Journal of the Geological Society of Australia

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A synthesis of folding and metamorphism in the

Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia

R. Offler & P. D. Fleming

To cite this article: R. Offler & P. D. Fleming (1968) A synthesis of folding and metamorphism
in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia, Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 15:2,
245-266, DOI: 10.1080/00167616808728697

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00167616808728697

Published online: 01 Aug 2007.

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 A SYNTHESIS OF FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM IN THE
MT LOFTY RANGES, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
(With 2 Plates, 1 Table and 11 Text-Figures)
(Received 27 May 1968; read in abstract at Adelaide, 20 September 1968)
ABSTRACT
The Upper Precambrian and Lower Palaeozoic Rocks in the Mt Lofty Ranges,
South Australia, have been subjected to at least three phases of folding. The first
involved the formation of inclined folds and less common reclined folds. These
structures are overprinted by usually upright, moderately tight, second and third
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generation folds which may show a well developed axial plane crenulation cleavage.
The metamorphism commenced prior to the appearance of penetrative structures
and continued in many areas until after the third phase of deformation. It appears
to have had its greatest effect during the static period following the first phase of
folding.
Mineral assemblages of the pelitic rocks indicate that the metamorphism is of
the low pressure-intermediate type and that there are at least four progressive zones
of metamorphism, namely, chlorite, biotite, andalusite-staurolite, and sillimanite.
Cordierite occurs in the sillimanite zone and kyanite is sporadically distributed in the
andalusite-staurolite zone. In the Angaston-Springton region separate andalusite and
staurolite zone boundaries may be delineated which cross as they are traced towards
Angaston. This relationship is considered to be due to higher pressures operating
during metamorphism in the latter area.
The maximum pressure and temperature reached in the metamorphism of these
rocks are discussed in the light of recent experimental data.

INTRODUCTION Lower Precambrian or 'Archaean' rocks

It is the purpose of this paper to summarise
and discuss the present knowledge of folding
and metamorphism of the Upper Precambrian
and Lower Palaeozoic rocks of the Mt Lofty
Ranges. The data have been collated from
papers, unpublished theses and reports, and
from large numbers of thin sections from the
authors' own collections and those kindly lent
by colleagues.
The area to be discussed covers approxi-
mately 6,000 square miles (15,500 km 2 ), and
extends from Auburn, 60 miles (96 km) north
of Adelaide, to Cape Borda on Kangaroo Island
125 miles (200 km) southwest of Adelaide
(Fig. 1).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area under consideration is occupied
by a belt of folded and metamorphosed Pre-
cambrian to Lower Palaeozoic rocks occurring
in a broad structural high between Cainozoic
rocks on the eastern and western sides of the
Mt Lofty Ranges (Fig. 1). Precambrian and
Palaeozoic rocks occur to the west and east of
the main belt.
occur as inliers in the central Mt Lofty Ranges
and consist of high-grade schists and gneisses
which exhibit various degrees of phylloniti-
sation resulting from the effects of phases of
retrograde metamorphism prior and subsequent
to the deposition of the rocks of the Upper
Precambrian Adelaide Supergroup (Talbot,
1963). The Adelaide Supergroup unconform-
ably overlies the 'Archaean' basement and
originally consisted of a thick sequence
(28,000 ft (8,500 m) in the type area near
Adelaide (Mawson & Sprigg, 1950)) of lime-
stones, shales, quartzites and glacigene sedi-
ments which were deposited in an elongate
zone extending from Kangaroo Island to the
northern border of the State of South Australia
(Figs 1, 6). This site of extensive sedimen-
tation, referred to as the 'Adelaide Geosyn-
cline' (Sprigg, 1952) was active during late
Precambrian to early Palaeozoic times. The age
of the Adelaide Supergroup is believed to be
late Proterozoic (Daily, 1963; Compston,
Crawford & Bofinger, 1966).
To the southwest of Adelaide, the Adelaide
Supergroup passes with apparent conformity

J.geol.Soc.Ausl., 15(2): pp. 245-266, pis 23, 24, 1968.

 246 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
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SOUTHERN

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island. The geology of Yorke
Peninsula is not shown. The inset shows the locality of the area studied.

into slightly metamorphosed limestones and
shales containing an Early Cambrian fauna
(Daily, 1963). At Delamere and Carricka-
linga Head the Cambrian is overlain by rocks
of the Kanmantoo Group (Sprigg & Campana,
1953), a non-fossiliferous sequence of meta-
morphosed arkoses, greywackes, pelitic and
calcareous rocks. In the eastern Mt Lofty
Ranges, the Kanmantoo Group overlies the
Adelaide Supergroup, but because of structural
complications in many areas the nature of the
boundary is uncertain.
Folding and metamorphism of the sediments
of the Adelaide Geosyncline appear to have
taken place in Late Cambrian time, according
to recent radiometric datings (White, Compston
& Kleeman, 1967). The metamorphism has
produced rocks of biotite grade over large areas
of the Adelaide Geosyncline (Fig. 6, inset).
Rocks of higher than biotite grade have been
found only within the area studied, although
scattered outcrops of acid igneous rocks and
metasediments to the east of this area may
indicate much larger areas of higher grade
beneath the Cainozoic cover (see p. 259).
FOLDING
Prior to the investigation of the Upper Pre-
cambrian rocks in the Torrens Gorge area
(Talbot, 1962), most authors considered that
all folds produced by the Palaeozoic orogeny
were of the same generation (e.g. Campana,
1955; Kleeman & White, 1956). However,
Talbot showed that at least two phases of
folding had taken place, the first producing
both macroscopic and mesoscopic folds, the
second mesoscopic folds. Subsequent studies
by Mills (1964), Fleming (1965), Offler
(1963, 1966) and others have indicated that
two and, in some cases, three periods of de-
formation are recorded in the rocks on the
eastern side of the Mt Lofty Ranges. Hence,
in the following discussion each phase of
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
folding will be dealt with separately, and refer-
ence will be made to symbols S, L, etc., which
refer to the planar and linear elements asso-
ciated with each deformation (Table). In
this discussion it is assumed that folds with
247
similar style, orientation pattern, and over-
printing relationships are of similar age over
the whole area. However, further work may
show that this assumption is unwarranted (e.g.
Means, 1966).

TABLE

S = Surface
FOLD PHASE So = Bedding LINEAR ELEMENT

First generation structures
Second generation structures
^ foliation.
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S_, = Foliation or slaty cleavage.
5 2 = First crenulation cleavage
, , . . . . . . Axial
. . . . . surface
.„..*___ to
._
F 2 folds or crenulations.
Lj = Lineation or axis of fold in Sn
with Sj as axial surface.
L2 = Lineation or axis of fold or
crenulation in So or Sv with
5 2 as axial surface.

Third generation structures S3 = Second crenulation cleavage Ls = Axis of fold or crenulation in

or foliation. Axial surface So, St or S2 with Sa as axial
to F 3 folds or crenulations. surface.

Fx FOLDING zones subparallel to the axial surface (Fig. 3d).

