & Hu, 2013). Although the stability issue was solved by these
3-D coweave knit structures, mass production was still a concern because such structures could only
be produced on specialized machines. Therefore, in our previous work, 3-D-woven AFs were
developed on conventional weaving machines (Liaqat, Samad, Hamdani, & Nawab, 2016).
Although 3-D-woven AFs solved the problems of stability and mass production, such fabrics cannot
be used for wearable applications.
Conclusively, fiber- and yarn-based AFs have cost and mass production limits, knitted AFs have
stability issues, and 3-D-woven AFs are not wearable. Currently, auxetic textiles require not only a
low cost and continuous manufacturing process, but they also need to be stable and fine enough to be
used in wearable applications. Therefore, we propose the development of 2-D-woven AFs by using a
novel weave design on conventional weaving machines. To the best of our knowledge, 2-D-woven
AFs developed by this method (using conventional materials) have not yet been reported. Such AFs
can fulfill the current need, as these are developed by a simple technique and are expected to be more
stable (for their woven structure) and comfortable (for auxeticity). Therefore, the objectives of this
research are to develop 2-D-woven AF and to compare its comfort properties with conventional
NAF. Comfort properties were compared to ensure its suitability for wearable and medical textile
applications, while auxeticity was induced by orienting yarns in AHC geometry to utilize the
differential shrinking property of various weaves.

Experimental Method
Materials and Characterizations
Cotton yarn of 20 Ne (English count) was used in the warp, and Lycra 11D (Denier) cotton core spun
yarn of 40 Ne was used in the weft for samples development. Samples with 110 ends per inch and 50
picks per inch (medium density) were woven on a Picanol omni-plus air-jet loom. Woven auxetic
structures were developed using a novel weave design (without any loom modification). The weave
design, auxetic nature, and development method of AF are explained in the next section. Plain-
woven fabric (non-auxetic) with the same specifications was taken as a controlled sample for
comparison. The plain-woven structure was selected because it is the most commonly used structure
due to its stability and comfort. Fabrics developed were desized using enzymatic (bectasole) desiz-
ing, and after drying and relaxation, fabrics were characterized. For the development of the sensor,
carbon black ink provided by CABOT was printed on the samples.

Development of AF
The auxetic nature of AHC geometry is shown in Figure 1a. S1 (supporting stiff structure) on both
the lateral and longitudinal sides of S2 acts as a support to open the compressed S2 portions. The
lateral force required to open S2 is transmitted through the connecting ribs. The S2 portion can
expand in a lateral dimension, causing corresponding lateral expansion. The auxetic effect is mainly
due to the difference in widths and stiffness of the S1 and S2 portions. Connecting ribs act as a
source to join the S1 and S2 structure and force transmission.
If an AHC pattern is visualized in the fabric structure, the fabric can also display a similar auxetic
nature. Therefore, by combining differential shrinking and stiffness woven structures, yarns were
displaced in the AHC pattern. For the supporting ribs (S1) structure, weft yarns were interlaced
consecutively (plain weave). The warp threads in S1 exert a maximum push on each other. The
portion made by this design becomes stiff and expands (flat), as shown at the bottom of Figure 1b.
Ali et al. 203

