EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

OBJECTIVE: - Verification of Bernoulli’s Equation.

STATEMENT: - Bernoulli’s equation states that in a steady irrotational flow of an
incompressible liquid, the total energy at any point is constant.
THEORY: -
Bernoulli’s equation which is applicable for steady, irrotational flow of incompressible
fluid is given as:-
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔
Each term in this equation represents the energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid.
The energy per unit weight of the fluid is expressed as N-m i.e. it has dimensions of length
and therefore it is known as head. The term (p / γ) is known as pressure head. Also, this term
has a significant meaning as it denotes the work done by the system against the pressure
acting on the system. (v2/2g) = velocity head or kinetic head z = Datum head. The sum of the
pressure head and potential head i.e. ((p / γ) + z) is known as piezometric head. The sum of
pressure head, velocity head and datum head in a fluid flow is called as the total head or total
energy per unit weight of the fluid.

VALIDITY OF BENOULLI’S THEOREM: -

• Valid for a steady flow.
• The fluid must be incompressible or in other words the density of the fluid must remain
constant throughout the flow.
• The fluid is assumed to be an ideal fluid. In real life situations the modified Bernoulli’s
equation is used which incorporates for the head loss due to friction.
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
• The Bernoulli’s Theorem is valid for both rotational and irrotational flow. But for an
irrotational flow it is valid only along the streamline whereas in a rotational flow the
theorem holds good everywhere.

APPARATUS: -
The apparatus consists of a supply tank and a delivery tank connected by a transparent
Perspex pipe (which is a solid transparent plastic made of polymethyl methacrylate) of
variable cross-sectional area. Eleven piezometric tubes are connected on the top of the
transparent pipe at the distance of 75mm centre to centre. Valves are provided for supply and
delivery tank to control the discharge at overflow pipe. A cock is provided to drain the water
when apparatus is not in use.
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

Fig.1 BERNOULLI’S APPARATUS

PROCEDURE: -
1. Start the flow in the supply tank with outlet valve close till overflow starts.
2. Adjust inlet, outlet flow valves till a steady state is reached. This will ensure a steady
non-uniform flow (since the conduit has a non-uniform cross-section.) through the
conduit.
3. Measure piezometric heads in all piezometers from top of the datum. The datum head
is considered to be constant throughout the conduit.
4. Measure the discharge through apparatus. This is done by measuring the time taken for
the fluid to get collected in the collection tank up to a certain height/depth.
5. Determine the total energy of the flow as sum of piezometric head and velocity head.

OBSERVATIONS: -
a) Discharge Measurement: -

Size of collecting Tank : 40cm x 40cm

Area of Collecting Tank : 1600 cm2
Depth of Collecting Tank : 15 cm
Time of Water Collection : 24000 cm3
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

b) Discharge and Head Calculations: -

RUN 1
Distance 𝑷
Q Area v V^2/2g +z Total
from U/S 𝜸
(cm3/sec) (cm2) (m/sec) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
7.5 625.41 14.67 0.426319 0.92634 29 29.92634

15 625.41 13.33 0.469175 1.121942 28.6 29.72194

22.5 625.41 12 0.521175 1.384421 28.3 29.68442

30 625.41 10.67 0.586139 1.751063 27.6 29.35106

37.5 625.41 9.33 0.670322 2.290168 26.8 29.09017

45 625.41 8 0.781763 3.114947 25.7 28.81495

52.5 625.41 9.33 0.670322 2.290168 26.5 28.79017

60 625.41 10.67 0.586139 1.751063 27 28.75106

67.5 625.41 12 0.521175 1.384421 27.3 28.68442

75 625.41 13.33 0.469175 1.121942 27.5 28.62194

RUN 2
Distance 𝑷
Q Area v V^2/2g +z Total
from U/S 𝜸
(cm3/sec) (cm2) (m/sec) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
7.5 568.81 14.67 0.387737 0.766258 30.2 30.96626

