Reviewer – Advance Science

The Cell Theory

- The cell is the smallest unit of life
- All organisms are composed of one or more cells
- New cells arise from previously existing cells
The Nature of Cells
Each cell has 4 common components:
1. Plasma membrane
2. Region containing DNA
3. Cytoplasm
4. Biochemical molecules and biochemical pathways
Cell Diversity
Epithelial cells - protects your organs
Fibroblasts
Macrophage – fights diseases
Fat cells – stores energy/nutrients

Two Fundamental Types of Cells:

Prokariotic – no nucleus
- No organelles
- Small 100 nm-5um
Eukaryotic – true nucleus
- Membrane bound organelles
- Some are larger

Kingdom Eubacteria
Prokaryotes – true nucleus
- No membrane-bound organelles
- Cell wall composed of peptidoglycan
- Reproduce asexually by budding and fission
- Very small (1-10 um)

Kingdom Archaebacteria
Prokaryotes – no true nucleus
- No membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria or chloroplasts
- No peptidoglycan in cell wall
- Reproduce asexually by budding and fission
- Very small (1-10 um)
- Extreme environments (high temperatures)

Prokaryotic cells
- Nucleoid – nucleus
- Flagella – tale
- Cytoplasm – fluid inside
- Ribosomes
- Pili
Eukaryotes
- True nucleus
- Membrane-bound organelles
- Cell size generally 10-100 um
- At least 4 lineages: Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia
Eukaryotic cells
Nucleus parts:
- Nuclear envelope
- Chromatin
- Nucleolus

Plasma Membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Working model of the membrane
- Protein molecules bobbing in phospholipid sea
- Proteins determine membrane’s specific functions

Structure of the Cell Membrane

- Phospholipids
- Most abundant lipid
- Polar/hydrophilic head (attracted to water)
- Pair of nonpolar/hydrophobic tails (repelled by water)

Phospholipid bilayer:
- Polar heads, outside and inside
- Nonpolar tails in the interior
- Cell membranes
- Nucleus – control center of cell. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Helps move substances within cells
- Network of interconnected membranes
- Two Types: rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Rough endoplasmic reticulum – ribosomes attached to surface
- Manufacture proteins
- Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER
- May modify proteins from ribosomes
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- No attached ribosomes
- Has enzymes that help build molecules
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
Ribosomes – some are bound to the ER while others are free or suspended in the cytosol. They are
composed of two subunits, large subunits and small subunits.
- The bound ribosomes make secretory proteins while the free ribosomes produce proteins that
are localized in the cytosol
Mitochondria – have their own DNA
- Bound by double membrane
- Breakdown fuel molecules (cellular respiration)
- Glucose - fatty acid
- Release energy
- ATP
Golgi apparatus
- Receives substances from ER, refines and packages them
Lysosomes
- Contains digestive enzymes
Functions
- Aid in cell renewal
- Breakdown old cell parts
- Digest invaders
Cilia and flagella
- Provide motility
Cilia – short, used to move substances outside human cells
- Flagella – whip-like extensions – found on sperm cells
- Basal bodies like centrioles
Cilia and flagella structure
- Bundles of microtubules
- With plasma membrane

Cell division
- In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two major stages.
- The first stage, division of the cell nucleus is called mitosis.
- The second stage, division of the cell cytoplasm, is called cytokinesis.
Cell Cycle
- The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide
- Interphase – is the period of growth that occurs between cell division
- Cells spend most of its life in this phase
During the Cell Cycle
1. A Cell grows
2. Prepares for division
3. Divides to form two daughter cells, each of which begins the cycle again.

Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of 4 phases:
G1 (First Gap Phase)
S Phase
G2 (Second Gap Phase)
M Phase
Events of the cell cycle
During G1, the cell
a. Increases in size (cell grows)
b. Synthesizes new proteins and organelles (cell develops)
During the S phase (DNA replication)
- Chromosomes are replicated
- DNA synthesis takes place
Once a cell enters the S phase, it usually completes the rest of the cell cycle
G2 phase (second gap phase)
- Organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced
Once G2 is complete, the cell is ready to start the M phase – mitosis

Vacuole –a small space in animal cell containing air sap, waste substances and water gather in this cavity
in one-called organisms from which they are passed out.
Ciliary movement – (directions of organism’s movement) – direction of active stroke - direction of
recovery stroke

Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Mitosis – the process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells from a single
parent cell
- The daughter cells are identical to one another and to the original aprent cell
Mitosis can be divided into stages:
- Interphase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase and cytokinesis
Cytokinesis – where the chromosomes are being split ready to be parent cell
Interphase – the cell prepares for division
- Animal cell – irregular shaped, DNA replicated, organelles replicated, cells increases in size
- Plant cell - regular shaped, DNA replicated, organelles replicated, cells increases in size
Prophase – the cell prepares for nuclear division
- Animal cell – packages DNA into chromosomes
- Plant cell - packages DNA into chromosomes
Metaphase – the cell prepares chromosomes for division
- Animal Cell – chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
- Spindle fiber attach from daughter cells to chromosomes at the centromere
- Plant cell - chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
- Spindle fiber attach from daughter cells to chromosomes at the centromere
Anaphase – the chromosomes divide
- Animal cell and Plant cell – spindle fiber pull chromosomes apart
- ½ of each chromosome (called chromatid) moves to each daughter cell
Telophase – the cytoplasm divides
- Animal cell – DNA spreads out
- 2 nuclei form
- Cell wall pinches in to form the 2 new daughter cells
- Plant cell – DNA spreads out
- 2 nuclei form
- new cell wall forms between nuclei to form the new 2 daughter cells
Meiosis – is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are produced.
- One parent cell produces four daughter cells
- Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes found in the original parent cell
During meiosis, DNA replicates once, but the nucleus divides twice

