5.

Airport Engineering
Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.
Role of Air transportation:
 Improves accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas
 Provides continuous connectivity over land and water (no change of equipment)
 Saves productive time, spent on journey
 Increase the demand of specialized technical skill workforce.
 Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
 Speed: Modern jet can travel at 1000 km/h
 Promotion of trade and commerce
 Military use
 Relief and rescue operations
 Aerial photography
 Agricultural spraying
 Safe mode of transport.
Disadvantages of air transport
 Heavy funds are required, not only initially but also during operation.
 Operations are highly dependent up on weather conditions.
 It needs highly sophisticated machinery:
 Adds to the outward flow of foreign reserve
 Noise pollution
 Safety provisions are not adequate
 Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories is essential.
 High energy consumption
Air Transport in Nepal
 1949: The date heralded the formal beginning of aviation in Nepal with the landing of a 4 seated lone
powered vintage beach-craft Bonanza aircraft of Indian ambassador Mr. Sarjit Singh Mahathia at
Gauchar.
 1950: The first Charter flight By Himalayan Aviation Dakota FromGoucher to Kolkata.
 1955: King Mahendra inaugurated Gauchar Airport and renamed it as Tribhuwan Airport.
 1957: Grassy runway transformed into a concrete one.
 1957: Department of civil Aviation Founded.
 1958: Royal Nepal Airlines started scheduled service domestically and externally.
 1959: RNAC fully owned by HMG/N as a public undertaking.
 1960: Nepal Attained ICAO membership.
 1964: Tribhuvan Airport renamed as Tribhuvan International Airport.
 1967: The 3750 feet long runway extended to 6600 feet.
 1967: Landing of the German Airlines Lufthansa Boeing 707.
 1968: Thai International starts its scheduled jet air services.
 1972: Nepalese jet aircraft Boeing 727/100 makes debut landing at TIA. ATC services taken over by
Nepalese personnel from Indian Technicians.
 1975: TIA runway extended to 10000 feet from the previous 6600 feet.
 1975: CATC established.
 1976: FIC (Flight information Center) established.
 1977: Nepal imprinted in the World Aeronautical.
 1989: Completion of international Terminal Building and first Concorde landing.
 1990: New International terminal Building Of TIA inaugurated by king Birendra.
1992: Adoption of Liberal Aviation Policy and emergence of private sector in domestic air transport. 1993: National
Civil Aviation Policy Promulgated.
1995: Domestic terminal Building of TIA and Apron expanded at TIA.
1998: COSCAP-SA project established. Inauguration of RADAR System at TIA by Rt. Hon. P.M. Girija Prasad Koirala.
2002: Expansion of the International Terminal Building at TIA and the construction of a new air cargo complex.
2003: Rara airport (Mugu), Kangeldandasirport (Solukhumbu) and Thamkharka airport (Khotang) brought in
Operation.
2004: Domestic operation by jet aircraft commenced.
2005: International Flight by two private operator began.
2006: A new comprehensive Aviation Policy introduced. GMG Airlines of Bangladesh, Korean Air and Air Arabia
started air service to Nepal.
2007: Site identified for a new second international airport. Etihad, Dragon Air, Orient Thai and Hong Kong Express
commenced their service to Nepal.
2009: RCAG station established in Nepalgunj to augment coverage of VHF communications in Air Traffic Control.
2010: An agreement of SDR 44388000 signed between Nepal Government and CAAN for capacity Enhancement
project of TIA under ADB loan.
2011: Tumlingtar and Simikot runways paved. Installation of new DVOR/DME at KTM and BIR.
2012: Introduction of RNP AR procedures at TIA effected from June. AMHS commissioned CAA received TRAINAIR
PLUS Associate Membership from ICAO.
2013: Installation of CNS & ATM Equipment at TIA to enhance ATC Capacity. Up gradation of DVOR/DME and RMM
at Nepalgunj, Bhairahawa, Simara and Maintenance Hut.
2014: Commencement of Installation of Terminal Monopulse Secondary Surveillance Radar (T-MSSR) at TIA and
enroute MSSR at Bhattedanda under Japanese Grant AID.
2015: Gautam Buddha International Airport foundation stone laid down by Rt. Hon’ PM Sushil Korala. New Domestic
Terminal Building Constructed at TIA. Total 23 Airports including TIA are paved.
2016: Pokhara Regional/Intl’ Airport Construction Foundation Stone Laid down by Rt. Hon’ PM K.P. Oli (2016 April
13).
 International Civil Aviation organization
ICAO
 Established in 1944 as a result of Chicago convention Headquarter is in
Montreal, Canada.
 It is made up of an assembly, a council of limited membership with various
subordinate bodies and a secretariat.
 Assembly composed of representatives from all contracting states, is the
sovereign body of ICAO
 The council the governing body which is elected by the assembly for a three
year term is composed of 36 states.