Folds produced during this phase of defor-
mation are recognised on all scales on the
western and northern sides of the Mt Lofty
Ranges and are not overprinted on a macro-
scopic scale by later phases. However, on the
eastern side first-phase folds are less apparent
(Fig. 2) because of more intense and larger
scale overprinting.
Most folds of this generation are inclined
(in places overturned)* and asymmetric, with
east limbs of antiforms longer than west limbs
and axial planes dipping east. In certain areas,
however, these axial planes may be vertical or
west dipping, for example, F t folds northwest
of Truro (Kleeman, 1964). A marked change
in the fold geometry occurs near the southern
nose of the Myponga Inlier (Fig. 2) where re-
clined folds with axial surfaces dipping 20-30°
SE and axes plunging southeast are predomi-
nant. A point of interest in the Mt Lofty
Ranges is the absence of recognisable nappe
structures, which commonly form at the onset
of tectonism in other orogenic belts (e.g. the
Caledonides (Ramsay, 1963)).
Mesoscopic and macroscopic F a folds have
the same style. They are generally concentric
and in many cases are moderately to tightly
appressed (Fig. 3 a-d). The steep, and com-
monly overturned west limbs of these folds
are thinned relatively to the east limbs in many
examples (Fig. 3 c, d). This attenuation has
developed a stage further in some folds where
the west limbs have developed small thrust
A similar situation exists on a regional scale,
where the reverse limbs of F x folds are com-
monly sheared and grade laterally into over-
thrusts, the dip of which may be as low as
15° (Sprigg, 1946; Campana, 1955).
A well developed cleavage is generally asso-
ciated with the F x folds. This cleavage takes
the form of a slaty cleavage in the low grade
areas or a schistosity defined by mica orien-
tation in the higher grade regions. The cleavage
is parallel to the axial surfaces of F x folds,
and in some cases it makes a low angle with
the east limbs of the anticlines. Small-scale
linear structures developed parallel to the axes
of small Fj folds, include lineations defined by
cleavage-bedding intersections, mineral orien-
tation and mineral or pebble elongation.
Regional Orientation of Ft Structures
The axial surface trace of F x folds follows
the regional trend of the ranges, changing from
northeast in the Fleurieu Peninsula to north or
northwest near Kapunda (Fig. 2). In some
areas (e.g. Kapunda) the F x folds outline a
left-hand 'en echelon' fold pattern. The dip of
the axial surfaces is commonly steep to the
east, exceptions being in the zone of reclined
folds southwest of Myponga where the dip is
30°, and in the ranges just east of Adelaide
(Fig. 2). The low dips recorded in the latter
area (Yong, 1964) probably represent measure-
ments in phyllites only, and not in more com-
petent rocks such as quartzites, where the
cleavage dips are steeper.

* Terminology after Ramsay, 1967.

 248 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING

I'. I I Post Cambrian,

Carnbrian, U. Precambrian.

L. Precambrian.

Granite, Granite Gneiss.

Anticline

Syncline

Overturned Anticline

" Syncli ne

Fault
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Cleavage St

F, STRUCTURES.

Fig. 2. Structural map showing the geometry of F1 structures. Each cleavage and lineation
value represents either the statistical mean for a given area, or a generalised orientation
inferred from published maps.
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
The orientation of the fold axes and linea-
tions varies considerably throughout the Mt
Lofty Ranges (Fig. 2). This variation con-
trasts strongly with the smooth curve of the
axial surface trace. The variation of the fold
axes can be explained in different areas by:
(1) Inhomogeneous strain
(2) Intrusion of magmatic rocks
(3) Overprinting by later deformations
The change in trend of fold axes from 35° SW
at Carrickalinga Head to 30° SE at Rapid Bay
(Fig. 2) may be correlated with a large in-
crease in strain in the latter area as is shown
by pebble deformation. Robinson (1962) re-
ports pebbles with average dimensions 8:3:1
in the basal conglomerate overlying the Lower
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Precambrian. The intrusion of magmatic rocks
(2) appears to explain the steep plunges of
small folds and lineations recorded in the
Angaston (Fleming, 1965) and Pewsey Vale
(Offler [in prep.]) areas, where dolerites and
granites have distorted (steepened) the Fx
axes. Explanation (3) applies on the eastern
side of the Mt Lofty Ranges where refolding
of first phase axes on all scales is ubiquitous
(Offler, 1966).
F 2 AND Fj FOLDING
Second- and third-generation structures are
best seen on the eastern side of the Mt Lofty
Ranges in a zone extending from Kapunda to
Strathalbyn (Fig. 4). F 2 and F 3 folds are dis-
tinguished from F x folds by their more open
style, and refolding of F x structures; in general,
the orientations of F 2 and F 3 structures are
different from those of F± structures. In many
areas it is possible to differentiate between F 2
and F 3 generations on the basis of orientation
and overprinting of F 2 by F 3 structures. Ex-
amination of microtextures is commonly neces-
sary to investigate the overprinting relationships
(Fig. 5).
Common to both generations are small folds,
crenulation cleavage, and lineations defined by
crenulations or by the intersections of So or Si
with S2 and S3, and S2 with S3 (Table). A
mineral lineation (defined by elongate grains
and aggregates of mica, quartz and feldspar)
parallel to F 2 crenulations is commonly found
in many areas. It is not known in all cases
whether this is an Ft structure co-axial with F 2
crenulation, as is the case in the Pewsey Vale
area (Offler, 1966), or whether it is related to
the second phase of deformation. Only further
work wjll help to solve this problem.
(i) F 2 FOLDING
The second phase of folding appears to have
249
had little effect on the regional structure of the
Mt Lofty Ranges. One of the authors (P.F.)
has recognised a large-scale F 2 structure in the
Brukunga-Kanmantoo region. In this region,
small folds (F x ) and schistosity (Si) have been
folded on all scales about an axis parallel to
microcrenulations and mesoscopic folds (F 2 )
which have a crenulation cleavage parallel to
their axial surfaces. This cleavage is commonly
refolded by microcrenulations and small crenu-
lation cleavage folds (F 3 ). No other large scale
F 2 structure has been reported although smaller
macroscopic F 2 structures are present in the
Pewsey Vale area (Offler, 1966) and possibly
in the Palmer and Macclesfield regions. Few
mesoscopic F 2 folds have been recognised in
the region studied. Even in those areas where
F 2 structures are known, it is possible that the
overprinting effect of F 3 movements, and the
lack of variation in lithology in some areas have
obscured small F 2 folds.
The F 2 structure in the Brukunga-Kanman-
too region takes the form of an open, slightly
asymmetric syncline with an axial surface
dipping steeply southwestwards. In contrast to
the Fi folds, the second generation mesoscopic
folds are commonly more open structures and
generally do not show overturning. They vary
from broad rounded buckles to moderately
appressed folds (Fig. 3 f-h). In meta-arkoses
and metagreywackes they form concentric folds
(Fig. 3e), and some semi-pelitic and pelitic
layers may exhibit this style if interlayered with
the more competent lithologies. Where pelitic
layers are dominant they have a similar style,
although the structures are generally still only
slightly appressed. Some very micaceous layers
have assumed a Z-shaped style similar to
chevron folds.
Regional Orientation of F2 Structures
The crenulation cleavages (Se) associated
with F 2 folds appear to have two dominant
trends throughout the ranges, namely, north-
west and eastnortheast (Fig. 4). The fold axes
and lineations have similar trends and their
plunge is dependent upon the orientation of
the slaty cleavage and bedding prior to F 2
movements.
(ii) F 3 FOLDING
Macroscopic F 3 folds dominate the struc-
tural pattern on the eastern side of the Mt
Lofty Ranges. They deform the older schis-
tosities Sx and Sg and fold lineations Lt and
L2. Quartz petrofabric investigations by Klee-
man (pers. comm.) of the major F 3 anticlinal
 250 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING

NE
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Fig. 3. Style of Fa> F 2 and F 3 folds.

a. F z fold in laminated quartz-feldspar-mica schist east of Springton (after Mills, 1964).
b. F, reclined fold outlined by gritty bands in impure marble from Rapid Bay (after Kirk,
1963).
c. Overturned F x fold in interbedded quartzites and phyllites, showing thinned short limb,
Torrens Gorge (after Talbot, 1964).
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
structure approximately 8 miles (13 km) north
of Strathalbyn, have shown this structure to
be 'unreliable'. On the western side of the
ranges no major F 3 folds are known but warp-
ing of slaty cleavage S, in the region south of
the Houghton Inlier has been noted by Talbot
(1964) and the authors. This warping may be
due to F 3 movements as crenulation cleavage
is commonly present in this area.
Mesoscopic folds are generally well de-
veloped in areas affected by the third phase of
folding. At this scale, evidence for refolding of
earlier folds, lineations and planar structures
by F 3 folds is readily seen (Fig. 31). The most
common indication of refolding by F 3 is the
warping of a mineral lineation (L,) and/or
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251
quartz in the crestal regions of these structures
(cf. Rickard, 1961; Fig. 3g, this paper). Pre-
sumably the quartz has migrated to these sites
from zones of greater strain, namely, one or
both sets of limbs (Nicholson, 1966). The
concentration of quartz in crestal regions is
less marked in areas of low metamorphic grade
as in the Torrens Gorge area where quartz is
not found in the hinge zones (Talbot, 1964).
Macroscopic folds of this generation are
generally moderately appressed, upright struc-
tures with axial surfaces that dip steeply east or
west, and trend approximately meridionally.
Those folds adjacent to the Bremer Fault
(White, 1956) are overturned.
The planar element (S3) produced during

a crenulation L2 across the hinge and flanks of this phase takes the form of either a crenula-
F 3 folds, but in the migmatite zones refolded tion cleavage or schistosity, the latter develop-
Fj (and possibly F 2 ) folds are often dis- ing best in meta-arkoses, meta-greywackes and
cernible. There is also abundant microscopic migmatites in the more intensely deformed
evidence of the overprinting of F 3 on F 2 struc- areas (e.g. Kanmantoo, Pewsey Vale). Fre-
tures (Fig. 5). quently S3 fluctuates in both dip and strike in
These folds may be broad, open structures small areas, for example, in some domains of
with large wavelengths, or tightly appressed Pewsey Vale, Ss varies in strike from 174° to
and show a crenulation cleavage or schistosity 192° and dips 75° E to 70° W (Offler, 1966).
(Fig. 3i-l). In most areas the style is typically
concentric. Those folds in the migmatite zones Regional Orientation of F3 Structures
are commonly disharmonic and their axial The axial trend of macroscopic folds
planes may curve or show a random orientation throughout the ranges is approximately meri-
(but a common line of intersection) charac- dional, but local variations in orientation of
teristic of polyclinal folds (Greenly, 1919). the associated cleavage (S3) occur, for ex-
A feature in some areas is the correlation of ample, in the Kanmantoo and Angaston areas,
orientation of axial surfaces of macroscopic F 3 where the trend of S3 is northeast (Fig. 4).
folds with the style. For example, in the mica This variability could be due to one or more
schists below Warren Reservoir, Mills (pers. of the following:
comm.) has noted the following: (1) The development of a conjugate pair of
Very open F 3 folds, Ss is E-W. crenulation cleavages.
Open F 3 folds, Sg is NE-SW. (2) Rotation of S3 owing to the variability
Tight F 3 folds, S3 is NS and a crenulation of the intensity of deformation (see
cleavage appears. A similar situation has been above).
observed in folds from the migmatite zone at (3) S2 crenulation has been mistakenly
Pewsey Vale, although the variation in orien- identified as Ss in areas where only one
tation is not as marked. crenulation cleavage has developed.
Another characteristic common to many F 3 Although examples illustrating cases (1) and
folds in mica schists is the localisation of (2) are known in the region studied, they may
d. Overturned F 1 fold, outlined by quartzite bands, showing characteristic short west limb—
long east limb relationship, Torrens Gorge (after Talbot, 1964).
e. Open F 2 fold in meta-arkose, east of Springton (after Mills, 1964).
f. Typical F 2 fold in mica schists, outlined by a quartz vein, northwest of Kanmantoo.
g. F 2 fold in interbedded mica schists and meta-greywackes, north of Strathalbyn (after
Offler, 1963). Note quartz (Q) and muscovite (M) pods in the hinge zone.
h. Open F 2 fold in mica schists, northwest of Kanmantoo.
i. F 3 fold in interbedded meta-greywackes and mica schists, northeast of Strathalbyn.
j. F 3 fold from migmatite zone, Pewsey Vale (after Offler, 1966). Note quartz-feldspar
segregation parallel to Ss.
k. F 3 folds in interbedded dolomites and phyllites, Torrens Gorge (after Talbot, 1964).
1. Refolded F x fold in meta-greywackes and mica schists, Strathalbyn.
 252 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING

5sf Anticline.

>< Syncline.

•a Crenulation cleavage S2

^* Fold axis, lineation L2

j£ Anticline.
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*£ Syncline.

J{ Crenulation cleavage

Vertical -

X P ° ^ axis, lineation

F2& F3 STRUCTURES.

Fig. 4. Structural map showing occurrence and orientation of major F 2 and F 3 structures.
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES 253
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to (b)
Fig. 5. Examples of textures resulting from the overprinting of F 3 on F 2 structures.
a. Staurolite porphyroblasts containing crenulated Sv The axial surface of these crenulations
parallels a biotite foliation Sz in the matrix. A second crenulation (axial surface 5,)
refolds this foliation. Drawn from a thin section perpendicular to F 3 . Dawesley, No.
20329.
b. Strongly crenulated foliation St (axial surface of crenulations S2) defined by biotite and
muscovite. A potassium feldspar vein parallels 5 S . This vein and the left limbs of the first
crenulation are crenulated (axial surface of crenulations Ss). Note that the right limbs of
the F 2 crenulations are at a small angle to Ss and are less deformed. Drawn from a thin
section perpendicular to F 3 and 45° to F 2 . Harrogate, No. 20328.