15 568.81 13.33 0.426714 0.928058 29.9 30.82806

22.5 568.81 12 0.474008 1.145178 29.6 30.74518

30 568.81 10.67 0.533093 1.44846 29.1 30.54846

37.5 568.81 9.33 0.609657 1.894402 28.4 30.2944

45 568.81 8 0.711013 2.57665 27.5 30.07665

52.5 568.81 9.33 0.609657 1.894402 28.2 30.0944

60 568.81 10.67 0.533093 1.44846 28.5 29.94846

67.5 568.81 12 0.474008 1.145178 28.6 29.74518

75 568.81 13.33 0.426714 0.928058 28.8 29.72806

RUN 3
Distance 𝑷
Q Area v V^2/2g +z Total
from U/S 𝜸
(cm3/sec) (cm2) (m/sec) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
7.5 633.75 14.67 0.432004 0.951211 22.6 23.55121

15 633.75 13.33 0.475431 1.152064 22.3 23.45206

22.5 633.75 12 0.528125 1.42159 21.6 23.02159

30 633.75 10.67 0.593955 1.798076 21 22.79808

37.5 633.75 9.33 0.67926 2.351655 20.4 22.75166

45 633.75 8 0.792188 3.198578 19.5 22.69858

52.5 633.75 9.33 0.67926 2.351655 20 22.35166

60 633.75 10.67 0.593955 1.798076 20.5 22.29808

67.5 633.75 12 0.528125 1.42159 20.8 22.22159

75 633.75 13.33 0.475431 1.152064 21.2 22.35206

 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

RUN 1
31
30
29
28
27
26
25 LEGEND
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

p/w +z Total Head (cm)

RUN 2
31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5
29
28.5
28
27.5
27 LEGEND
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

p/w +z Total Head (cm)

RUN 3
25

20

15

10

0 LEGEND
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

p/w +z Total Head (cm)

CONCLUSION:
This experiment shows that there is a significant effect of head loss due to friction and other minor
losses that causes a declining trend in total head measurements. Thus, it proves that the Modified
Bernoulli’s Equation is more acceptable and valid.
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

LAB QUESTIONS: -
1. What are the limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem?
• Steady Flow: The Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to steady flow.
• Fluid is considered inviscid (i.e. Friction is ignored). Every flow involves some
friction and frictional effects may not always be negligible. Bernoulli’s equation does
not consider frictional losses.
• No shaft work: The Bernoulli’s equation is not valid in case of a flow section that
involves a pump, turbine, fan or any other machine or impeller since it destroys the
streamlines and carry out interactions with the fluid particle. When these conditions
exist in the flow the energy equation must be used instead.
• Applicable only for incompressible flow: Fluid Density is taken to be constant in the
derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem. Although in most common liquids such as water are
nearly incompressible, the Bernoulli’s equation is invalid for flows of fluid with Mach
Number less than 0.3
• Flow along the streamline: The Bernoulli’s equation is applicable along a streamline.
However, when a region of flow is irrotational and there is negligibly small vorticity
in the flow field Bernoulli’s equation becomes applicable across the streamlines as
well.
• No heat transfer: The density of gas is inversely proportional to temperature and
hence the Bernoulli’s equation should not be used for flow sections that involve
significant temperature changes such as heating or cooling sections.

2. Where is Bernoulli’s Theorem used? Give examples.

• We can find velocity of Efflux of a liquid. This is given by 𝑉 = √2𝑔𝐻 where liquid
is coming out from a hole in a vessel at depth h from free liquid surface. This equation
is known as Torricelli's theorem.

• Vena Contracta: The liquid jet from hole contracts at a distance little outside the hole to a
neck, called Vena Contracta. The area of cross section of jet is smaller than area of hole.
From this fact we can find the coefficient of contraction.

• Bernoulli's principle is used in the construction of venturi meter, an instrument for

measurement of amount of flow of a liquid through a pipe.

• Pilot Tube which is a device to measure amount of liquid flowing through a pipe is based
on Bernoulli's principle.