ICAO aims and objectives are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of
international air transport so as to
◦ Insure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
◦ Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes
◦ Encourage the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities for
international civil aviation
◦ Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air
transport.
Federal Aviation Agency-FAA
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States is a
national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. These
include the construction and operation of airports, air traffic management, the
certification of personnel and aircraft, and the protection of U.S. assets during the
launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles.
The FAA's roles include:
 Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation
 Regulating air navigation facilities' geometric and flight inspection standards
 Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology
 Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates.
 Regulating civil aviation to promote transportation safety in the United States,
especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices.
 Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for
both civil and military aircraft
 Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics
 Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other
environmental effects of civil aviation
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal
CAAN
 The Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal CAAN, ( नेपाल नागरिक उड्डयन
प्राधिकिण) is an independent Nepali government body since 1998, is
headquartered in Kathmandu.
 The CAAN began in 1957 as an agency under what was the Ministry of
Work, Communications and Transport. On 31 December 1998, as a result of
the Civil Aviation Act of 1996, the CAAN was established as an independent
regulatory body. It is the board which issues new pilot licenses, renews
licenses and convert the licenses through various tests.
 Now It lies under Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation.
Major tasks of CAAN
 Issuance of Airworthiness Certificate and License, Rating and Certificate to
aviation personnel
 Safety Oversight of Aviation Service Provider Organizations
 Issuance of Technical Regulations like Civil Aviation Requirements, Directives,
Manuals, Advisory Circulars etc.
 Certification of Aerodromes
 Construction, Operations and Management of aerodromes
 Provide Air Navigation Services except Aviation Meteorology
 Advise Government of Nepal on Civil Aviation Matters
5.1 Classification of Airport
There are different classifications by the related organizations such as ICAO, FAA etc.
1. Based on take-off and landing
 Conventional take-off and landing airport (runway length > 1500 m.
 Reduced take-off and landing airport (runway length 1000 to 1500m)
 Short take-off and landing airport (runway length 500 to 1000m)
 Vertical take-off and landing airport (operational area 25 to 50 sq. m.)
2. Based on the Geometric design (ICAO)
It employs aerodrome reference code, it consists of length of runway available
 Classified using code number 1 through 4
◦ Aircraft wing span and outer main gear wheel span
 Classified using letters A through E
◦ ICAO classification based on wing span and outer main gear wheel span
3. Based on function:
 Civil aviation airports
 Domestic airports
 International airports
 Combination of international and domestic
4. Military aviation airports
5.2 Aircraft types

*Ornithopter moves wings to fly

Name these

Ornithoptor
Gyroplane

Amphibious Airplane Sea plane

Aircraft can also be classified based
on the following,
 Mach Number
 Purpose
 Type of Engines
 Number of Engines
 Number of Wings
 Range
 Mode of take-off and landing
 Size and Payload Capacity
 Source of Power
 Special features
a. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
MACH NUMBER
Comparison with speed of sound
 Subsonic (M<1)
 Transonic (M~1)
 Supersonic (M>1)
 Hypersonic (M>>1)
b. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
PURPOSE
 Passenger Transport
 Business jets
 Cargo Transport
 Experimental aircraft
 Trainers
 Military aircraft
◦ Fighters
◦ Bombers
◦ Medical / Rescue Aircraft
◦ Spy / Reconnaissance Aircraft
 Agricultural aircraft
 Sports aircraft
 Glider
 Recreational aircraft
 Man-powered aircraft
c. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
TYPE OF ENGINE
 Propeller – It converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source,
into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It
comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial
airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal
axis.
 Turboprop - It is similar to the turbo jet engine except that propeller is
provided in it. Turbine extracts enough power to drive both the compressor and
propeller.
 Turbofan – It is a type of air breathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft
propulsion. The word "turbofan" is a portmanteau of "turbine" and "fan": the turbo
portion refers to a gas turbine engine which achieves mechanical energy from
combustion, and the fan, a ducted fan that uses the mechanical energy from the
gas turbine to accelerate air rearwards. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a
turbojet passes through the turbine (through the combustion chamber), in a
turbofan some of that air bypasses the turbine. A turbofan thus can be thought of
as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of these contributing to
the thrust.
 Turbojet - to start the machine, the compressor is rotated with motor. As the
compressor gains its rated speed, it sucks in air through the air intake and
compresses it in the compression chamber. The air is ignited here by fuel. The
expanding gasses pass through the fan like blades of turbine. The hot gasses
escape through the tail pipe which becomes smaller in diameter and this hot gas
having velocity, give a forward thrust to the engine.
 Ramjet - It has no moving parts. It must be operated at high speed It requires
the assistance of other types of power plant to reach the operating speed. The
heated air expands and rushes out of the exhaust nozzle at high velocity creating
jet thrust.
Propeller
Turbo jet