not necessarily explain the variation in Ss in
every area, hence further detailed field work
is needed to solve this particular problem.
The plunge of F 3 folds is moderate to shal-
low to the south in most areas, but northeast
of Pewsey Vale, plunges may be as much as
70° to 80° to the south. This marked steepening
of fold axes has probably been caused by the
intrusion of the Mt Kitchener granite (Offler
[in prep.]).
On the western side of the Bremer Fault
(White, 1956) macroscopic F 3 folds form
dextral structures, and on the eastern side,
sinistral structures (Fig. 4). This suggests that
most of the rocks on the eastern side of the Mt
Lofty Ranges lie in an F 3 synclinorium—those
rocks to the west of the Bremer Fault con-
stituting the west limb, and most of those to the
east of the Fault the east limb. Further inves-
tigation is necessary to support this tentative
suggestion because it is possible that the situa-
tion described could have developed by super-
position of F 3 folds on an F x or F 2 synform.
F 4 FOLDING
Folds of this generation appear sporadically
throughout the ranges as faint kinks or small
kink folds refolding slaty or crenulation cleav-
age (Mills, 1964; Talbot, 1962). East of
Springton (Mills, 1964) and in the Angaston
area they appear to be associated with faulting.
 254 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
METAMORPHISM
The distribution of metamorphic grades in
the Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island will
be discussed in terms of metamorphic zones.
The zone boundaries defined on Figure 6 are not
necessarily isograds according to the original
definition of Tilley (1924) because particular
index minerals have crystallised at various
stages in different areas during the deformation
of the Adelaide Geosyncline. Therefore each
zone represents the maximum areal distribution
of a specific index mineral. A modification of
this general rule was found necessary to define
the sillimanite zone, which includes only those
rocks containing sillimanite to the exclusion of
andalusite. The reasons for this modification
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are discussed on page 258.
|::::::| CHLORITE
BIOTITE
Fig. 6. Distribution of metamorphic zones in the Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island. The inset
(after Thomson, 1966) shows the distribution of rocks metamorphosed to biotite grade or
higher.
CHLORITE AND BIOTITE ZONES
The first indication of metamorphic recrys-
tallisation is the occurrence of sericite and
yellow-green to pale green chlorites in rocks
cropping out on the northern coast of Kan-
garoo Island and the western margin of the
Mt Lofty Ranges (Fig. 6). With increasing
grade of metamorphism, green to greenish-
brown biotites appear in association with
chlorite.
The boundary between the chlorite and
biotite zones is clearly delineated in most areas,
but in the vicinity of Auburn it is not well
defined. It has been based on the first appear-
ance of biotite in phyllites, meta-greywackes
and calc-schists. There is no apparent evidence
that the biotite appears any earlier in carbonate-
ZONE
ZONE
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
bearing rocks than in the meta-greywackes and
phyllites (cf. McNamara, 1965, who noted the
earlier appearance of biotite in carbonate-
bearing rocks as compared with its appearance
in the pelitic sediments in the Scottish Dal-
radian).
Garnets occur sporadically in the biotite
zone, but a separate garnet zone has not been
delineated. Actinolite appears for the first time
in the biotite zone in schists containing the
following assemblages (Kirk, 1963):
(i) biotite-muscovite-chlorite-actinolite-
quartz
(ii) epidote-chlorite-actinolite-quartz
The reactions leading to the formation of
actinolite are probably of the form:
chlorite + calcite + quartz ?* actinolite +
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CO2 + H2O
quartz + dolomite + H2O ?i tremolite +
calcite + CO2
which involve the production of CO2 and H2O
(Turner & Verhoogen, 1960). In such re-
actions, the incoming of actinolite will not only
be dependent upon temperature, but also on
§ 5 (McNamara, 1965), a low ^ Fibrolite, muscovite and garnet are commonly
favouring the crystallisation of actinolite at a
*CO
lower grade than in rocks in which • ^
is high. This is of particular interest in the Mt
Lofty Ranges, as Mills (1964) has found in
the Springton area that actinolite does not form
until after the andalusite zone has been reached
(cf. White & Billings, 1951, who found that
actinolite first appears in the staurolite zone in
the Woodville Quadrangle, Vermont). This
suggests that the chemical potential of CO2
was higher and of H2O lower, than in other
areas (e.g. Rapid Bay (Kirk, 1963)) where
actinolite occurs in the biotite zone. It is also
possible that the late incoming of actinolite
in the Springton area is due to higher load
pressures. Experimental work on reactions in-
volving CO2 and H2O (e.g. the formation of
diopside (Metz, 1966)) has shown that in-
creased pressure raises the temperature at
which these reactions take place.
ANDALXJSITE-STAUROLITE ZONE
Andalusite and staurolite appear at approxi-
mately the same stage in the metamorphic
sequence in most areas and persist until the
sillimanite zone is reached, therefore separate
andalusite and staurolite zones have not been
defined on Figure 6.
* v- = chemical potential.
255
The upper and lower limits of the andalusite-
staurolite zone are well defined in the
Strathalbyn-Harrogate and Angaston-Springton
regions (Kleeman & Skinner, 1959; Mills,
1964; Offler, 1960, 1966; Fleming, 1965), but
are only approximately located on Fleurieu
Peninsula because of the lack of suitable rock
types. On Kangaroo Island much of the
andalusite-staurolite zone is covered by Recent
alluvium, but the occurrence of low-grade
rocks on the northern side of the island and
rocks of higher than andalusite-staurolite grade
on the southern side, suggests that this zone
should be present in the centre of the island.
In some parts of Kangaroo Island and Fleurieu
Peninsula, the zone boundary has been defined
by the incoming of andesine or andesine +
epidote in calc-schists and calc-silicate rocks.
The commonly observed assemblages in the
alumina-rich schists are:
(1) andalusite-staurolite-biotite -plagioclase-
quartz
(2) andalusite-biotite-plagioclase-quartz
(3 ) staurolite-biotite-plagioclase-quartz
found in rocks with these assemblages. Garnet
forms post-tectonic (post—F2 and F 3 ) por-
phyroblasts replacing staurolite, biotite and to
a lesser extent, andalusite. The fibrolite appears
predominantly in biotite, frequently at the
border of andalusite porphyroblasts and less
commonly in muscovite, staurolite and quartz
(Plate 23, Fig. 1).
When the above assemblages (including
fibrolite and garnet) are considered in terms
of Thompson's 'AFM' projection (Thompson,
1957) it is apparent that they contain more
phases than the theoretical maximum of three
(Fig. 7). The authors consider that possible
explanations for the additional phases are:
(1) the incomplete polymorphic transition
of andalusite to sillimanite.
(2) fibrolite is metastable.
(3) the incomplete replacement of staurolite
by garnet.
(4) Ca and/or Mn substitution in garnet
(e.g. garnet assemblages should be ex-
pressed in terms of 'AFMC').
In the Kapunda, Angaston and Springton
areas, the first appearance of andalusite in
pelitic schists is preceded by knots containing
quartz, muscovite, chlorite, and in the Spring-
ton area, albite occurs as an additional phase.
The knots have the form of andalusite (Plate
23, Fig. 2) and rarely contain skeletal grains
 256 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
AI 2 O 3 could be rejected. In the absence of chemical
ANDALUS1TE
5ILUMANITE
analyses of either the andalusite- or staurolite-
bearing rocks, it is difficult to say whether bulk
composition has controlled the incoming of
either of these two aluminosilicates. The last
hypothesis appears to be the most acceptable
to the authors for several reasons. First, kyanite
appears at an earlier stage in the metamorphic
sequence as the Angaston area is approached
from the southeast (Fig. 8). Second, Hietanen
(1967) has shown in her studies of various
types of metamorphism that reasonably high

FeO
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Fig. 7. Mineral assemblages in the pelitic rocks

of the andalusite-staurolite zone using the
AFM projection of Thompson (1957).