The compressed (S2) structure was developed by using a high float weave. Due to high float, this
portion is highly shrunken and warp yarns are bundled up like a multifilament yarn. The orientation
of yarns in both structures is schematically shown in the cross-sectional view in Figure 1b. S1 and S2
were placed consecutively side by side in one row, as shown in the microscopic view of fabric in
Figure 1b. After weaving reorientation areas along the warp, the sequence of S1 and S2 was inter-
changed every row. Warp yarns making S1/S2 in the previous row make S2/S1 in every next row.
Thus, warp yarns are compressed and expanded alternatively in the same pattern as AHC.
If the S1 structure is directly made (in warp-wise/longitudinal direction) next to S2 without any
space, then reorientation is not possible. Therefore, in between two consecutive rows, two repeats of
5/1 satin weave were woven. Fewer interlacements of satin weave allows the easy reorientation of
warp yarns, from S1/S2 to S2/S1. Furthermore, the edges of S1 are connected to the edges of the
longitudinally next S1 by four plain-woven ends. These yarns act as connecting ribs. Due to their
plain weave, the connecting ribs also occupy more space. This extra space is accommodated by
moving out of the plane in groove formation, as shown in Figure 6. Connecting rib yarns stabilize the
fabric structure and keep each AHC unit separate.
The difference of material in warp and weft dimensions makes the auxeticity different along warp
and weft directions. Elastane yarns in the weft make the fabric highly stretchable in respective
dimensions. The auxeticity was comparatively very low in this dimension, but the strain was very
high. The Poisson ratio in weft dimension was therefore found to be 0.1, for a strain up to 10%.
Gradually, it decreases to zero Poisson’s ratio, at the strain of 40%. Weft-wise flexibility and
stretchability (induced by Lycra) is the same for both types of fabrics. Major differences in comfort
properties are due to the AF structure and warp flexibility; therefore, we focus here on the warp-wise
auxetic nature and corresponding enhancement in comfort properties.

Structural and Auxeticity Testing

After drying and relaxing the fabric, the structure of AF was analyzed by a 1000X digital microscope
equipped with Scoope image plus software (Version 9.0). The NPR of AF was characterized by
measuring the strain (between points marked) under tensile loading, using the same microscope.
Dividing negative lateral strain by longitudinal strain gives the Poisson’s ratio. A sample of dimen-
sions 150 mm  50 mm (length  width) was used in testing NPR on a universal testing machine
(Lloyd LRX Plus AMETKE, USA). For a narrow sample strip of 50 mm, there was a clear increase
in the width of the sample (width-wise NPR/in-plane NPR). But, when a sample with width 150 mm
or more was tested, an increase in thickness was observed. This occurs because the flexible fabric
structure gets folded in the form of wrinkles. For testing this increase in thickness, a digital fabric
thickness tester was used. The negative ratio of increase in thickness and strain was considered as
out-of-plane NPR (as calculated in our previous work; Liaqat et al., 2016).

Fabric Comfort Properties Testing

Comfort properties dependent on fabric structure were tested to check the suitability of AF for
medical textiles/wearable applications. An SDL Atlas M021A air permeability tester was used for
testing air permeability of fabric according to ASTM D-737. Air with a pressure of 100 Pascal was
passed through a fabric area of 20 cm2 diameter for testing. An average of 10 values was taken to be
the final value of the sample. A higher value of air permeability refers to higher comfort, as it allows
more exchange of gases and drug when used for wearable/medical textile applications. The AATCC
TM195-2011 standard test method was used to find the wetting time of fabric. A sample size of 8 cm
diameter was placed in an SDL Atlas Moisture Management Tester (MMT), and the time required
for sprayed water to completely wet the fabric surface was analyzed. Another similar method to
204 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

evaluate the wicking behavior was performed by dipping equal-size strips in water for equal
amounts of time. The water rise-up height was measured for both samples to compare their wicking
performance. Lower wetting time and faster wicking structure is considered more comfortable, as
these indicate the fabric can absorb and dissipate the sweat/wound exudate more quickly. ISO
11092:2014 was followed for comparing the thermal protection (insulation) behavior of both the
structures, using an SDL Atlas M259B sweating guarded hot plate instrument. Thermal contact
resistance (Rct) values of samples were compared to analyze the thermal insulation performance. An
average of three values for one sample was taken as the final sample reading. A higher Rct value
corresponds to more comfortable structure because a high Rct structure requires less material to
provide the same thermal protection. This allows high Rct fabrics to be lightweight without com-
promising thermal protection. The circular bending stiffness of fabric was tested by a J.A.King
stiffness tester, using the drop weight method (ASTM-D1388). Elongation in a circularly clamped
sample under the application of the same force was used to approximate stiffness of fabric. Fabric
with low stiffness is considered more comfortable, as it exerts lower pressure on the body due to its
ease of shape adoption. To characterize the sensing behavior under stress, conductive ink-coated
samples were stressed by the same universal testing machine, at a constant rate of loading (2 N/
minute). Corresponding change in resistance of sample was recorded (for gauge length of 10 cm) by
using a multimeter (as done by Ko et al., 2015). Sensitivity of samples was calculated by dividing the
total change in response (resistance) by the total change in variable (force). Structure with high
sensitivity is considered more useful, as it can detect the variation in stimuli more accurately.