Turbo prop

Ram jet

Turbo fan
d. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER
OF ENGINES
 This varies depending on the mission requirements of
the particular aircraft.
e. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER
OF WINGS
 Monoplanes
 Biplanes etc.
Present day aircrafts have a Monoplane configuration

f. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON RANGE

 Short range (<500 km)
 Medium range (<3000km)
 Long range (>3000 km)
g. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF
TAKEOFF AND LANDING
 Normal
 VTOL (Vertical Takeoff and Landing)
 STOL (Short Takeoff and Landing)
 STOVL (Short Takeoff and Vertical landing). etc
h. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE
AND PAYLOAD CAPACITY
 Micro-airplanes
 Single or double seater airplanes
 Medium size airplanes (~50 passengers)
 Large Airplanes (~ 400 passengers)
 Cargo planes for transporting cars, trucks, military tanks
etc.
 i. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCE
OF POWER
 Oil,
 Solar Power,
 Electric Power,
 Nuclear Power ( quite rare)

j. SPECIAL AIRCRAFT
 Helicopter
 Ornithopter or Flapping wing aircraft
 Flying Wing Aircraft
 Stealth Aircraft
Components of Aircraft
A. Engine
1. Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating
engine and is driven by propeller or airscrew. Engine rotates a
shaft with a considerable amount of torque. Propeller is
mounted on the shaft to absorb the torque. Rotating propeller
attains its rated speed, huge masses of air is hurled rearwards
thereby pulling the aircraft forward and creating lift on the wing.
They are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate
speed. They have cooling problem also.
2. Jet engine: advantages of jet engine
a. they are free from vibration
b. Simplicity of operation (no transmission or conversion
mechanism is required)
c. No radiators required
d. No spark plugs are required
e. No carburetors
f. Less consumption of lubricants
Turbo Jet, Turbo Prop, Ram Jet
3. Rocket engine
 B. Fuselage:
 It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the
power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc.
C. Wings:
 Wings are required to support the machine in the air,
when the engine has given forward speed.
D. Three Controls:
There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move to control
these movements an aircraft is provided with three principal controls:
i) Elevator: elevator consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down
through an angle of 50-60 degree. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface
at the extreme rear end of fuselage. It controls the pitch of the aircraft.
ii) Rudder: It consists of a flap hinged to a vertical line provided at the tail end of
fuselage. It is utilized for turning (or yawing) movement of the aircraft. It works
just a boat is steered in water.
iii) Aileron: it is hinged flap in the trailing edge of the wing. It is for rolling
movement control.
E. Tricycle under-carriage:
Tricycle undercarriage if for supporting the aircraft while it is in contact
with the ground. Functions:
 To absorb landing shocks
 To enable the aircraft to maneuver on the ground
Types:
 Single wheel assembly
 Dual wheel assembly
 Dual wheel assembly in Tandem
Aircraft Characteristics:
1. Engine type and propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius
4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of aircraft
6. Capacity of the aircraft
7. Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
8. Jet Blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
5.3 Predicting Air Travel demand
Prediction or Forecasting air travel demand are used to:
a) assist States in facilitating the orderly development of civil
aviation and to assist all levels of government in the planning of
airspace and airport infrastructure such as air traffic control,
terminal facilities, access roads, runways, taxiways and aprons;
b) assist airlines in the long-term planning of equipment and
route structures; and
c) assist aircraft manufacturers in planning future types of
aircraft (in terms of size and range) and when to develop them.
Forecasting methods in general can be divided into three broad
categories:
 quantitative or mathematical,
 qualitative or judgmental, and
 decision analysis,
It is necessary for the planning of future air traffic
requirements. Based on the estimate various
component parts of the airport are planned. Following
items of air traffic are needed to estimate:
 Annual passenger volume
 Annual volume of air traffic
 Peak day or peak hour volume of passenger or air
cargo
 Air cargo
 Air Mail
 General aviation
Alternative Forecasting Technique
 Methods of forecasting:
a. Demand based on historical trend
These methods are based on the trends established the past growth rate of passenger handled, cargo handled, aircraft
landing and takeoff.
 Tn = T0 (1+ r)ˆn
◦ Tn – Traffic in the nth year
◦ To – Traffic in the base year
◦ n – Number of year
◦ r – Annual growth rate of traffic expressed in decimals
b. Demand forecast based on econometric models
These methods relate air traffic to various economic and social factors, based on the study of the past data on these
