Plant-Microbe Interactions

Rhizosphere is the region where soil and roots of the plants make contact or the thin layer of soil adhering to a root
system after shaking and removing the loose soil.

Rhizosheath is a modification of rhizosphere, characterised. by a relatively thick soil cylinder that adheres to the plant
roots. This is typical of some desert grasses.

Rhizoplane or root surface When the roots are cleaned of all the soil particles adhering to it and then plated,
microorganisms can be seen developing indicating that there are certain microbes intimately associated with the root
surface. Some fungi inhabit the root surface in a mycelial state, e.g. Cephalosporium, Trichoderma, Penicillium. Specific
bacteria also get embedded on the surface of the root with the help of mucilaginous external layer normally present in
the actively growing root system.

Rhizosphere effect

The direct influence of plant roots on microbes and microbes on plant roots within the rhizosphere is known as the
rhizosphere effect.

Effect of Plant Root on Microbial Populations

The structure of the plant root system contributes to the establishment of the rhizosphere microbial population. The
interactions of plant roots and rhizosphere microorganisms are based largely on interactive modification of the soil
environment by processes such as water uptake by the plant and release of organic chemicals by the roots. The
influence of the plant root on the microflora is governed by root exudates , physical and chemical factors in the soil

Effect of root exudates

This is the major factor that governs the microflora of the rhizosphere. The root exudates include:

Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose

Di, tri and oligo saccharides
All common amino acids - alanine, serine, leucine, valine, glutamic and asparitic acids. Of these, glutamine and
asparagine are produced in large amounts.
Vitamin ¾thiamine and biotin
Nucleotides
Flavones and auxins
Stimulators / inhibitors of particular microbes

All these root exudates have an effect on the rhizosphere microflora. Some of the root exudates like the amino acids,
promote the growth of microflora of the rhizosphere.

Some nitrogen fixers such as Azospirillum, Azotobacter paspali use the root exudates as the energy source for
significant nitrogen fixation.
Thus there is a distinct selective influence of the root system over the microbes. For example, there is a preferential
stimulation of gram negative non-spore forming rods in the root region.

Root exudates contaihing toxic substances such as glycosides and hydrocyanic acid may inhibit the growth of
pathogens.

Effect of plant growth on rhizosphere microflora

The rhizosphere microflora may undergo successional changes as the plant grows from seed germination to maturity.
During plant development, a distinct rhizosphere succession results in rapidly growing, growth factor-requiring,
opportunistic microbial population. These successional changes correspond to changes in the materials released by the
plant root to the rhizosphere during plant maturation.

Initially, carbohydrate and mucilaginous exudates from plant roots stimulate the growth of microorganisms rapidly
within the grooves on the root surface and within the mucilaginous sheath (rhizoplane). After the plant matures,
autolysis of some of the root materials take place and simple sugars and amino acids are released into the soil. This
further stimulates the growth of bacteria with high intrinsic growth rates, e.g. Pseudomonas. As a result of these
effects, the rhizosphere microflora consists of higher proportion of gram negative rods and a lower proportion of gram
positive rods, cocci and pleomorphic forms. A relatively higher proportion of motile, rapidly growing bacteria are also
seen.

Effect of Rhizosphere Microbial Population on Plants

The microorganisms have a marked influence on the growth of plants. The plant growth may be impaired due to the
absence of appropriate rhizosphere microflora. The microbial population affect the plant growth in various ways:

Promotion of growth
This is brought about by the release of growth factors like auxins and gibberellins that promote plant growth. The
organisms which release these growth factor include Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas and Agrobacterium. The production
of indole acetic acid (IAA), a plant growth hormone by certain group of microorganisms increases the rate of seed
germination and development of root hairs. This is seen in wheat seedlings.

Neutralisation of toxic substances

This is seen in the case of plants that grow in flooded sediments, e.g. rice plants and other partially submerged plants.
In this case, there is production of hydrogen sulphide generated by the sulphate reduction pathway. This hydrogen
sulphide is toxic to the plant roots, and this is neutralised by the bacteria Beggiatoa. This is a microaerophilic, catalase
negative, sulphide oxidising filamentous bacterium. This acquires the oxygen and catalase enzyme from the rice plant
and aids in the oxidation of toxic H2S to harmless sulphur or sulphate, thus protecting the rice roots

Allelopathic effect

Some substances being released by the microbes can have an antagonistic effect. This may allow plants to enter in
amensalic relationship with other plants. Some substances or extracellular products of certain microorganisms lead to
the growth of other kinds of microorganisms that can provide a better rhizosphere microflora. These extracellular
products can also inhibit the growth of pathogens, thus protecting the plant roots from getting damaged.
Nutritional recycling

The nutrients in the soil are made available to the plants by mobilisation of the nutrients, by fixing it in soil in proper
way. Sometimes, the nutrients are made unavailable by immobilisation. For example, microorganisms produce
extracellular amino acids, vitamins, etc. using the nutrients and nitrogen fixation process. Thus they make nitrogen
available to plants as nitrates or other inorganic forms, e.g. Rhizobium and Azotobacter. Similarly, sulphur oxidisers
make sulphur available as sulphates, e.g. Desulfovibrio. Phosphorous is made available as phosphates by the
production of acids by the microflora. Siderophore production is another important characteristic feature of
rhizosphere microflora

Siderophore production Many microorganisms respond to a fall in the availability of iron in soil by producing
extracellular low molecular weight iron transporting agents known as siderophores. These siderophores selectively
complex with iron and supply the element to the living cell. They also act as growth factors or antibiotics. For example,
Pseudomonas fluorescence (one strain produced a siderophore compound pseudobactin) inhibits the growth of a
pathogen Eewinia carotovora by chelating iron from the vicinity of the pathogen and thus reducing the disease
severity.

Thus microorganisms increase the recycling and solubilisation of mineral nutrients and making it available to plants.
The abundant growth of microbial population in the rhizosphere can sometimes create a deficiency of required
minerals for the plants, e.g. bacterial immobilisation of zinc and oxidation of manganese cause the plant diseases 'little
leaf' of fruit trees and' gray speck' of oats. Nitrogen is immobilised in the form of microbial protein and some may be
lost to the atmosphere by denitrification