Four Stages of Meiosis

Meiosis 1: First division of meiosis
Prophase 1: Each chromosomes duplicates and remains closely associated. These are called sister
chromatids.
Metaphase 1: Chromosomes align at the center of the cell
Anaphase 1: chromosome pairs separate with sister chromatids remaining together
Telophase 1: two daughter cells are formed with each other containing only one chromosome of the
chromosome pair.

Second Division of Meiosis

Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate
Metaphase 2: Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids move separately to each pole
Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid daughter cells are formed

Prophase 1
Early Prophase 1: The chromatin begins to condense following interphase
Middle Prophase 1: Synapsis aligns homologous and chromosomes shorten
- Chiasmata become evident
Late Prophase 1: Coiling and shortening of the chromosomes continue
Metaphase 1: chromosomes line up on the equatorial (metaphase) plate
Anaphase 1: The homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase 1: The chromosomes gather into nuclei and the original cell divides

Second Division of Meiosis

Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate
Metaphase 2: Chromosomes lined up at the center of the cell
Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids move separately to each pole
Telophase 2: cell division is complete
Four haploid daughter cells are formed.

Prophase II –
- The chromosomes condense again, following a brief interphase in which DNA does not replicate
Metaphase II – kinetochores of the paired chromatids line up across the equator of each cell
Anaphase II – the chromatids of the chromosomes finally separate becoming chromosomes in their own
right, and are pulled to opposite pole
Telophase II – the chromosomes gather into nuclei, and the cells divide. Each of the four cells has a
nucleus with a haploid number of chromosomes
Differences in Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
- Asexual - sexual
- Cell divides once - cell divides twice
- Two daughter cells - four haploid daughter cells
- Genetic information is identical - genetic information is different

Microscopes Basics
Microscopes – magnifies objects (makes objects look bigger)
- Help scientists study objects and living things too small to see with the naked eye
Microscope history
1665 – English physicist, Robert Hooke looked at a silver cork through a microscope lens and noticed
some “pores” or cells in it.

Microscope Care
- Always carry with 2 hands
- Never touch the lenses with your fingers
- Only use lens paper for cleaning
- Keep objects clear of desk and cords
- When you are finished with your scope, rotate the nose piece so that it is on the low power
objective, roll the stage down to lowest level, rubber band the cord, then replace the dust cover.

3 Types of Microscopes
1. Simple microscope – has only 1 lens
2. Compound microscope – has 2 sets of lenses. It ca magnify things 100-200 times larger than
they really are
3. Electron microscope – can magnify objects up to 300,000 times. They do not use lenses, but use
electrons to enlarge the image

Parts of a Microscope
1. Ocular (lens) eyepiece
- The lens of the microscope that you look through
2. Coarse adjustment – the large knob on the microscope that you turn to bring the object into
focus
3. Fine adjustment – the small knob on the microscope that brings the image into focus
4. Arm – supporting the body tube
5. Body tube – holds the nosepiece
6. Nose piece – the part at the bottom of the body tube that holds the objective lenses and allows
them to be turned
7. High power objective lens – the lens that magnifies the object the greatest amount (usually 40x)
8. Lower power (scanner) objective lens – the lens that magnifies the object the least amount
(usually used to find the object; magnifies only 3x or 4x)
9. Middle power objective lens – the lens that usually magnifies the object more than the scanner
lens but less than the high power lens (usually 10x to 20x)
10. Stage – the flat part below the objective lens where the slide is placed
11. Clip – the part that holds the slide in place so it doesn’t move
12. Diaphragm – the part that controls the amount of light entering the field view
 13. Light source – the lamp (or mirror) under the stage that sends light through the object being
viewed
14. Base – the bottom part that supports the rest of the microscope

Field of view – is the area (circle) that you see when looking through the eyepiece

Comparing Powers of Magnification

- We can see better details with higher the powers of magnification, but we cannot see as much
of the image.

What’s my power?
- To calculate the power of magnification, multiply the power of the ocular lens by the power of
the objective

Calculating Magnification
1. Find the power of the lens. It is found on the side of the lens. Magnification power of a lens is
always identified by the label of X (10X, 1000X)
2. Multiply the power of the eyepiece by the power of the objective lens
3. Example
Eyepiece Objective Lens
10X times 100x
10x times 50X
10x times 40x

Appearance of the Specimen – objects appear upside down and backward

- Movement appear to be in opposite direction than actual movement
- Move slide – slide appears to move

Using the Microscope

- The proper way to focus a microscope is to start with the lowest power objective lens first and
while looking from the side, crank the lens down as close to the specimen as possible without
touching it. Now, look through the eyepiece lens and focus upward only until the image is sharp.
If you can’t get in focus, repeat the process again.
- Once the image is sharp with the low power lens, you should be able to