factors. Economic and factors such as GNP, Per capita income, population, industrial production etc. can be used as the
explanatory variables. A multiple linear regression model can be incorporated for future forecast.
 AT = A0 + A1X1 + A2X2 +........AnXn
◦ AT – air traffic in terms of passenger, Passenger Km, tones of cargo, ton-km of cargo etc.
◦ A0 – Regression constant
◦ A1, A2, A3… - Regression coefficients
◦ X1, X2, X3 ….. – Independent variables
c. Gravity models
It relates the passenger flow or cargo flow between a pair of cities to the economic activities in the cities or population of
the cities and incorporating an independent factor.
ATij=(PiPj)/dij
◦ Atij – Air traffic between cities I and j
◦ Pi, Pj – population of cities I and j
◦ dij – distance between i and j
◦ n – a constant to be calibrated
5.4 Selection of Airport site
Suitable site for airport depends upon the class of the airport.
Factors to be considered for a suitable airport site are:
1. Consistency with Regional plan
2. Operational capability: airspace considerations, obstructions, weather etc.
3. Airport use: military, civil, etc.
4. Proximity to other airport: minimum spacing between two airports:
◦ Airport for general aviation under VFR 3.2 km
◦ For two piston aircraft VFR: 6.4 km
◦ Piston engine IFR: 25.6 km
◦ Jet engine aircraft: 160 km. (*VFR- Visual Flight Rules)
5. Ground accessibility: normally it should not exceed 30 minute drive form the city. It is desirable to
locate airport adjacent to the highway.
6. Topography: hill top is most suitable
7. Visibility: free from fog, smoke haze etc.
8. Wind: runway orientation should be: landing and takeoff is done by heading into wind. Smoke from
city and industry should not blow over the airport.
9. Noise nuisance: landing and takeoff path should not pas over the residential or industrial areas.
10. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. Future development
12. availabilities of utilities from town
13. economic considerations
5.5 Layout of Airfields and their geometric standards
Airport Layout
Layout of an airport is dependent upon a number of
factors the most important are:
1. Number and orientation of runways
2. Number of taxiways
3. Size and shape of aprons
4. The area and shape of land
5. Topography and site soil conditions
6. Obstacle to air navigation
7. Required proximity of land uses within the airport
boundary
8. Surrounding land uses
9. Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
10. Meteorology
11. Size and scale of airport facilities being planned
Components of Airport Layout
 Runway
 Terminal Building
 Apron
 Taxiway
 Aircraft Stand
 Hanger
 Control Tower
 Parking
A. Runway
 A runway is the area where an aircraft lands or takes off.
 It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete.
 Runways have special markings on them to help a pilot in the air to tell
that it is a runway (and not a road) and to help them when they are
landing or taking off.
 Runway markings are white.
 Most runways have numbers on the end. The number is the runway's
compass direction. (For example, runway numbered 36 would be
pointing north or 360 degrees). Some airports have more than one
runway going in the same direction, so they add letters to the end of
the number R for right, C for center, and L for left. The other end of
the runway is pointing in the opposite direction, so it gets a different
number. The runway called 36 would be called 18 (for 180 degrees) if
you were looking at it from the other end.
 Runways may have other markings besides the end number on them.
 They may have white stripes down the middle of them, and solid white
lines on the edges.
 The most important thing for you to remember about a runway is that
it is meant for aircraft use, so you should never drive your vehicle on it,
unless you are authorized to do so.
B.Terminal Buildings
 Also known as airport terminal
 These buildings are the spaces where passengers board
or alight from flights.
 These buildings house all the necessary facilities for
passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs
and have lounges to wait before disembarking.
 The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve
as waiting areas for passengers.
 Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security
checks and customs are the basics of all airport
terminals.
 Large airports can have more than one terminal that are
connected to one another through link ways such as
walkways, sky-bridges or trams.
 Smaller airports usually have only one terminal that
houses all the required facilities.
C. Aprons
 Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park.
 Aprons are also sometimes called ramps.
 They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small
planes, to the very large areas that the major airports have.
 Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons.

D.Taxiway
 A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps,
hangars, terminals and other facilities.
 They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete,
although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.

