CHAPTER FOUR

Heat Transfer From a Fin

Pretest questions:

Why is critical thickness of insulation is an important into engineering

applications?

Heat Transfer From a Fin

Fins are used in a large number of applications to increase the heat transfer from surfaces. Typically,
the fin material has a high thermal conductivity. The fin is exposed to a flowing fluid, which cools or
heats it, with the high thermal conductivity allowing increased heat being conducted from the wall
through the fin. The design of cooling fins is encountered in many situations and we thus examine
heat transfer in a fin as a way of defining some criteria for design.

TYPES OF FINS:
1-Uniform cross section fins.

a-rectangular cross section

b-circular cross section (spine)

c-Annular fins with rectangular profile

2-Nonuniformcross section fins.

a-Truncated conical spine.

b-Triangular fin.
c-Parabolic profile fin.

d-Annular with parabolic profile.

Annular fin( Trapezoidal cross section fin)

Fins calculation theory :
There are many procedures to determine temperature distribution along fin and
local heat transfer

1-Depends on the Tip conditions :

a-very long fins:L→∞

d-

c-prescribed temperate tip: T=TL

d- exposed to convection. qcond=qconv

2-Annula fine(finned tube):

a- Rectangular cross section

b- Nonuniform cross section.
3- Array of fins. On the wall (overall heat transfer).
Simplified case

To create a simplified equation for the heat transfer of a fin, many assumptions need to
be made

1. Constant material properties (independent of temperature)

2. No internal heat generation
3. One-dimensional conduction
4. Uniform cross-sectional area
5. Uniform convection across the surface area.
Heat transfer through spine(circular) fin
 Temperature distribution along the very long fin(at the tip no heat transfer)

With these assumptions, the conservation of energy can be used to create an energy
balance for a differential cross section of the fin.[1]

Fourier’s law states that

where is the cross-sectional area of the differential element.[2] Therefore the

conduction rate at x+dx can be expressed as

Hence, it can also be expressed as

Since the equation for heat flux is

then is equal to

where is the surface area of the differential element. By substitution it is found

that
Let ϴ= (T-T∞)

Then:

 2  1 dAc  dT  1 hdAs 
      
x 2  c
A dx  dx  c
A kdx 

 dAc 
For uniform cross section  0
 dx 

 2  1 hdAs 
   
x 2  c
A kdx 

h. p
Let m 
2
kAc

Then

 2
 m2  this is the governing equation for the uniform fin
x 2

D2  m2  0  D  m

The solution of the differential equation is:

  x   C1e mx  C 2e  mx --------1

Substituting the hyperbolic function

e mx  cosh mx  sinh mx
 e  mx  cosh mx  sinh mx

  x   A cosh mx  B sinh mx
------2 where: A & B are other constants

This is a liner, homogenous, second order differential equation with constant

coefficient for convection from extended surfaces. By using ((D operator)) theorem

  x   C1e mx  C 2e  mx This is the general solution equation for fin.

Applying certain boundary conditions will allow this equation to simplify

Adiabatic Tip[

When comparing the surface area of the fin to the surface area of the tip, it can be seen that the surface
area of the tip is fairly negligible when calculating the heat transfer. In this instance, it is assumed that
the tip is insulated. If the tip is completely insulated, there will be no heat loss from the tip. The
boundary condition regarding the adiabatic tip can be expressed as:

From this, the general equation can be altered to:

Then solving for :

And substituting that value and solving for θ(x):

Using the hyperbolic cosine function, the equation becomes:

cosh mL  x 
Then  x    b
cosh mL

q f   b hPKAc tanh mL heat transfer through the insulated tip fin

Another solution: For adiabatic tip

The general solution equation is:

  x   A cosh mx  B sinh mx

The boundary conditions are:

d
 x    b at x=0 and 0 at x  L
dx

Then A   b and by second boundary condition

0  m b sinh mx  Bm cosh mx dividing by( m)

B   b tanh mL

Substituting A & B into general equation

 sinh mL
  x    b cosh mx   b sinh mx. tanh mL where tanh mL 
cosh mL

cosh mL  x 
  x    b temperature distribution equation for the insulated tip fins
cosh mL

finding the heat flow through fin

d
Q   KAc x 0
dx

q x    KAc  m btanh mL  KAc m b tanh mL

Infinitely Long Fin

As the tip of the fin is approached, the temperature of the tip can be seen approaching
the ambient temperature of the air. In the case that the fin is assumed to be infinitely
long, it can also be assumed that the temperature of the tip is equal to the temperature of
the air.