• Bernoulli's principle is used in the steam injector, filter pump, in the experiment of attracted
disc paradox, Bunsen - Burner, in explaining the Magnus effect, in deciding the cylindrical
shape of bullet and preparing stream line bodies.
3. Practically the total head of liquid at a point does not constant during the flow, Why?
As the flow occur along the pipe, there is losses due to friction, bends, contraction, expansion
etc. Sometimes there is also eddy losses which lead to loss of head.
4. The liquid level in the piezometric tube connected to minimum cross-sectional area is lowest,
why?
As per Bernoulli’s theorem, the total head is sum of pressure head, datum head, and velocity
head. As the area of cross section decreases, there is increase in velocity which leads to increase in
velocity head. This cause pressure head decreases which lead to fall of liquid in piezometric tube.
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

5. Why is water level in various piezometric tube different?

As the area of cross section decrease, there is increase in velocity leads to increase in velocity
head. This subsequently make the low level of water level in piezometer. The head loss is also a
reason for the water level in piezometer to be different.
6. State one practical application of Bernoulli’s Theorem.
Bernoulli’s equation can be seen But at sections 1 and 2:
in day to day life. It is used by a V1=V2=0 and z1=0 at section 1
gardener: A gardener presses the (Considering the outlet as
hose with his hands in order to spray datum)
water to plants. He does this to Hence, the pressure at out let is
increase the pressure of water that given by:
comes out of the hose. 𝑃1 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
= + 𝑧2
In the figure shown aside applying 𝛾 𝛾
Bernoulli’s Theorem we get, It can be seen that pressure at
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 outlet is increased. Some other
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 applications are in drawing
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Fluids Upward: Atomizers and
Chimneys, perfumes etc.

7. What is the observation in this experiment with reference to pressure and velocity?
𝑷 𝑷
This experiment shows that as pressure V^2/2g 𝜸
+z (~ )
𝜸
increases the velocity decreases and vice-versa. (cm) (cm)
For example, let us consider the velocity head 0.92634 29
and piezometric head in RUN 1. Assuming that 1.121942 28.6
the datum head is zero, it denotes the pressure 1.384421 28.3
head.
1.751063 27.6
The values of piezometric head and velocity
2.290168 26.8
head for RUN 1 are given aside. Comparing the
values of velocity head and piezometric head it 3.114947 25.7
can be observed that as velocity head increases 2.290168 26.5
piezometric head (i.e. assumed as pressure 1.751063 27
head) decreases from 29 to 27.5 meters. 1.384421 27.3
1.121942 27.5

8. What is the head loss between Piezometer 1 and 6?

Head loss is obtained as the difference in Total head in piezometer 1 and 6. The head loss
between piezometric tube 1 and 6 is obtained as follows: -
RUN 1 29.926 – 28.810 = 1.116m
RUN 2 30.966 – 30.076 = 0.890m
RUN 3 23.551 – 22.698 = 0.853m
9. What do you mean by piezometric head?
The sum of datum (or) elevation head and pressure head is called as piezometric head or
hydraulic head. The pressure head or the static head, is a term primarily used in Hydraulics to denote
the static pressure in a pipe, channel, or duct flow. It has the physical dimensions of length (hence the
term "head") and represents the flow-work per unit weight of fluid. In practice the static head is
equivalent to the vertical distance from a given stream-tube to the piezometric head line or the
hydraulic gradient line. If P is the pressure in a stream-tube, the static head is defined by P/ρg.
𝑷
Mathematically, the piezometric head can be written as: 𝜸 +z.
The grade line position of the piezometric head is called the hydraulic gradient line or H.G.L
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

10. Draw H.G.L and T.E.L.

RUN 1 RUN 2
32 32
30 30
28
26 28
24 26
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80

p/w +z Total Head (cm) p/w +z Total Head (cm)

RUN 3
25
20
15 LEGEND
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80

p/w +z Total Head (cm)

11. What is meant by stagnation pressure?

Stagnation pressure is defined as the pressure experienced by the fluid when it is brought to
rest. It can be viewed as if the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid is converted into pressure as a
consequence of the fluid being brought to rest.
Consider the application of the Bernoulli’s equation for the flow about a bluff or a streamlined
body such as a sphere or an aeroplane (as shown in Figure.).