of andalusite. It is thought that the knots are

pseudomorphs after andalusite produced dur-
ing a peak of metamorphism when the andalu-
site stability field was just entered (Mills,
1964; Fleming, 1965; cf. Hietanen, 1963).
Possible reactions responsible for the appear-
ance of andalusite have been sought but no
definite conclusions reached. Similarly, the
reactions leading to the appearance of stauro-
lite are not yet known, except that staurolite
is found to grow across biotite (Plate 23, Fig.
3), andalusite, or chlorite, and can also be
found surrounded by quartz-rich, biotite-
deficient coronae.
A feature of particular interest in the
andalusite-staurolite zone is the spatial re- Fig. 8. Distribution of metamorphic zones in the
lationship of staurolite to andalusite in the Springton-Angaston region. Note the
Springton-Angaston region (Fig. 8). In the crossing of andalusite and staurolite zone
Springton area andalusite appears before boundaries.
staurolite (Mills, 1964) but to the northwest pressures (i.e. pressures in the vicinity of the
a reversal of this sequence has been noted aluminosilicate triple point) are needed for the
(Fleming, 1965). The possible explanations crystallisation of staurolite before andalusite.
for this relationship are that: Finally, the reactions involving the release of
(1) andalusite and staurolite crystallised H2O and/ or CO2 have been delayed on the
during separate metamorphic episodes. western side of the Springton area and in the
Angaston area, for example, the destruction of
(2) the bulk compositions of the rocks were muscovite and biotite in the marbles (Mills,
not suitable for the formation of stauro- 1964; Fleming, 1965).
lite or andalusite in the respective areas.
The staurolite- and andalusite-producing
(3) a higher pressure metamorphism pre- reactions can thus be represented hypothetically
vailed in the Angaston area. on a P-T diagram (Fig. 9) where reaction 1
Detailed studies of the andalusite and stauro- has a steeper slope than reaction 2. High
lite chronology showed that the first hypothesis pressures (geothermal gradient curve (B) in
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
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Fig. 9. Hypothetical curves (1) and (2) represent
the reactions producing staurolite and
andalusite. The dashed curves represent
two possible geothermal gradients. Those
rocks in areas with a geothermal gradient
of lower pressure type will crystallise
andalusite first, those of higher pressure,
staurolite.
Fig. 9) would result in the incoming of stauro-
lite before andalusite.
KYANITE ZONE
Kyanite is not very common in the Mt Lofty
Ranges. It is best developed in the Williams-
town-Warren Reservoir region, where it is asso-
-ciated with sillimanite and muscovite in schists
and metamorphic pegmatites (Alderman, 1942;
Freytag, 1957; Mills, 1963). Another zone
occurs in the Springton area where andalusite,
staurolite and sillimanite occur with the
kyanite (Mills, 1964). In this area kyanite is
relatively rare in the schists but is common in
segregation veins (Joplin, 1968, fig. 28c, p.
120). Kyanite has also been found north of
the Springton area, where it occurs in the
•staurolite and andalusite zones.
Elsewhere in the Mt Lofty Ranges, the dis-
tribution of kyanite is sporadic; at Brukunga
it is associated with andalusite and minor
fibrolite in sulphide-bearing schists (Skinner,
1958; George, 1967) and south of Woodside
it occurs in muscovite schists (Whittle, 1947;
Wildy, 1963). The origin of the kyanite is not
known. In the areas in which it is found, there
is no indication of a preceding aluminosilicate
mineral.
257
The final point of interest which requires
some discussion is the presence of kyanite in
a terrain that is dominated by andalusite and
sillimanite. Its association with these alumino-
silicates can be explained in Figure 10 where
three hypothetical isobaric paths are drawn on
the aluminosilicate phase diagram. Path (1)
explains the replacement of kyanite by andalu-
site, (2) the triple-point assemblage and (3)
the development of kyanite and sillimanite on
the western side of the high-grade belt. Thus,
minor fluctuations in pressure can produce the
observed relationships.
KYANITE
re —
Fig. 10. Possible isobaric migration paths to
illustrate the observed changes in the
aluminosilicates (after Mills, 1964).
SILLIMANITE ZONE
The highest grade rocks in the Mt Lofty
Ranges occupy a northnorthwest elongate belt
extending from Pewsey Vale to Rocky Gully
(Fig. 6). Within this belt there are calc-silicate
gneisses, granite gneisses and migmatites which
are intruded by syn- and post-tectonic granites.
However, not all granite gneisses are confined
to the migmatite zone, as small bodies crop
out just south of Warren Reservoir (Mills,
1963) and Woodside (Whittle, 1947; Wildy,
1963). On Kangaroo Island, rocks in the silli-
manite zone occur along the southern margin
of the island.
Sillimanite is the stable aluminosilicate poly-
morph in this zone, but rare relict kyanite,
staurolite and andalusite may also be present.
The andalusite - staurolite / sillimanite zone
 258 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
boundary has been clearly delineated in most
areas and has been based on the disappearance
of andalusite and staurolite rather than the
first appearance of fibrolite. The reasons for this
approach are twofold. First, there is a lack of
suitable rock types in many areas, and second,
fibrolite is sporadic in its occurrence even in
those areas where peraluminous rocks are
common. Mills (1964) and White (1966a)
have been able to define a sillimanite —
potassium feldspar isograd in the Springton
and Palmer areas, but the usefulness of this
isograd is limited as its position appears to
have been dependent upon the prevailing
activity of water during metamorphism.
The migmatites within this zone are quartzo-
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feldspathic schists and meta-arkoses containing
pods, schlieren, veins, etc., of quartz and feld-
spar oriented parallel to bedding, axial plane
foliation, or occurring within the hinges of
small folds. A metamorphic origin has been
postulated for these rocks in the Pewsey Vale
area by Chinner (1955) and Offler (1966)
and for the migmatites in the Palmer area by
White (1966a), but Mills (1964) has suggested
an anatectic origin for the migmatites in the
Springton area.
The granite gneisses in the migmatite zone
are generally more even grained than the mig-
matised quartzofeldspathic schists and may
be foliated and/ or lineated. Apart from a
lower quartz and muscovite content they are
similar mineralogically to the stratigraphically
equivalent quartzofeldspathic schists outside
the migmatite zone. The Rathjen Gneiss, the
largest gneissic body in the migmatite zone,
has been shown by White (19666) to have a
similar major and minor element chemistry to
the adjacent migmatites. He therefore con-
cluded that it had formed by isochemical meta-
morphism—a conclusion reached by Offler
(1966) for the Tanunda Creek Gneiss. The
smaller granite gneisses west of the migmatite
zone are believed to be metasomatic in origin
(Wildy, 1963; Mills, 1963; Allchurch, 1964).
Origin of Sillimanite
In the highest grade zone of the Mt Lofty
Ranges, textural evidence indicates that the
sillimanite has formed from the breakdown
of muscovite. The reaction is probably similar
to that suggested by Evans & Guidotti (1966),
namely:
muscovite + quartz + albite ^ the sillimanite zone in association with antho-
(component
in plagio-
clase) ^ zone, cordierite co-exists stably with sillimanite
potassium feldspar + sillimanite + H2O
Mineralogical and chemical studies suggest
that in some areas the potassium feldspar-
sillimanite assemblage has been produced under
PHp <PLoad conditions (Mills, 1964; Offler,
1966; Virgo, 1966). For example, in the
Pewsey Vale area, evidence in support of these
conditions is based on:
(1) The uniform Sr distribution coefficient
in coexisting feldspars from specimens
in which either potassium feldspar-
sillimanite or muscovite is stable (Virgo,
1966).
(2) The intimate association of pelitic
schists containing sillimanite-potassium
feldspar ± muscovite with migmatites,
meta-arkoses and pelitic schists con-
taining muscovite.
Since the Sr data suggest that the rocks have
crystallised at the same temperature (Virgo,
1966), this intimate association of 'higher' and
'lower' grade assemblages is more likely to be
due to local fluctuations in PH,O-
The origin of sillimanite in those rocks con-
taining muscovite as a stable phase is more
complex. In some rocks sillimanite has formed,
directly from andalusite or kyanite and possibly
staurolite, but in others the relationships are
not clear. However, in many schists, fibrolite
appears in biotite, muscovite or quartz at the
border of andalusite porphyroblasts suggesting
that it has been derived from the andalusite—
possibly by dissolution of the unstable andalu-
site and reprecipitation on the biotite foliae.
On the western side of the high grade belt
north of Warren Reservoir, massive kyanite-
sillimanite deposits are prominent and are asso-
ciated with kyanite- and sillimanite-bearing
schists. Alderman (1942) considers that the
sillimanite in the massive deposits has been
formed by inversion from kyanite. The authors
have noted that a similar inversion appears to
have occurred in the schists.
The Occurrence of Cordierite
Cordierite is essentially confined to the-
high-grade core on the eastern side of the mig-
matite zone in a narrow belt extending from
Springton to Rocky Gully (Fig. 6) and has
also been recorded in pelitic schists adjacent
to the Victor Harbour Granite (Bowes, 1954).
It appears just before the commencement of
phyllite or as a replacement of staurolite and
andalusite (Mills, 1964). Within the sillimanite
(Mills, 1964; Sando, 1957), and at the highest
