2019/2020

MECH2414
Thermofluids

PART 2 - fluids
Fluid flow is life
Yuguo Li

CHAPTER 3. BERNOULLI EQUATION

Key topics
Key concepts: static pressure, stagnation point, Pitot tube, nozzle,
Venturi tube, orifice, continuity
Key formulas:
Continuity 𝑖𝑛 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝐴𝑉 or in simple 2 opening flows, 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 =
𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2 .
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
Bernoulli equation + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation models a fluid moving from location 1 to location 2.
The Bernoulli equation gives a relationship between pressure, velocity,
and position or elevation in a flow field.

OF 56 2`
2000 years of mankind exploration of fluid mechanics

Archimedes Da Vinci Newton Leibniz Bernoulli Euler

(C. 287-212 BC) (1452-1519) (1642-1727) (1646-1716) (1667-1748) (1707-1783)

Buoyancy Visualization Newton’s law Calculus Bernoulli’s eq Euler’s eq

Navier Stokes Reynolds Prandtl Richardson Taylor

(1785-1836) (1819-1903) (1842-1912) (1875-1953) (1881-1953) (1886-1975)
Navier-Stokes’ equation Re Boundary layer CFD Turbulence
Mixing length
3
Derivation from the Newton’s law - For the case of frictionless (inviscid) flow along the
streamline s (n is the normal to s). 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Assuming inviscid flows, and consider all forces (surface force - pressure and body force -
gravity) in the streamline direction (along a streamline)
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑠
𝑝− 𝑑𝑛𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑛𝑑𝑥 − 𝜌𝑔sin𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑑𝑛𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑠𝑑𝑛𝑑𝑥 (1)
𝜕𝑠 2 𝜕𝑠 2
where the angle between the tangent to the streamline and the horizontal sin = z/s and as
is the acceleration of the fluid particle along the streamline.

1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
Simplify and divide (1) by 𝜌𝑑𝑠𝑑𝑛𝑑𝑥 , we obtain − −𝑔 = 𝑎𝑠
𝜌 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

We know that
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑠 = = + + = +𝑉 ,
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
so we have − −𝑔 = +𝑉
𝜌 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑝
For steady flow = 0, we have + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜌
Integrating it gives
(assuming constant density, i.e. incompressible)
𝑝 𝑉2 Fluid particle moving along a
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝜌 2 stream line.
which is the so-called Bernoulli equation.

Four conditions for Bernoulli’s

 Less velocity

Falls

More velocity

Higher
velocity
at centre,
lower
pressure,
hence
D
the
pinpong
Fast flow through ball stays
d
the very fine gap,
low pressure,
hence the
PingPong ball
sticks to it
D>d
Energy heads
p
Pressure head, the work done to move fluid against pressure;
g
(unit, m)
Elevation head, representing the potential energy; z can be measured
above any reference datum; z
V2
Velocity head, representing the kinetic energy of flow; (unit, m)
2g
A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has
dimensions of length.
Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head, which is the
level registered by a piezometer connected to that point in a pipeline

Internet image
Stagnation, static and dynamic pressures
Ignoring elevation changes, Bernoulli equation reduces to a balance between
pressure and kinetic energy. Consider flow along a streamline from point “1” to
point “2”, and then to point “0” where the velocity is zero
1 1
p1  V12  p2  V22  p0  constant
2 2
Point “0” is called a stagnation point, and the pressure p0 is called the stagnation
pressure, which is the highest possible pressure in the flow. At the stagnation
point, the streamline divides.

Pressures p1 and p2 are called static pressure (although fluid there is not static).
1
The term 𝜌𝑉 2 , which has dimensions of pressure, is called dynamic pressure.
2

Note that at stagnation point, there is no tangential flow, and the approaching
flow divides radially (3D) or into two streams. The stagnation point may
fluctuate. The static pressure at the stagnation point is greater than those nearby.
Exact solution exists for the stagnation flow (i.e. Hiemenz solution in year 1911).
Example 1. Pitot tube. A pitot tube is inserted in an airflow to measure the
flow speed. The tube is inserted so that it points upstream into the flow
and the pressure sensed by the tube is the stagnation pressure. The static
pressure is measured at the same location in the flow, using a wall
pressure tap. If the pressure difference is 30 mm of mercury, determine the
flow speed.

Solution:
Assumptions: Steady flow, incompressible flow, flow along a streamline
and frictionless deceleration along stagnation streamline
Bernoulli’s equation along the stagnation streamline (with Δz = 0) yields
p0 p V 2
  , where
  2
p0 is the stagnation pressure at the tube opening where the speed has been
reduced to zero (without friction).