E. Aircraft Stand
 A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and
intended to provide access to aircraft stands only.
F. Hangar
 A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft.
 Hangars are built of metal, wood and concrete.
 The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart
("enclosure near a house"), of Germanic origin, from Frankish
*haimgard ("home-enclosure", "fence around a group of
houses"), from *haim ("home, village, hamlet") and gard ("yard").
 Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct
sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage
of aircraft.
G. Control Tower
 A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is
controlled by radio and observed physically and by
radar.
H. Parking
 Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park
Geometric Standards
Runway
 Runway Orientation:
◦ Because of obvious advantages of landing and taking off into the
wind, runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing wind.
◦ Aircraft may not maneuver safely on a runway when wind contains
large component at right angle to the direction of travel.
◦ The point at which this component (cross wind component)
becomes excessive will depend upon the size and operating
characteristics of the aircraft.
 Factors affecting the determination of the siting,
orientation and number of runways:
◦ weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as
determined by wind distribution, and the occurrence of localized
fogs;
◦ topography of the aerodrome site and its surroundings;
◦ type and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic
control aspects;
◦ airplane performance considerations; and
◦ environmental considerations, particularly noise.
Airport Refrence code Allowable Crosswind
Component
A-I and B-I 10.5 kt (knot)
A-II and B-II 13.0 kt
A-III, B-III, and C-I through D-III 16.0 kt
A-IV through D-VI 20.0 kt

Maximum permissible Cross Wind Component (FAA)

Refrence Field Length Maximum Crosswind

Component
1500 m or Over 37 km/hr (20kt)
1200m to 1499 m 24 Km/hr (13 kt)
< 1200m 19 km/hr (10kt)

Maximum permissible Cross Wind Component (ICAO)

Head wind:
 direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and
takeoff
◦ Takeoff: head wind provides greater lift on the wings, thus
shorter length of runway is enough
◦ Landing: Headway provides a braking effect and aircraft comes to
stop in a smaller length of runway.
 If landing and takeoff are done along the wind direction, it
may require longer runway length.

Cross wind Component:

 it is not always possible to obtain the direction of wind along
the direction of the center line of runway, this Normal wind
component is called cross wind component.
 And it may interrupt the safe landing and takeoff of the
aircraft. VSinθ is the Cross wind Component.
 Wind Coverage:
◦ The percentage of time in a year during which the
CWC (Cross wind Component) remains within
the limit is called Wind Coverage.
◦ FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind coverage
should be 95 % with the limit of 25 kmph. CWC.
◦ For busy airport, WC may be 98 -100 %
 Wind Rose method:
◦ Typically wind rose is applied for the orientation of
runway.
 Wind Rose type I:
◦ It is the graphical representation of wind data:
direction and intensity. Data should be collected
for the period of 5 to 10 years. Wind data average
of 8 years period
◦ Time wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph is called
Calm Period.
Geometric Standards for
Elements of Airport
1. Runway
 Parameters of runway are:
i) Length ii) Width
iii) Sight distance iv) Gradient & Change in Gradient
v) Transverse Gradient Runway Intersection vi) Runway Clearance
 The following factors most strongly influence required runway length.
a) Performance characteristics of aircraft using runway length.
b) Landing and takeoff gross weights of aircraft
c) Elevation of airport
d) Average maximum air temperature at the airport
e) Runway gradient
 Note: ·Correction for elevation and temperature should be done
·Maximum width of landing strip: o Non instrumental runway: 150 m
o Instrumental runway: 300 m
 Basic length of runway characteristics
 It is the length of runway under the following conditions:
·Airport altitude is at sea level ·Airport temperature is 15 0 Celsius
·Runway is level in longitudinal direction ·No wind is blowing on runway
·Aircraft is loaded to its full capacity.
Correction for Elevation,Temperature and Gradient
 Basic length of runway is for mean sea level, having standard atmospheric conditions. It is
necessary to carry out corrections for elevation, Temperature and Gradient
 Correction for Elevation
 As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. It reduces the lift on the wing of the
aircraft and aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can rise into the air. To
achieve greater speed longer length of runway is required.
 ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7%
per 300 m rise in elevation above mean sea level.
 Correction for temperature
 The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in
elevation. Airport reference temperature (Tr) is defined as the monthly mean of average
daily temperature (Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one third the difference of
this temperature (Ta) and monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature (Tm) for the
𝑇 −𝑇
same month of the year. 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑚 𝑎
3
 ICAO recommends that the basic length of the runway after having been corrected for
elevation should be further increased at the rate of 1 % for every 1o rise of airport
reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature (Ts) at the elevation.
 The temperature gradient of the standard atmospheric from the mean sea level to the
altitude at which temperature becomes 15 o C is -0.0065 o C per meter.
 Check for total correction for elevation and temperature:
 It the total correction (elevation and temperature) exceeds 35% the basic runway length,
these corrections should then be checked up by conducting specific studies.
 Correction for Gradient
 Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy, and longer the
runway length is required for attaining the ground speed.
 ICAO does not recommend on this correction. FAA recommends that the
runway length after having been corrected for elevation and temperature
should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective
gradient.
 Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between
the highest and lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.
 Width of Runway
 The width of a runway should not be less than the approximate dimension
specified in the table below.
 The factors affecting the width of runway are:
 a) Deviation of an aeroplane from the centerline at touchdown.
 b) Cross wind condition
 c) Runway surface contamination (snow, rainfall ice etc.)
 d) Rubber deposit
 e) Crab landing approached used in cross-wind conditions
 f) Approach speeds used
 g) Visibility
 h) Human factors
 Longitudinal slopes:
 The slopes computed by dividing the differences between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway
centerline by the runway length should not exceed:
◦ 1 % where the code number is 3 or 4
◦ 2% where the code number is 1 or 2
 Longitudinal slope changes
 Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between two consecutive slopes should not exceed:
◦ 1.5 % where code number is 3 or 4;
◦ 2% where code number is 1 or 2
 Sight distance
 Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be such that there will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
◦ Any three m above a runway to all other points 3 m above the runway within a distance of at least half the
length of the runway where the code letter is C, D or E;
◦ Any point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m above the runway within a distance at least half the
length of runway where code letter is B; and
◦ Any point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m above the runway within a distance of at least half
the length of runway where the code letter is A.
 Distance between slope changes
 Undulation or appreciable change in slopes located together along the runway should be avoided. The distance
between the points of intersection of two successive curves should not be less than:
a) The sum of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multiplied by the appropriate values as
below:
 30 000 m where the code number is 4
 15 000 m where the code number is 3 and
 5 000 m where the code number is 1 or 2
b) 45 m;
 Whichever is greater?
 Transverse slope
 To promote the rapid drainage of water, the runway surface should, if
practicable, be cambered except where a single cross fall from high to low in
the direction of the wind most frequently associated with rain would ensure
rapid drainage.
 The transverse slope should ideally be:
◦ 1.5 % where the code letter is C, D, E or F
◦ 2% where the code letter is A or B
 But in any event should not be exceed 1.5 % or 2 %. As applicable, nor be less
than 1 % except at runway or taxiway intersections where flatter slopes be
necessary.
 Runway shoulder
 Runway shoulder must be provided to ensure a transition from the full strength
pavement to the unpaved strip of runway.
 The paved shoulder protects the edge of the runway pavement, contribute to
the prevention of soil erosion by jet blast and mitigate foreign object damage to
jet engines.
 Runways shoulder should be provided for a runway where the code letter is D
or E and the runway width is less than 60m. Runway shoulders should be
provided where the code letter is F.
 The runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side of the runway
so that the overall width of the runway and its shoulders is not less than 60 m
for letter E and 75 m for code letter F.
 Slopes:
 The surface of the shoulder that abuts the runway should be flush with the surface of the runway and its transverse
downward slope should not exceed 2.5 %.
 Runway strip:
 A runway strip extends laterally to a specified distance from the runway center line, longitudinally, before the threshold,
and beyond the runway end. It provides an area clear of objects which may endanger airplanes. The strip includes a
graded portion which should be so prepared as to not cause the collapse of the nose gear if an aircraft should leave
the runway.
 There are certain limitations on the slopes permissible on graded portion of the strip.
 A strip should before the threshold and before the end of the runway or stopway for a distance of at least:
◦ 60 m where the code number is 2, 3, or 4.
◦ 60 m where the code number is 1 and the runway is an instrument one;
◦ 30 m where the code number is 1 and runway is a non-instrument one.
 Width:
 A strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever practicable, extend laterally for a distance of at least:
◦ 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4 and;
◦ 75 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
 A strip including non-precision approach should extend laterally to a distance of at least:
◦ 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4;
◦ 75 m where the cod number is 1 and 2
 On each side of the centerline of the runway and its extended centerline through the length of the strip A strip
including a non-instrument runway should extend, on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended
centre line throughout the length of the strip, for a distance of at least:
◦ 75 m where the code number is 3 or 4
◦ 40 m where the code number is 2; and
◦ 30 m where the code number is 1.
Taxiway and Apron
 Maximum capacity and efficiency of an aerodrome are
realized only by obtaining the proper balance between the
need for runways, passenger and cargo terminals, and aircraft
storage and servicing areas. These separate and distinct
aerodrome functional elements are linked by the taxiway
system. The components of the taxiway system therefore
serve to link the aerodrome functions and are necessary to
develop optimum aerodrome utilization
 The taxiway system should be designed to minimize the
restriction of aircraft movement to and from the runways
and apron areas. A properly designed system should be
capable of maintaining a smooth, continuous flow of aircraft
ground traffic at the maximum practical speed with a
minimum of acceleration or deceleration. This requirement
ensures that the taxiway system will operate at the highest
levels of both safety and efficiency.
Design criteria for taxiway are given in the table below.
 Taxiway Curve:
 Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and small as possible. The design of the curve
should be such that when the cockpit of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line
markings, the clearance distance between the outer main wheels of the aeroplane and the edge of
the taxiway should not be less than those specified in the table below:

 Rapid exit taxiways:

 A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow
landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than those achieved on other exit taxiways,
thereby minimizing runway occupancy time.
 A decision to design and construct a rapid exit taxiway is based upon analyses of existing and
contemplated traffic. The main purpose of these taxiways is to minimize aircraft runway occupancy
and thus increase aerodrome capacity. When the design peak hour traffic density is approximately
less than 25 operations (landings and take-offs), the right angle exit taxiway may suffice. The
construction of this right angle exit taxiway is less expensive, and when properly located along the
runway, achieves an efficient flow of traffic.:
Holding bays and other bypasses
a) Holding bays: A defined area where aircraft can be held or bypassed
b) Dual taxiways. A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel
taxiway.
c) Dual runway entrances. A duplication of the taxiway entrance to the runway.

Holding
bays

By pass
Apron
 An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of
loading and unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling and parking or
maintenance. The apron is generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved;
for example, in some instances, a turf parking apron may be adequate for small
aircraft
 Types:
1. Passenger apron: The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for
aircraft maneuvering and parking that is adjacent or readily accessible to
passenger terminal facilities. This area is where passengers board the aircraft
from the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating passenger movement, the
passenger terminal apron is used for aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as
loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft parking positions
on the passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.
2. Cargo terminal apron: Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be
provided a separate cargo terminal apron adjacent to a cargo terminal building.
The separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is desirable because of the
different types of facilities each requires both on the apron and at the terminal
3. Remote parking apron: In addition to the terminal apron, airports may
require a separate parking apron where aircraft can park for extended periods.
4. Service hanger apron: A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an
aircraft hangar on which aircraft maintenance can be performed, while a hangar
apron is an area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage hangar.
5. General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require
several categories of aprons to support different general aviation activities.
General layout of apron:
 The amount of area required for a particular apron layout depends
upon the following factors:
◦ the size and maneuverability characteristics of the aircraft using the
apron;
◦ the volume of traffic using the apron;
◦ clearance requirements;
◦ type of ingress and egress to the aircraft stand;
◦ basic terminal layout or other airport use
◦ aircraft ground activity requirements; and
◦ taxiways and service roads.
5.6 Terminal facilities and their space requirements
 Terminal area:
 Area other than landing, serves for other activities
includes:
◦ Terminal and operational building for managerial & operational
activities
◦ Vehicle parking area
◦ Aircraft service Hanger
 Various facilities provided in airport terminal building:
a. Passenger and baggage handling counter b. Baggage claim section
c. Enquire counter d. Space for handling & processing mail, cargo etc.
e. Public Telephone booth f. Waiting hall for passenger & visitors
g. Toile facilities h. Restaurants & Bars
i. First aid room j. General store & gift store
k. Space for newspapers l. Space for airport staff
m. Weather bureau n. Post office
o. Bank p. Custom control
q. Security & Police r. Passport control
s. Airline office
Functions of the airport passenger terminal
 Airport terminal constituents one of the principle elements of infrastructure
cost at the airport. The passenger terminal performs mainly three functions:
a) Change of mode:
few air trips are made direct from origin to destination. By their nature, air
trips are mixed mode trips, with surface access trips linked at either end to the
line haul air trips. These movement patterns are accommodated by passenger
circulation areas.
b) Processing:
the terminal is a convenient point to carry out certain processes associated
with air trip. These may include ticketing and checking in the passengers. This
function of the terminal requires passenger processing space.
c) Change of movement type:
although aircraft move passengers in discrete groups in what is termed "batch
movements", the same passengers access the airport on an almost continuous
basis, arriving and departing in small groups mainly by bus, auto, taxi and etc. the
terminal therefore functions on the departure side as a reservoir that collects
passengers continuously and processes them in batches. On the arrivals side,
the pattern is reverse. To perform this function, the terminal must provide
passenger holding apace.
 Facilities required for Passenger terminal
The terminal acts as the transfer point between the land and air side portions of the mixed mode 'air trip' made by
air passenger. The facilities can be categorized as follows:
1. Access including the land side interface
The facilities include curbside loading and unloading, curbside baggage check in, shuttle services to parking lots
another terminal, and loading and unloading area.
2. Passenger processing area:
The area is designated for formalities associated with processing passengers. The usual facilities include airline
ticketing and passenger check-in, baggage check-in, gate check-in, incoming and outgoing customs, immigration
control, health control, security check up, and baggage claim.
3. Passenger holding areas,
A very large portion of the passenger's time at the airport is spent outside the individual processing areas. Non-
processing time, the large portion is spent in holding areas where passenger wait, in some cases with airport
visitors, between periods occupied by passing through the various processing facilities. Following facilities are
required:
 Passenger lounges
 Passenger service areas: wash rooms, public telephone, post office, information desk, first aid, valet service,
barber beauty parlours etc.
 Concessions: bars, restaurants,
 Observation desk and visitors lobbies: including VIP facilities
4. Internal circulation and airside interface
Passenger move physically through the terminal system using the internal circulation system which should be simple
to find and follow and easy to negotiate. The airside interface is designed for secure and easy boarding of the
aircraft. Internal circulation is handled by corridors, walkways, people movers, and moving belts, ramps, tramways.
Airside interface requirements include loading facilities such as jetways, stairs, air bridges and mobile launges.
 5. Airline and support areas
Although airline terminals are designed primarily for airline passengers, most of whom will be quite
unfamiliar with their surroundings, the design must also cater to the needs of airline, airport, and
support personnel working in terminal area.
Following facilities are required:
1. Airline offices, passenger and baggage processing stations, telecommunications, flight
planning documentation, crew rest facilities, air line station administration, staff and crew toilets, rest
and refreshment areas.
2. Storage for wheel chairs,
3. Airport management offices
4. Governmental office and support area for staff working in customs, immigration, health,
and air passenger and traffic control,
5. Public address system, sign indicators and support areas flight information
6. Maintenance personnel offices and support areas, maintenance equipment storage.
6. Passenger and baggage flow
An adequately designed airport terminal is the work of a designer who understands the various flows
of passengers and baggage at a terminal. The figure below shows the typical flow of passenger and
baggage.