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
grade recorded in this metamorphic terrain,,
cordierite is associated with perthitic potassium
feldspar. At Victor Harbour, the assemblage
andalusite-cordierite is stable, which Bowes
(1954) considered to be of contact meta-
morphic origin. However, subsequent work by
the present authors has shown that the andalu-
site and cordierite have an S-shaped or curved
morphology and a 'snowball' or curved internal
fabric. Since the Victor Harbour Granite does
not appear to have been emplaced forcefully,
such fabrics could only have been produced
during a deformation phase before the intru-
sion (cf. the forcefully intruded Main Donegal
Granite where sigmoidal internal fabrics in
porphyroblasts have been formed in the con-
tact rocks (Pitcher & Read, 1963)).
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Nevertheless, the occurrence of the andalu-
site-cordierite assemblage in the schists adjacent
to the granite, cannot be dismissed as a
coincidence. It is possible that the intrusion
of the granite was preceded by a rise of iso-
thermal surfaces causing local crystallisation of
cordierite and andalusite.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS ON THE MURRAY PLAINS
Small outcrops of metamorphic rocks of
possible Kanmantoo Group age have been
recorded from certain localities on the
Murray Plains (Ludbrook, 1961). The authors
have examined rocks from several of these
areas and have noted rocks of at least garnet
grade near Black Hill, and migmatites east
of Mannum (Fig. 6). Near Tailem Bend,
calc-silicate rocks showing assemblages typical
of the amphibolite facies have also been ob-
served. These observations suggest that the
high-grade zone that occurs on the eastern side
of the Mt Lofty Ranges, extends for some
distance beneath the Cainozoic cover of the
Murray Plains.
TYPE OF METAMORPHISM
It is now generally accepted that different
types of metamorphism have developed in
various parts of the world throughout geologic
time. Each type of metamorphism appears to
be characterised by a facies series which is
recognised by the presence of a particular suite
of minerals. Miyashiro (1961) proposed five
facies series which he based on the pressures
operating during metamorphism. Following his
classification most rocks in the Mt Lofty
Ranges belong to the low-pressure, intermediate
type of metamorphism.
* The experimental results of these workers are chosen here because they are less at variance with
geological evidence.
259
P-T Conditions
The experimental studies relevant to the
assessment of the P-T conditions during the
metamorphism are the decomposition of mus-
covite in the presence of quartz (Evans,
1965),* the stability field of Mg-cordierite
(Schreyer & Yoder, 1964),* the aluminosilicate
phase diagram (Newton, 1966),* and the
granite melting curve (Tuttle & Bowen, 1958;
Luth, Jahns & Tuttle, 1964).*
Assuming that Ptotai = Pjimd' t n e pressures
operating in the Mt Lofty Ranges during meta-
morphism must have exceeded that at the inter-
section of curves (1) and (2) in Figure 11 (i.e.
approximately 3 kb) since andalusite does not
co-exist with potassium feldspar. Furthermore,
it is likely that pressures were in the vicinity of
that indicated by the intersection of curve (3)
and curve (1) (i.e. just less than 4 kb) as
sillimanite and cordierite form a stable asso-
ciation in all areas except Victor Harbour
where andalusite occurs with cordierite. In the
Williamstown-Warren Reservoir region, where
kyanite and sillimanite are the stable poly-
morphs, pressures were probably just above
the triple point (i.e. just greater than 4 kb).
The maximum temperature reached during
metamorphism is more difficult to assess, as
the determination of the temperature will
depend on the postulated origin of the mig-
matites (see p. 258). If it is assumed that the
migmatites have originated by metamorphic
differentiation, then temperatures cannot be
greater than that permitted by the intersection
of curves (1) and (4) (i.e. approximately
690°C). It is reasonable to assume that the
temperature was in the vicinity of 650°C as
muscovite is apparently stable in most mig-
matites.
TIME RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTAL
GROWTH AND DEFORMATION
Evidence has been collected bearing on the
relationships of crystal growth to the various
episodes of folding recognised in the Mt Lofty
Ranges. The techniques used are similar to
those applied elsewhere by Zwart (1963),
Johnson (1963), Spry (1963) and others. The
method involves a comparison of the internal
fabric (defined by an array of inclusions) of
a porphyroblast, with the external fabric (e.g.
a foliation or lineation) of the host rock.
These studies have been carried out to deter-
mine whether:
 260 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
KYANITE
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200 400 600 800
T'C
Fig. 11. Relationship between the stability fields
of the aluminosilicates, muscovite and
cordierite.
(1) Aluminosilicate diagram after New-
ton (1966).
(2) Muscovite + quartz = sillimanite +
orthoclase + water (Evans, 1965).
(3) Pyrophyllite + chlorite + alumino-
silicate = cordierite + vapour
(Schreyer & Yoder, 1964).
(4) Melting curve of granite (Luth et
al, 1964).
(1) appreciable metamorphic crystallisation
commenced before deformation.
(2) fluctuations in grade of metamorphism
occurred during the deformation history
and if so, whether these fluctuations
were related to the various deformation
episodes.
(3) in any one area the grade of meta-
morphism varied with time.
A number of difficulties were encountered
and these include the subjective nature of some
textural interpretations, an incomplete record
in some specimens of the deformation history,
and the uncertainty of the synchronism of
phases of folding with similar style and geo-
metry in different areas. (For the present it is
assumed that similar deformations are syn-
chronous throughout the Mt Lofty Ranges.)
In the following sections, most observations
relating to metamorphic crystallisation concern
only andalusite, staurolite, garnet and silli-
manite porphyroblasts, so that, unless other-
* Inclusions defining a banding parallel to bedding have been observed in some rocks near Kapunda
(Plate 24, Fig. 1).
wise indicated, references to phases of crys-
tallisation will imply crystallisation at the P-T
conditions of the amphibolite facies. Calc-
silicate minerals (e.g. tremolite, diopside) show
textural relationships consistent with those
shown by the other index minerals.
GROWTH PRETECTONIC TO THE FIRST
DEFORMATION (PRE-FJ)
In the Harrogate-Dawesley, and Angaston-
Kapunda regions some andalusite and staurolite
appears to have grown prior to the first de-
formation (Fleming & Offler [in press]). This
is suggested by the occurrence of porphyro-
blasts containing inclusions* which have no
preferred orientation in sections parallel or
perpendicular to the first lineation (Lt) and
a grainsize much smaller than the matrix; the
first foliation wraps around the porphyroblasts.
(Despite the controversy that has existed con-
cerning the interpretation of foliation wrap-
ping around porphyroblasts (e.g. Schuiling &
Wensink, 1962; Spry, 1963), the authors con-
sider that pretectonic growth is indicated for
the additional reason that it is common to find
andalusite that has grown prior to a certain
foliation which wraps around the porphyro-
blast, whereas, in the same thin section, post-
foliation andalusite has grown across the same
foliation without pushing the micas aside—a
special case of this is shown in Plate 23, Fig.
4).
GROWTH SYNTECTONIC TO THE FIRST
DEFORMATION (SYN-F X )
In a number of areas in the Mt Lofty Ranges
many porphyroblasts exhibit S-shaped trails of
inclusions which are continuous with St sur-
faces in the enclosing matrix (e.g. Mills, 1964,
fig. 87). Such 'snowball' structures are taken
here to indicate growth of the porphyroblast
syntectonic to St.
Evidence for syn-Fj growth is sparse in the
Angaston-Warren Reservoir and Strathalbyn-
Harrogate regions. There is, however, ample
evidence of growth during this phase in the
Springton (Mills, 1964), Pewsey Vale (Offler,
1966) and Victor Harbour areas. Andalusite
crystallised at Victor Harbour, while andalusite,
staurolite and garnet formed in the Springton
area. In the Pewsey Vale area, syntectonic
garnets are common and sillimanite possibly
crystallised during this phase. This evidence
suggests the development of a metamorphic
grade equivalent to (Victor Harbour), or at
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
least approaching the highest grades recorded
for these areas.
GROWTH POST-TECTONIC TO THE FIRST
DEFORMATION (POST-F^ PRE-F 2 )
During this period a high grade of meta-
morphism was maintained and crystallisation
took place in most areas. Porphyroblasts of
andalusite, staurolite and garnet grew more
abundantly in this period than at any other
time. For example, in the Harrogate-Strath-
albyn region, 72 specimens were examined, and
of the 54 showing effects of the Fi and F 2
deformations (i.e. St and 5 2 are developed),
45 contained post-F1( pre-F2 porphyroblasts.
(Inclusions are arranged in planar arrays dis-
cordant to S2 which envelopes the porphyro-
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blasts, e.g. Plate 23, Figs 3, 4. This suggests
that the porphyroblasts grew after the forma-
tion of St and before the folding of 5^ to
produce the new St). A further 15 of the 72
showed possible post-F^ pre-F2 porphyro-
blasts.
Zoned porphyroblasts of staurolite, garnet
and andalusite are commonly observed. The
zoning is defined by an inner core sieved with
inclusions, grading to a rim where inclusions
are rare or absent. This inclusion-free rim
may be due to a decrease in growth rate in
response to a decrease in available material
for the formation of the porphyroblast as dis-