Results and Discussion

Fabric Structure Analysis
From the microscopic analysis, the width of S1 and S2 was measured as 3,995 and 1,825 micro-
meters, respectively. The ends in the S1 portion lie side by side (not stacked), making a wider stiff
structure, whereas the yarns of the S2 structure are stacked over each other in the form of a bundle, as
shown at the bottom of Figure 1b. Such orientation produces a difference of widths in both struc-
tures, thus giving a clear visualization of AHC geometry, as can be seen in Figure 1b. Analyzing the
cross-sectional structure of the fabric, it can be observed that the sample is not straight or plane. The
S1 section is bubbled out in the fabric thickness dimension, as shown in cross-sectional view of AF
in Figure 1b. This waviness or bubbling out occurs because the yarns at the sides/edges of S1 shrink
due to the side yarns bending (to adopt AHC shape), whereas yarns at the center have extra length.
This extra length is stored in out-of-plane waviness.

Negative Poisson’s Ratio Characterization

In AF, yarns shrink and expand alternately in such a way that there is a support of S1 to every S2
(warp direction). Under stress, the expanded stiff portion (S1) tends to expand the connected S2
portion up to its own width. The initially small-width portion (compressed S2 portion) expands
laterally, thus resulting in an overall lateral expansion of the material. Changes in the dimension of
the S2 portion under strain are highlighted in Figure 2a. In this way, the S2 portion keeps the material
stored in a bundle form, which flattens under stress and consequently fabric width is increased.
During this process, S1 provides the required support for the opening or reorienting of the yarns of
S2. This bidimensional increase in fabric dimensions is demonstrated in Figure 2b and c.
The width-wise NPR curve of the AF is plotted in Figure 2a. The fully relaxed weft of S2 could be
stretched easily at the initial stage. But as lateral expansion increases in S2, it requires more strain to
further open the structure, thus decreasing Poisson’s ratio at higher strains.
Ali et al. 205

Figure 2. (a) Curve of lateral Poisson’s ratio of auxetic fabric with images added for variation in S2 strain.
(b) Initial plot of square on auxetic fabric without any stretch. (c) Dimensions of square on auxetic fabric in full
stretched form.

In-plane NPR (increase in width) is only observable for a small-width sample strip. For the wider
width (100 mm) sample, extra width released could not be pushed aside by a flexible textile
structure. Width released due to NPR is accumulated in the form of pleat/fold/wrinkle (as shown
in Figure 3a), thus increasing the fabric thickness. Unlike other out-of-plane auxetic materials like
foams (Li et al., 2016) and 3-D fabrics (Liaqat et al., 2016), this increase in thickness is due to the
folding of nonaccommodated width-wise expansion.
During the initial 20% elongation of the sample, there is a small decrease in the thickness
(as shown in Figure 3b), which is due to loss of waviness under stress. Moreover, in a relaxed
condition, the yarns in the S2 portion are oriented in a circular form (cross-sectional orienta-
tion), thus having higher thickness. But as strain is applied, these yarns change their orientation
from a circular shape to an elliptical shape, thus decreasing the thickness of fabric. An increase
in fabric thickness is observed in the range of 20–30% strain, due to which the NPR curve falls
to a negative value. In the last 3–5% strain portion, there is again a decrease in thickness
206 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

Figure 3. (a) Variation in thickness with respect to strain percent for auxetic fabric (b) Out of plane Poisson’s
ratio curve.

because numbers of folds are increased with a decrease in their height (as clear in top views
added in Figure 3b). This decrease in height of folds is because the flexible structure cannot
maintain its height at higher stresses.
As higher width is consumed in fold height (ups and downs), width-wise NPR is higher than
thickness-wise NPR. Also, the exact increase in width cannot be approximated by adding the
individual fold-width consumption because of the complex distribution and shape of the fold.
Folds produced at the center were at maximum height, whereas there is a gradual decrease in fold
height toward edges; no fold was observed on edges (as shown in Figure 3b). The reason for such
distribution is that the sample has space on edges to expand laterally, so edges show in-plane NPR
(width expansion).
Ali et al. 207

Figure 4. Comparison of air permeability of auxetic and nonauxetic fabric.