Solving for V gives

30
2 𝑝 0 −𝑝 2𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔ℎ×𝑠𝑔 𝐻𝑔 2 1000 9.81 13.6
𝑉= = = 1000
= 80.7 m/s
𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.23
The snake-like robot expected to play a
role in rescues

Tohoku University

10
Example 2. Nozzle flow
Air flows steadily at low speed through a horizontal nozzle (a device for
accelerating a flow), discharging to atmosphere. The area at the nozzle inlet is 0.1
m2. At the nozzle exit, the area is 0.02 m2. Determine the gage pressure (p1 - patm)
required at the nozzle inlet to produce an outlet speed of 50 m/s.

Solution: The max speed of 50 m/s is well below 100 m/s (M 0.3) in standard air
so the flow may be treated as incompressible

Steady flow, incompressible, frictionless and flow along a streamline, and also z1 =
z2

Assume steady flow at Sections 1 and 2. Apply the Bernoulli equation along a
streamline between points 1 and 2 to evaluate p1
p1 V12 p2 V22
  gz1    gz2
 2  2

p1  patm  p1  p2  V22  V12 
2
Apply the continuity equation to determine V1
 V1 A1   V2 A2   0 so we have V1 A1  V2 A2 , and 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2 = 50 × 0.02
1 0.1
= 10 m/s
For air at standard conditions, ρ = 1.23 kg m-3,
then
1 1
𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑉22 − 𝑉12 = 1.23 502 − 102 = 1476Pa=1.48kPa
Orifice and Vena Contracta

Orifice is a small hole, usually sharp edged to minimize friction, on the

wall of a large tank.

Jet: fluid being discharged from a tank through an orifice into air as a
free jet, possessing kinetic energy only. It is conversion of pressure and
elevation heads into velocity head, and the velocity of a jet can be very
high.

Vena contracta: the minimum section of the jet, slightly downstream

from the orifice, at which streamlines stop converging and are parallel
to one another; it is where the fluid pressure is equal to the pressure
surrounding the jet (atmospheric pressure if free jet).
The concept of control volume

• Control volume (CV) is a fixed region in space (or moving

at constant velocity) through which the fluid flows, and
where one applies physical laws to make a balance
between the net fluxes (of mass, momentum and energy)
crossing the boundaries of the region and the resultant
changes within the region.
• The surface enclosing the control volume is referred to as
the control surface (CS), which contains inlets (where fluid
enters) and outlets (where fluid leaves).
Continuity equation
𝜕𝑚
+ 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

For steady flow, the total entering flow equals to the leaving flow.

𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝐶𝑆
For incompressible fluids, 𝑉 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆 𝑛
=0

𝑉 𝑑𝐴
We define an average velocity at a cross section 𝑉 = 𝑛 . The
𝐴
product 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑄 is the volume flow rate (m3/s). The mass flow rate
is 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 (kg/s).

By using average velocity, the continuity equation becomes

𝜕𝑚
+ 𝜌𝐴𝑉 − 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

For steady flow 𝑖𝑛 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝐴𝑉 . When there is one entry and
one exit, 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2 .
Example 3 A pipeline with a 30 cm inside diameter carries liquid at
a flow rate of 0.025 m3/s. A reducer is placed in the line, and the
outlet diameter is 15 cm. Determine the average velocity at the
entry and end of the reducer.

Solution
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑄
𝑄 0.025
𝑉1 = 𝐴 = 𝜋/4 0.32 = 0.35 m/s
1
𝑄 0.025
𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 𝜋/4 0.15 2
= 1.4 m/s
2
Although the diameter is halved, the velocity changed by a factor of
4!
The Reynolds transport theorem (without derivation)
A control volume (CV) is a fixed region in space, while a control surface
(CS) surrounds the CV (boundary). Let B represent any of the fluid
parameters (velocity, mass, temperature or concentration), and b
represent the amount of a parameter per unit mass, i.e. 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑏. B can
be a vector, e.g. 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉 , then 𝑏 = 𝑉 , and 𝐵𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 .

The Reynolds transport theorem states

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌𝑏 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
Alternatively = 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑏 𝑉∙𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉

The left hand side represents the Lagrangian definition and the right
side represents the Eulerian equivalent. It states that the temporal rate
of change of B in the system equals to the time rate of B in CV and the
net flow rate of B through CS. This is the so-called integral form of the
conservation equation for a finite control volume
Description of velocity field
Consider an observer fixed in space watching a fluid particle moving around, 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
As 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 , acceleration vector field is obtained as (using chain rule)
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎= = + + + = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Define material derivative /substantial derivative = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = +𝑉∙𝛻
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

Relation to the material derivative as follows

𝑑 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= +𝑉∙∇ = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Both the material derivative and the Reynolds transport theorem
transfer the Lagrangian system to the Eulerian viewpoint. The
material derivative is essentially the infinitesimal (or derivative)
equivalent of the finite size (or integral) Reynolds transport theorem.