cussed by Rast & Sturt (1957), and Rast
(1965). However, in many cases, an inclusion-
free rim is found to coincide with the overlap
of the porphyroblast onto a biotite mat, where
quartz is not available to be incorporated as
inclusions (Plate 24, Fig. 2). Thus caution is
needed in the use of evidence involving den-
sity of inclusions to indicate relative growth
rates.
GROWTH SYNTECTONIC TO THE SECOND
DEFORMATION (SYN-F 2 )
Growth during this phase is shown by por-
phyroblasts which, from their cores to their
rims, have preserved progressive stages in
crenulation cleavage formation. In some speci-
mens crenulations (F 2 ) have become trans-
posed into a new schistosity, helicitic inclusion
trails being the only indication of the former
crenulations. This suggests that the porphyro-
blasts ceased growing before the end of the
second deformation (Mills, 1964).
Areas of marked syn-F2 crystallisation
appear to have been limited to the Warren
Reservoir and Springton areas. Evidence for
the crystallisation of staurolite, andalusite, silli-
261
manite and kyanite during the second deforma-
tion phase is very common and suggests that
the peak of metamorphism was reached in
these areas during this time. Very little in-
dication of crystallisation during this period
has been recognised elsewhere in the Mt Lofty
Ranges.
GROWTH POST-TECTONIC TO THE SECOND
DEFORMATION (POST-F 2 , PRE-F 3 )
The evidence for crystallisation in this period
includes porphyroblasts which grow across <S2
without deflecting this schistosity. Commonly
Ss in the matrix surrounding the porphyro-
blast is refolded (crenulated) about the F s
axis (Fig. 5a). Indications of renewed crys-
tallisation of a grade at least as high in this
period as that which prevailed in the post-Fj,
pre-F2 phase, are common in most areas.
Growth of staurolite, andalusite and garnet
appears to have been extensive in the Angaston-
Springton, and Harrogate-Strathalbyn regions.
It is probable that fibrolitic sillimanite also
developed throughout most of these areas,
although the chronology of fibrolite is usually
difficult to interpret without ambiguity. Por-
phyroblastic sillimanite developed at this time
in the Springton and Pewsey Vale areas.
GROWTH SYNTECTONIC TO THE THIRD
DEFORMATION (SYN-F 3 )
The absence of crystallisation of high-grade
metamorphic minerals is the main feature of
this period. In the Warren Reservoir area high
grade rocks (sillimanite and kyanite schists)
have undergone retrograde metamorphism to
schists containing chlorite, epidote, sericite and
albite (K. J. Mills, pers. comm.).
GROWTH POST-TECTONIC TO THE THIRD
DEFORMATION (POST-F 3 )
The interesting feature of this static phase
is the lack of crystallisation in some areas, and
the 'reappearance' of high grade metamorphism
in others. For example, in the Pewsey Vale
area the Adelaide Supergroup rocks affected by
F 3 movements show strongly deformed quartz
grains surrounded by polygonal mosaics and
strongly contorted micas. This contrasts with
the adjacent Kanmantoo Group rocks which
have crystallised at a high grade in this period.
In most other areas, andalusite and staurolite
grew during this phase, but the growth was
often confined to the rims of previously formed
porphyroblasts (Plate 23, Fig. 4). Fibrolite
probably crystallised in some areas also. Garnet
is a very common post-F3 mineral, frequently
 262 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING
occurring as idioblasts within or across biotite,
staurolite or andalusite.
The occurrence of garnet within staurolite
and andalusite might suggest that it has crys-
tallised prior to the including crystals (c/.
Green, 1963, p. 1013). However, wherever
these textures developed, garnets elsewhere in
the slide are athwart the biotite foliae which
in most instances could be shown to be younger
than the staurolite and andalusite. Further-
more, in some specimens garnet porphyroblasts
overlap both aluminosilicate porphyroblasts
and the biotite foliae.
In the Harrogate-Strathalbyn region there
are sporadic occurrences of rocks which do
not appear to have recrystallised during this
period, and still show strain effects of F 3
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deformation. These are indicated by the occur-
rence of quartz and crenulated micas with
marked undulose extinction, particularly within
the hinge areas of F 3 crenulations.
The final stage of crystallisation is shown in
most areas by chlorite occurring as broad
sheaves or large porphyroblasts which trans-
gress mica foliae.
DISCUSSION
Pre-tectonic crystallisation
The observation of pre-Fx andalusite and
staurolite in the Angaston, Kapunda and
Dawesley areas suggests that the meta-
morphism occurred before the development of
a slaty cleavage, and therefore probably com-
menced at least before appreciable folding had
taken place (see Fleming & Offler [in press]
for a full discussion), a phenomenon that has
been rarely recognised in other regional meta-
morphic terrains.* This suggests that folding
was not the cause of metamorphism, a con-
clusion reached by many authors working in
other metamorphic terrains. Rather, the meta-
morphism was more likely to have been
initiated in response to an unusually high heat
flow from the mantle (see Sutton, 1965).
Rarity of syntectonic crystallisation
One of the unexpected features of the pre-
sent study is the rarity of evidence in many
areas for the syntectonic crystallisation of por-
phyroblasts. This is possibly the result of the
destruction of the syntectonic porphyroblasts
by subsequent phases of deformation and
static recrystallisation. Alternatively, the por-
phyroblasts may never have grown because
* Zwart (1960) reports prekinematic metamorphism in the Hospitalet massif, Central Pyrenees,
where andalusite, staurolite and cordierite exhibit textural relationships similar to those described
from the present area.
conditions for abnormal grain growth were
inhibited. Another possibility is that the com-
mon occurrence of static crystallisation and
the rarity of syntectonic growth may indicate
that the deformation phases were of relatively
short duration.
In some areas the rarity of syntectonic, high-
grade minerals may indicate that a lowering
of grade has accompanied the folding episodes.
This seems to be so in the Warren Reservoir
area, where retrograde metamorphism has
occurred during the third phase of deformation,
but it seems unlikely that retrogression during
folding took place everywhere in the Mt Lofty
Ranges. The reasons for this assumption are:
First, it is generally found that the grade of
metamorphism of one static phase is very
similar to that in the preceding static phase.
Such a common situation would seem to be
fortuitous if the intervening deformation
phase was concomitant with lowering in grade.
Second, in areas where syntectonic meta-
morphism has been reported (mainly Spring-
ton, Warren Reservoir and Pewsey Vale), the
grade has reached, or approached the maxi-
mum grade found in the particular area.
Static crystallisation
As mentioned previously, major porphyro-
blastic growth took place during the static
phases, particularly in the post-Fj phase and
to a lesser extent in the post-F2 and -F 3 phases.
This apparent lower frequency of crystallisa-
tion in post-F2 and post-F3 static phases may
be the result of a shorter duration of the later
static periods, or the result of extensive crystal-
lisation in the post-Fj phase leaving less
material available in the later phases for the
formation of porphyroblasts. The latter sugges-
tion seems to be the most reasonable to the
authors.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN METAMORPHISM
AND REGIONAL STRUCTURE
In general, the regional structural trends on
the western and northern sides of the Mt Lofty
Ranges are believed to be the result of the
first phase of folding (F x ). The dominant
phase of metamorphism appears to be later
than this phase of folding {i.e. post-Fi, pre-F 2 ;
see previous section). Thus we would expect
the zone boundary pattern in these areas to be
fairly simple, and independent of structural
 FOLDING AND METAMORPHISM, MT LOFTY RANGES
trends. This appears to be the case in the above
regions (Fig. 6).
Unexpected departures from the generally
simple zone-boundary trends seen in certain
areas may be the effect of folding (F 2 or F 3 )
later than the dominant metamorphic crystal-
lisation (post-Fj, pre-F 2 ). This may be the case
in the Woodside-Harrogate region where the
andalusite-staurolite/sillimanite zone boundary
departs from its meridional trend to a more
sinuous pattern. Here the dominant macro-
scopic structure is a result of F 2 and F 3 folding,
whereas the dominant phase of metamorphic
crystallisation is earlier than this (viz. post-F^
pre-F 2 ).
Faulting also appears to have been respon-
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sible for the shifting of zone boundaries in
certain areas, for example, the area east of
Springton (Mills, 1964), the Mt Kitchener-
Meadows region, and the region transected by
the Bremer Fault (Figs 6, 8). As detailed
mapping progresses, other anomalies may be
explained by post-metamorphic faulting.
If the pre-tectonic metamorphism discussed
in earlier sections is found to be a regional
feature, the configuration of the zonal boun-
daries resulting from this phase should prove
to be less simple than the configuration of
metamorphic zones (dominantly post-Fj, pre-
F 2 ) depicted on Figure 6, as all three phases
of folding (Fi to F 3 ) would be expected to
modify the original pre-Fi zonal plan.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was undertaken at the sug-
gestion of Professor R. W. R. Rutland of the
Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Uni-
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members of this department, particularly Drs
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 266 R. OFFLER & P. D. FLEMING