Air Permeability Testing

Air permeability refers to the porosity of the structure. Porosity is required for exchange of drug or
gases between body and environment. The air permeability of the AF was 182% more than the plain
(NAF), as shown in Figure 4. Additionally, the air permeability of AF under stretch was further
increased 50%, relative to relaxed conditions. Conversely, under stretch conditions, there was a
further 20% decrease in air permeability of NAF, relative to air permeability in a relaxed state.
Low air permeability or breathability of NAF is due to its compact structure, but the AF structure
has a combination of highly compact and loose structure. The loosely interlaced portion is majorly
responsible for the higher air permeability of the AF. Further decrease in porosity because of stretch
is due to the lateral shrinkage of NAF under stretch. On the other hand, a stretch in AF causes an
increase in surface area and the opening of pores. Lateral expansion and associated pore opening
under stretch further increase the air permeability of AF. Conclusively, the reorienting area (less
interlaced) majorly contributes to the higher permeability of AF under relaxed conditions, and the
lateral expansion in AF is the reason for the further increase in air permeability under stretched
conditions. Due to this smart nature, AFs can be considered potential candidates for (varying
porosity) smart filters and smart bandages.

Wicking and Moisture Absorption Rate Testing

The fabric used in medical or wearable applications has to interact with liquid drugs, body sweat,
and nutrients (in scaffolds); therefore, fabric interaction with fluids was studied. As the structure of
NAF was the same on both sides (top and bottom), its wetting time was also the same for both sides.
However, for AF, the wetting time was different for both sides (top and bottom), as shown in
Figure 5a. In-plane wicking (tested by comparing strip wetting height) was 1.5 times higher in
AF than NAF. It can be seen in Figure 5b that the water covered an average height of 550 mm and
220 mm in AF and NAF, respectively. Moreover, the AF has uniform wicking, whereas in NAF
some dry regions remained in the wicked portion (as highlighted in Figure 5b).
208 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

Figure 5. Comparison of wetting behavior (a), comparison of wetting time from top and bottom side of
auxetic fabric (AF) and nonauxetic fabric (NAF). (b) Comparison of wicking behavior (left nonauxetic and
right auxetic fabric).

Figure 6. Pores and groove formed in auxetic fabric structure.

The porous structure of the reorientation area facilitates the faster absorption of water
droplets. Fewer interlacements in these portions make the AF less jammed, so water droplets
are absorbed quickly, meaning a lower wetting time. Faster and more uniform wicking of AF is
mainly due to the S2 portion, as all the yarns are connected with each other in this portion. The
water droplet is hence wicked uniformly among all of the bundled yarns. Analyzing upward
wicking in the AF structure revealed that grooves formed by the connecting ribs (Figure 6)
portion have the strongest capillary action. Water or fluid is pulled up through this groove
initially and then distributed all over the structure through S2. In NAFs, yarns are straight, and
mutual interconnections of warp yarns are relatively less strong, which causes the nonuniform
and slower wicking of water.
Ali et al. 209

Figure 7. Cross-sectional view of auxetic fabric (a) tilted view, (b) STRAIGHT view.

Thermal Protection Testing

Protection from intense weather conditions is also one of the major roles of textiles (e.g., crepe
bandage). For such applications, a 20% higher Rct of the auxetic structure than normal plain-woven
structure is highly useful. Rct values for AF and NAF were .01668 and .01339, respectively.
Air pockets are formed in AF, as explained above. Bubbles/pockets hence formed in the fabric
(by S1) can trap air in it, as shown in Figure 7. Air, the best insulator, increases the thermal contact
resistance of AF. Other than S1, the S2 portion also plays its role in thermal protection by increasing
the thickness of fabric and stacking of warps. Due to such stacked structure, only S2 is in contact
with the heating plate, as can be seen in Figure 7. Due to the lesser area of contact, the lesser path
would be available for heat to flow/dissipate, thereby making AF more of a heat insulator. In NAF,
all surfaces of the fabric are in contact with the heating plate, so more heat is dissipated out, meaning
lower thermal resistance.