Let rs be a streamline that passes through the stagnation point of the flow, i.e., the point where
the flow is brought to rest or the point where the velocity is zero. Applying the Bernoulli equation
along rs we have,
𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22 𝜌𝑉𝑠2
𝑝1 + = 𝑝2 + = ⋯ = ⋯ = 𝑝𝑠 +
2 2 2
where 𝑝𝑠 and Vs are the pressure and velocity at the point s. It is known that Vs= 0. Therefore,
𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
𝑝1 + = 𝑝2 + = ⋯ = ⋯ = 𝑝𝑠
2 2
where 𝑝𝑠 is referred to as Stagnation Pressure. It can be noted that the stagnation pressure is
the maximum pressure experienced by the fluid. It becomes a very convenient constant for the
Bernoulli’s Equation for aerodynamics flows. The term "p" is the pressure seen by the moving fluid
and is referred to as Static Pressure.
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

12. What are the assumptions made in Bernoulli’s equation derivation?

The assumptions of Bernoulli’s Theorem are as follows: -
1) The flow is steady,
2) The fluid is incompressible (i.e. density () is a constant),
3) The equation is applied along a streamline, and
4) The effects of shear stress are negligible (i.e. negligible flow resistance).
This assumption is waived off in modified Bernoulli’s equation.

13. What are the applications of Bernoulli’s equation?

The applications of Bernoulli’s equation are as follows: -
a) Discharge/Flow measuring devices:
- Venturi meter
- Orifice meter
- Pitot tube
VENTURIMETER ORIFICEMETER
Applying Bernoulli’s Theorem at section 1 and 2: - Let d1= Diameter of section 1
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 P1= Pressure at section 1
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 V1= Velocity at section 1
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 A1= Area at section 1
= − 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 The above parameters with subscript 2 denote the same parameter value at
2𝑔 𝛾 section 2.
where, 𝛾 is the specific weight of the liquid flowing through the venturi- Applying Bernoulli’s Theorem at section 1 and 2: -
meter. 𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
From continuity equation, + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
2 2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑃2
= ( + 𝑧1 ) − ( − 𝑧2 )
𝐴 𝑉 2 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑉2 2 − ( 𝐴2 2 ) 𝑃1 𝑃2
2𝑔
1
= ( + 𝑧1 ) − ( − 𝑧2 )
𝛾 𝛾
𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2
2
=ℎ
𝑉22 𝐴 𝑃 𝑃
(1 − (𝐴2 ) ) = ( 𝛾1 + 𝑧1 ) − ( 𝛾2 − 𝑧2 ) 2𝑔
2𝑔 1

𝑉2 = (√2𝑔ℎ + 𝑉1 2 )

In the above equation we can substitute: Where h is the differential head.

𝑃1 𝑃2 Let, A0= Area at orifice
( + 𝑧1 ) − ( − 𝑧2 ) = ℎ1∗ − ℎ2∗ 𝐴
𝛾 𝛾 Coefficient of contraction is: 𝐶𝑐 = 2
𝐴0
𝑉2 2 𝐴2 2 From Continuity equation we have,
(1 − ( ) ) = ℎ1∗ − ℎ2∗
2𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
1 𝐴0 𝐶𝑐 𝑉2
𝑉2 = (√2𝑔(ℎ1∗ − ℎ2∗ )) 𝑉1 =
2
𝐴1
√1 − (𝐴2 ) 𝐴0 𝐶𝑐 𝑉2 2 (√2𝑔ℎ)
𝐴1
𝑉2 = (√2𝑔ℎ + ( ) )=
Hence, the rate of flow through the venturi-meter is given by: 𝐴1 2
𝐴2 √1 − (𝐴0 𝐶𝑐 )
𝑄= (√2𝑔(ℎ1∗ − ℎ2∗ )) 𝐴1
2 Thus discharge through the orifice is given by:
√1 − (𝐴2 )
𝐴1 𝐴0 𝐶𝑐 (√2𝑔ℎ)
𝑄=
Actual discharge can be obtained by multiplying the above equation with 2
CD which is known as coefficient of discharge. √1 − (𝐴0 𝐶𝑐 )
𝐴1

PITOT TUBE
Let H= Depth of tube immersed in fluid Therefore, 𝑉1 = √2𝑔ℎ
h = Depth if tube above the fluid
P1= Pressure at section 1 Hence the Actual velocity is given by:
V1= Velocity at section 1
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ
P2= Pressure at section 2
V2= Velocity at section 2
Applying Bernoulli’s Theorem at section 1 and 2: -
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, = 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐻+ℎ
𝛾 𝛾
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 0
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡:
𝑉1 2
𝐻+ = 𝐻+ℎ
2𝑔
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