EXPLANATION OF PLATES
Numbers refer to specimens on file in the Geology Department, University of Adelaide.
PLATE 23
Fig. 1. Fibrolite (dark masses on biotite) at the margin of pre-slaty cleavage (Sj) andalusite.
Note fine inclusions of quartz and biotite within andalusite which show no preferred orien-
tation. Slaty cleavage wraps around andalusite. Post-Sj garnet (G) has grown across the
foliation. Section parallel to a strong crenulation. Angaston, No. 22068.
Fig. 2. Chlorite and muscovite pseudomorphs after andalusite. Biotite and muscovite define St which
wraps around the pseudomorphs. Crossed nicols. Section perpendicular to St. Kapunda,
No. 22069.
Fig. 3. Andalusite porphyroblasts containing S, as an internal fabric discordant to Ss. Note stauro-
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lite porphyroblast (arrow) athwart crenulated biotite. Section perpendicular to F 3 crenula-

tions (not shown in figure). Dawesley, No. 22070.
Fig. 4. Andalusite porphyroblast showing an internal fabric GSX) discordant to crenulation cleavage
(Sj). Note the post-52 growth of andalusite (arrow) which inherits 5 2 without pushing it
aside. Section perpendicular to F 3 crenulations (not shown). Dawesley, No. 22071.
PLATE 24
Fig. 1. Pre-tectonic porphyroblasts of andalusite wrapped around by St. Note banding (arrow) in
some porphyroblasts approximately parallel to bedding So. Section perpendicular to Lt.
Kapunda, No. 22062.
Fig. 2. Post-5,, pre-52 staurolite porphyroblasts containing an internal fabric (black lines edged with
white) oblique to 5 2 which wraps around the porphyroblasts. Note post-52 rims (arrow)
of staurolite which are inclusion free. Se is mildly crenulated. Post-S^ garnets replace biotite
and staurolite (double-barbed arrows). Section perpendicular to Sr Dawesley, No. 22072.
 OFFLER & FLEMING PLATE 23
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Fig. 3 Fig. 4

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 OFFLER & FLEMING PLATE 24
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Fig. 1

Fig. 2
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