Circular Bending Stiffness or Formability Testing

The stiffness of fabric is correlated with its shapeability or formability. Formability is essentially
required when the fabric is used in wearable, plastering, and bandages for domed or complex-shaped
body parts. It is also an important factor in fabric sensorial comfort when the fabric is used in
common wearable garments. The stiffness of AF was 54 N/mm, whereas NAF showed 74 N/mm.
NAF showed 42% higher stiffness relative to AF, as shown in Figure 8.
The yarns of AF have bent alternatively in a zigzag path for adopting AHC geometry. As more
length is stored in such a zigzag bending of warp, the yarns of AF have greater elongation. But in
NAF, warp yarns are already straight (not bent); thus, they require higher force for further extension.
As higher force is required to circularly bend NAF, it has higher stiffness. Also, AF can expand
bidimensionally because of NPR, so it can easily bend circularly. On the other hand, NAF cannot
expand in both dimensions; thus, it requires higher force for circular bending, thereby showing
higher stiffness. Based on this test, it can be assumed that an AF-based garment will exert 42% less
pressure on the body during bending/body movements. Similarly, less pressure is developed on
swelling wounds, thus promoting a faster healing process.

Force Sensitivity Testing

Health monitoring and wearable sensors need a structure with high sensitivity. Deformation under
force and variation in resistance under force are plotted in Figure 9a, for both conductive ink-coated
210 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

Figure 8. Stiffness of auxetic and nonauxetic fabric.

AF and NAF. Testing was carried out in the range of 20 N force, as the same range of force is applied
in wearable applications. AF deforms 53% higher (on average) throughout the testing range.
Because of this higher deformation, AF showed higher sensitivity. Unlike deformation variation,
resistance variation is not uniform throughout the testing range. Initially, the difference in variation
of resistance for AF and NAF was not much higher, but this difference increases at higher deforma-
tion/force. Percentages of higher variation in resistance and deformation are given in Figure 9b.
Based on the results explained in Figure 9a, it can be concluded that AF and NAF have a sensitivity
of 3.3 and 1.0, respectively.
Yarns have high elongation when they are oriented in auxetic structure, as explained earlier. This
higher strain of AF under equal force is a major reason for its higher variation in resistance.
Normally, due to elongation, resistance in structures is increased; but for the fiber-level coated
fabrics, there is a decrease in the resistance. This is because of the increase in interfibers connections
under strain. In AFs, there is a lateral push on yarns (due to NPR), so higher interfiber connections
are developed. Higher contact between fibers/yarns thus produces a higher decrease in resistance.
The change in the resistance of NAF was negligible at higher stress because the NAF structure gets
jammed earlier.
A very high variation in resistance is not achieved here (unlike other works) because conductive
coating was applied at the fabric level. This could be due to the fact that the network is not broken in
a fabric-level coated nanoconductive network; hence, resistance is also not decreased, although there
was bidimensional expansion. If the conductive coating is applied over a highly flexible polymer-
coated AF, then a similar effect (like previous studies) can be achieved. In that case, it is expected
that the resistance of the conductive network will show a higher variation due to bidimensional
expansion under stress. By that process, further higher sensitivity can be achieved. The development
of such kind of sensors is currently in progress in our lab. Furthermore, AFs developed by this
technique have elastane yarns in the weft, so such fabrics can only be used for wearable and
Ali et al. 211

Figure 9. Force sensitivity results (a) strain and resistance variation in auxetic and nonauxetic fabrics under
force. (b) Percentage higher variation in strain and resistance under force for auxetic fabric.

elastomeric composite applications. Further work can be done in future on the development of AFs
without using elastane yarns, so that such AFs could be equally likely to be used in both wearable
and structural composite applications.