Terminal design concepts

 The design of terminal depends upon the nature of the air traffic to
be handled at an airport. The design concepts chosen is a function of
a number of factors, including the size and nature of traffic demand,
number of participating airlines, the traffic split between international
and domestic, scheduled, and charter flights, access modes etc.
 The most fundamental choice is that of centralized or decentralized
processing. There are different terminal configurations.
5.7 Introduction to design of airfield pavement
 Factors for design:
◦ Wheel load
◦ Sub-grade characteristics
◦ Strength of material used
 Types of pavements:
◦ Flexible
◦ Rigid
 The design wheel load
 Airport pavements are designed for wheel configuration as tricycle assembly. Each loading gear consists of:
◦ One wheel: single wheel assembly
◦ Two wheel: dual wheel assembly
◦ Four wheel : Dual in Tandem assembly
 These wheel arrangements can be converted into equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)
 Wheel load configuration is converted into equivalent single wheel Load (ESWL) in the following process:
i) Entire load of the aircraft is distributed between the main gear & nose or in the ratio of 9:1.
ii) In the case of single wheel assembly in main gear of 45 % of load is transferred through it.
iii) In case of dual wheel assembly

Up to depth (d2=d/2) wheel acts independently.

·Depth below 2D effects due to overlapping stresses
becomes negligible.
·Up to depth d/2 ESWL is P
·At the depth 2D, ESWL is 2P
 Incase of dual wheel load in tandem assembly:
◦ d and D are taken as in figure
◦ (d/2, P) and (2D, 4P) points are joined and a line is drawn for
ESWL
 Sets of curves are available for ESWL for standard tyre
pressure of 14 kg/cm2 for various gear assembly and for
capacity operations of 5000 coverages.
 Coverage:
 It is the number of aircraft operations needed for providing
maximum stresses once at each point on a pavement.
 For coverage more than 5000, increase in thickness is
recommended as:
– 10000 7% increase in design thickness
– 15000 11% ---,,----
– 20000 14 % -------- ,, ---------