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌𝑏 𝑉 ∙ 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Figure 9. Change of velocity of a fluid

particle (element) in Cartesian
coordinates.
Energy equation
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
Consider the Reynolds transport theorem = 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝐵
𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑏 𝑉 ∙ 𝐴 , where 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑚 . For total and specific energy of the system, E
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
and e, we have = 𝜌𝑒𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑒 𝑉 ∙ 𝐴 . The left side is the
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
Lagrangian expression of the rate of change of total system energy.

𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑
According to the first law of thermodynamics = 𝑄−𝑊 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠

Energy can cross a system (control volume) in the form of heat transfer (to
and from the system), in the form of work (done by or on the system), or by
mass entering or leaving. As the total specific energy 𝑒 (i.e., specific internal
1
u, kinetic 𝜌𝑉 2 , and potential ρgz energies) (derivation not done):
2
𝑑 𝜕 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄−𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 2

Where 𝑄 is the heat added to the system; 𝑊 is the work done by the fluid,
𝑝
and h is the enthalpy, ℎ = 𝑢 + .
𝜌
Energy equation

𝑑 𝜕 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄−𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 2

Where 𝑄 is the heat added to the system; 𝑊 is the work done by the fluid,
𝑝
and h is the enthalpy, ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝜌 .

For incompressible flows, 𝑄 is very small, and can be assumed to be zero,

and additionally, change in internal energy u is also negligible. For steady
incompressible flows,

𝑑𝑊 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
− 𝑑𝑡
=𝑚 𝜌
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 − 𝜌
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 (Note: The outlet is in the
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
positive streamline direction).

Note that for compressible flows, change in internal energy is significant.

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊
 For a turbine, − 𝑑𝑡
has a negative value. We also write − 𝑑𝑡
= −𝑊turbine,
𝑑𝑊
or 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑊turbine . 𝑊turbine is a loss term.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊
 For a pump, − 𝑑𝑡
has a positive value. We also write − 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑊pump .
𝑊pump is an energy source.
Example 4
Turbines are often used in power plants with
generators to produce electricity. It converts
the energy contained in a fluid into
mechanical energy or shaft work. An
example installation in a dam is shown
below. Water is introduced through a
passage way to the turbine, and then drains
downstream. The discharge flow rate at exit
is 30 m3/s.

Solution
𝑑𝑊 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
− =𝑚 + + 𝑔𝑧 − + + 𝑔𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 2 2
𝜌 2 1
The mass flow rate 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝜌𝑄 = 1000 × 30 = 30,000 kg/s
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑄 30
𝑉2 = = 3.14 = 5.24 m/s
𝐴 ×2.72
4

Compared to 𝑉2 , 𝑉1 ≈ 0.
𝑑𝑊 𝑉2 5.242
− =𝑚 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑔𝑧 1 = 30,000 + 9.81 × 6 − 9.81 × 20 = −3,708,000Nm/s
𝑑𝑡 2 2 2
𝑑𝑊
= 3,708kW. Or 𝑊turbine = 3.7MW
𝑑𝑡

The water has done the work of 3.7MW, i.e. 3.7MW of power has left water, and available for doing the shaft
work on the turbine.
 Example 5 A schematic of a garden
fountain is shown below. A pump located
beneath the water reservoir discharges a
single upward water jet to a height of 2 m
above the reservoir surface. Determine the
rate of work being done by the pump if the
volume flow rate of water is 30 Litre/s.
Ignore friction.

Solution
We choose a control volume of all water in the reservoir, in the pump and piping,
and those being discharged at the top of the fountain.
𝑑𝑊 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2
− =𝑚 + + 𝑔𝑧 − + + 𝑔𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 2 2
𝜌 2 1
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄 = 1000 × 0.03 = 30 kg/s
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0, the water velocities in the reservoir and at the top of the fountain are
zero.
𝑧1 = 0; 𝑧2 = 2 m
𝑑𝑊
− 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑚 𝑔𝑧 2 − 𝑔𝑧 1 = 30 × 9.8 × 2 − 0 = 588 N m/s. Or 𝑊pump = 588 W
Example 6. A Venturi meter is used to
measure the water flow rate. Water passing
through a contraction to the throat area,
followed by a gradual expansion to the
original diameter. A manometer measures
the pressure difference from the inlet of the
Venturi meter to the throat. Determine the
water flow rate using the data given in the
figure.
Solution
Choose the control volume as shown. We use the continuity equation and Bernoulli equation
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 ; and + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑄 𝑄 𝑝1 −𝑝2 1 𝑄2 𝑄2
Here 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 , 𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = , we have = −
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜌 2 𝐴22 𝐴21
For the manometer, we use the hydrostatic equation. 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔∆ℎ

𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝜌𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝑄2 1 1
We obtain = 𝑔∆ℎ − 1 . Combining the two, we get 𝑔∆ℎ −1 = −
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 2 𝐴22 𝐴21
𝜋 3.14
𝐴1 = 𝐷12 = × 0.052522 = 0.00217 m2
4 4
𝜋 3.14
𝐴2 = 𝐷22 = × 0.035042 = 0.000964 m2
4 4
𝜌𝑚
= 13.6, and ∆ℎ = 0.06 m
𝜌
𝜌𝑚
2𝑔∆ℎ −1 2×9.8×0.06× 13.6−1
𝜌
𝑄= 1 1 = 1 1 = 0.00414 m3/s = 4.14 litre/s
− 2 −
𝐴22 𝐴1 0.0009642 0.002172
 Example 7. The siphon problem Consider
the siphon in the figure. Assume that the
water tank is very large. The diameter of
the pipe is 5 cm. Predict the flow rate
through the pipe exit, and also the
pressures at Points 2, 3 and 4.

Solution We assume that the flow is steady state, incompressible, and inviscid. We also choose a streamline, from
Point 1 to Pint 5.
1 1
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 5. 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝5 + 𝜌𝑉52 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧5
2 2
2𝜌𝑔 𝑧1 −𝑧2
𝑉5 = = 2 × 9.8 × 2 = 6.26 m/s
𝜌
Hence the volume flow rate 𝑄 = 𝐴5 𝑉5 = 3.14 × 0.025 × 0.025 × 6.26 = 0.0123m3/s
Hence the mass flow rate 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄 = 1000 × 0.0123 = 12.3 kg/s
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 2.
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2
2 2
1 1
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝜌𝑉22 = 1000 × 9.8 × 3 − × 1000 × 6.262 = 8306 Pa = 8.3 kPa
2 2
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 3.
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝3 + 𝜌𝑉32 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧3
2 2
1 1
𝑝3 − 𝑝1 = − 𝜌𝑉32
= − × 1000 × 6.262 = −19583 Pa = -19.6 kPa
2 2
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 4.
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝4 + 𝜌𝑉42 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧4
2 2
1 1
𝑝4 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧4 − 𝜌𝑉42 = 1000 × 9.8 × −2 − × 1000 × 6.262 = −38193 Pa = -38.2 Pa
2 2
 Example 8. A nozzle flow problem
Calculate the water flow rate.

Solution:
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 2.
1 1
𝑝1 + 2 𝜌𝑤 𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 2 𝜌𝑤 𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑧2
where 𝑧2 = 0 and 𝑧1 = 2m

𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ = 1.5𝜌𝑤 𝑔;
𝑝2 = 2𝜌𝑤 𝑔 + 1.5𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔=2𝜌𝑤 𝑔 + 1.5 × 0.7𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = 3.05𝜌𝑤 𝑔;
1 1
Thus 1.5𝜌𝑤 𝑔 + 2 𝜌𝑤 𝑉12 + 2𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = 3.05𝜌_𝑤𝑔 + 2 𝜌𝑤 𝑉22
𝐴2 𝐷2 2 𝐷2 2
However, 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 or 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 𝛼𝑉2 , here 𝛼 =
𝐴1 𝐷1 𝐷1
Hence
1 2 1
𝜌𝑤 𝑉1 + 0.45𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = 2 𝜌𝑤 𝑉22;
2

0.90𝑔
Hence 𝛼 2 𝑉22 + 0.90𝑔 = 𝑉22 , so 𝑉2 = 1−𝛼2
Example 9. Consider the flow of air around a
bicyclist moving through still air with velocity
𝑉0 . Determine the pressure difference between
Point 1 and 2.

Solution: Consider a coordinate fixed to the bike. Assume steady,

incompressible and inviscid flow.
Bernoulli from Point 1 to 2.
1 1
𝑝1 + 2 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 2 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 , where 𝑧2 = 0 and 𝑧1 = 0
1 1
Hence 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 2 𝜌𝑉12 = 2 𝜌𝑉02 .
Note if we measure 𝑝2 and 𝑝1 , we can determine the velocity.
Review
Key concepts: static pressure, stagnation point, Pitot tube, nozzle,
Venturi tube, orifice, continuity
Key formulas:
Continuity 𝑖𝑛 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝐴𝑉 or in simple 2 opening flows, 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 =
𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2 .
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
Bernoulli equation + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

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