Applications of AFs
Most interestingly, AFs have potential applications in medical textiles (e.g., in controlled drug
delivery bandages, health monitoring sensors, compression garments, and grafts.) due to their smart
nature. Similarly, the higher energy absorption of AFs makes them attractive for designing athleisure
garments for games like racing, riding, and skating to ensure higher protection levels. Similarly, this
protection factor is also important in designing workwear garments for workers who handle glass or
212 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

other sharp objects. Performance of the AFs used for blastproof curtains can be enhanced by further
increasing auxeticity at the weaving level using our proposed weave design. Other than such high-
tech applications, AFs can have great potential for wearable applications. The easy domability of
AFs (due to their synclastic nature) can help in making complex-shaped body parts with fewer
seams, thereby increasing the garment’s comfort (as seams often decrease comfort). The ability of
AFs to better fit bodies is another important aspect in their use for fashion garments and complex-
shaped body parts (bra cups, caps, etc.). NPR makes it possible for AF-based garments to fit in
different sizes. This variable fitness makes AFs very attractive candidates for maternity dresses and
garments for growing children, as the fabric will remain fit for a longer time (it will expand in both
dimensions along with the growth of belly and body size).

Conclusion
2-D woven AF (single layer) was successfully developed and its auxetic nature is confirmed.
Auxeticity is induced in fabric due to the orientation of yarns in AHC geometry by utilizing
differential shrinking properties of different weaves. AF showed an NPR of 1 at initial strain,
which decreases at higher strains. The AF structure showed superior comfort properties as compared
to a conventional NAF structure. AF was 182% more air permeable with the additional benefit of
variable porosity (porosity increases under stretch). A 20% increase in thermal protection, wicking/
nutrients transport with uniformity, and higher speed were also observed in AF. AF has 42% less
circular bending stiffness and higher piezoresistive sensitivity against equal stress or force. This
novel fabric structure is comparatively more suitable than existing textile-based medical devices for
its flexible and comfortable nature, along with its smart nature (e.g., high sensitivity and variable
porosity, ease of doming along with swelling wounds). Woven AFs developed by this technique can
broaden the application areas of auxetic structures, thanks to their stability and ease of
manufacturing.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or pub-
lication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author Biographies
Mumtaz Ali is a PhD student in the Department of Organic and Nano Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul,
South Korea. He got his master in Advanced Materials engineering and graduation in Textile Engineering from
National Textile University, Faisalabad Pakistan. His research focuses on wearable electronics, composite
materials, and wearable solar cells.
Muhammad Zeeshan is currently serving as lab engineer in the Department of Fabric Manufacturing.
Recently, he completed his masters in Advanced Materials Engineering from National Textile University,
Faisalabad. His research focuses on the mechanical characterization of hybrid composite materials, bulletproof
composites, and thermal protective textiles.

Sheraz Ahmad is an assistant professor at the National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. He has PhD in
Textile Engineering with focus on textile materials from Université de Haute Alsace France. He is working as
an assistant professor at National Textile University since October 2012, and doing research on textile fibers,
conductive yarn, and natural fiber reinforced composites.
Bilal Qadir is an assistant professor in Department of Yarn Manufacturing at the National Textile University.
He got Master and Bachelors of Textile Engineering from National Textile University and PhD in Department
of Organic and Nano Engineering from Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea. His research focuses on
flexible solar cells, functional nanomaterials, and nanotextiles.
Yasir Nawab did his PhD in Mechanical Engineering, with focus on composite materials from University de
Nantes, France, has experience of working with known European industries dealing with composite materials
214 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(3)

and ONERA (The French Aerospace Lab). Currently working as an assistant professor, teaching undergraduate,
MS, and PhD-level classes and doing research on 2-D, 3-D textile fabrics, finite element analysis, and compo-
site materials.
Aima Sameen Anjum is a PhD student in the Department of Organic and Nano Engineering, Hanyang
University, Seoul, South Korea. She got her Master in Advanced Materials engineering and graduation in
Textile Engineering from National Textile University, Faisalabad Pakistan. Her current research focuses on
water-proof breathable coating for outdoor fabrics.
Rabia Riaz is a PhD student in the Department of Organic and Nano Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul,
South Korea. She got her Master and graduation in Textile Engineering from National Textile University,
Faisalabad Pakistan. Her current research focuses on the eco-friendly energy-down shifting quantum dots for
solar cell applications.