b) Application in Pumps
- Volute casing in pumps
- Sizing of Pumps
VOLUTE CASING IN PUMPS SIZING OF PUMPS
Volute in the casing Bernoulli’s Theorem is
of centrifugal pumps used in designing the
converts velocity of parts of the pumps.
fluid into pressure The dimensions of the
energy by increasing absorber tank, storage
the area of flow. tank etc. are fixed
The conversion of using Bernoulli’s
K.E into pressure is Theorem.
according to the
Bernoulli’s equation

c) Ejectors
Ejectors are designed to convert the pressure energy of a moving fluid to velocity energy of a
motivating fluid to kinetic energy to entrain suction of the fluid and then to recompress the mixed
fluids by converting velocity energy back into pressure energy.
d) Carburettors
The carburettor works on Bernoulli’s Principle. The faster the air moves, the lower is its static
pressure, and higher is its dynamic pressure. The throttle linkage directly does not control the
flow of liquid fuel. Instead it actuates the carburettor mechanism which meter the flow of air
being pulled into the engine.
e) Siphon
It is the most widely phenomena which you
can see around yours in real time. When you suck
the end of the pipe, due to suction there is a
vacuum created and the pressure gets low. This
reduced pressure at the top means gravity pulling
down on the shorter column of liquid is not
sufficient to keep the liquid stationary against the
atmospheric pressure pushing it up into the
reduced pressure zone at the top of the siphon.
So, the liquid flows from the higher-pressure
area of the upper reservoir, up to the lower
pressure zone at the top of the siphon, over the top,
and then with the help of gravity and a taller
column of liquid, down to the higher-pressure zone
at the exit

f) Air flight/Lift
In an airplane wing, the top of the wing is somewhat curved, while the bottom of the wing is
totally flat. While in the sky, air travels across both the top and the bottom concurrently. Because
both the top part and the bottom part of the plane are designed differently, this allows for the air
on the bottom to move slower, which creates more pressure on the bottom, and allows for the air
on the top to move faster, which creates less pressure. This is what creates lift, which allows
planes to fly.
 EXPERIMENT-1 BERNOULL’S EQUATION

g) Spinning of Cricket/Baseball/Football
Observe the figure carefully.
1. The air travels faster relative to the centre of the ball
where the periphery of the ball is moving in the same
direction as the airflow (left). This reduces the pressure,
according to Bernoulli's principle.
2. The pressure increases on the other side of the ball,
where the air travels slower relative to the centre of the ball
(right).
There is therefore an imbalance in the forces, and the ball
deflects in the same sense as the spin - from bottom right
to top left.

h) Draft
We all at at-least one time or another, have experienced feeling a draft. It is because of
Bernoulli's principle that we feel this draft. Let's say that in your room, you are feeling really hot,
but you know that it is nice and cool both outside your window and outside your door. If you open
up your window, to try and let fresh air in, there won't be much of a temperature change, unless
the door to your room is open to let out the hot air. The reason why it works this way is that if the
front door is closed the door will become an area of high pressure built up from the hot air, and
right outside the door there is little pressure, meaning that the rate at which the air enters will be
in an incredibly high speed. When you open the door, the pressure is relieved from the door on
the inside and the hot air exits quickly. When the hot air exits there is a lot more pressure outside
which will take a while for the cool air to come in. Once the hot air has flown out, the cool air
will come in at a fast speed, thus causing a draft.

i) Sailing
Bernoulli's principle is also the governing theory behind sailing. Most people believe that
sailing is just having a big sail and that when you put it up, the wind just takes your boat and drags
it along the sea. This is not correct. This is true only in the cases when the boat is moving with
the wind, otherwise it is not true.
When the boat does not travel in the direction of the wind, it usually moves perpendicular to
the wind, and the boat moves not because the wind drags it along, but because of the concept of
lift which is same as in the case of airplanes. This is what happens when either a liquid or a gas
hits on an object.
The same way the Bernoulli's principle works for creating lift in airplanes, it works for
creating lift in sails. All sail boats have two parts to it: a sail which points north and a keel which
points on the opposite direction. If the speed of the air increases on the sail, there is less pressure
on the sail, and conversely there is less pressure on the keel but a higher speed. Just like with an
airplane this produces lift and propels the sail to move in the water.
SUBMITTED BY
SHAILESH
&
SWETHA PADMANABHAN