Due to this assumption, the equation can be simplified to:

In order to make this equation true, C1 must equal zero and we find that C2 is equal to
ϴb. Thus, the first term can be eliminated and the equation simplified once more to:
The total heat transfer from the fin is equal to the heat which enters the fin. All of the
heat that enters the fin comes from conduction from the heat source to the base, which
eventually conducts from the base to the fin. All of this heat must leave the fin through
convection, making the equation:

Heat convection on the tip

For all four cases, the above equation will simplify because the area is constant and

where P is the perimeter of the cross-sectional area. Thus, the general equation for
convection from extended surfaces with constant cross-sectional area simplifies to

The solution to the simplified equation is:

where

and

The constants and can be found by applying the proper boundary conditions. All
four cases have the boundary condition for the temperature at the base.
The boundary condition at , however, is different for all of them, where L is the
length of the fin.

For the first case, the second boundary condition is that there is free convection at the
tip. Therefore,

which simplifies to

Knowing that

the equations can be combined to produce

and can be solved to produce the temperature distribution, which is in the table
below. Then applying Fourier’s law at the base of the fin, the heat transfer rate can be
found.

Similar mathematical methods can be used to find the temperature distributions and
heat transfer rates for other cases.

  x   A cosh mx  B sinh mx

At x=0
 A  b

  x    b cosh mx  B sinh mx

d
  b Am sinh mx  B cosh mx
dx

Using second boundary condition

 K  b m sinh mL  Bm cosh  h b cos mL  B sinh mL

 h cosh mL  Km sinh mL 
B   b  
 mKcohmL  h sinh mL 

Substitute A & B into general equ

 h cosh mL  Km sinh mL 
   b cosh mx   b   sinh mx (( temperature distribution equ))
 mKcohmL  h sinh mL 

 h cosh mL  Km sinh mL 
Q  KAc m b   ((rate of heat transfer foe the fin with convection
 mKcohmL  h sinh mL 
on the tip))

The temperature distributions and heat transfer rates can then be found for each case.

Temperature distribution and heat transfer rate for fins of uniform cross sectional
area

Case Tip condition (x=L) Temperature distribution Fin heat transfer rate

Convection heat
A
transfer

B Adiabatic
C Constant Temperature

D Infinite Fin Length

Fin performance

Fin performance can be described in three different ways. The first is fin effectiveness.
It is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate of the object if it had no
fin. The formula for this is

qf
f 
q without fin

where is the fin cross-sectional area at the base. the value of fin effectiveness must
be more than 2

Fin performance can also be characterized by fin efficiency. This is the ratio of the fin
heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate of the fin if the entire fin were at the base
temperature.

The fin efficiency is defined as

qf

heat transfer through fine with entire base temperature

Note= heat transfer through fine with entir base temperatur e means the fin surface at the base
temperature
 in this equation is equal to the surface area of the fin. Fin efficiency will always be
less than one. This is because assuming the temperature throughout the fin is at the base
temperature would increase the heat transfer rate.

Example:

What are the very long and insulated tip fins efficiency?
EXAMPLE:
Preview questions:

A:What are the fins types ? draw each one with a suitable boundary conditions.

B:Derive the local heat transfer equation for the sufficient long fins.

C: A thin rod of copper (K=100 w/m K)1.25 cm diameter spans the distance
between two parallel plates 15 cm apart as shown in figure. Air flows in the
space between the plates providing heat transfer coefficient of 50w/m2 K at the
surface of the rod. The surface temperature of the plates exceeds that of air by
40°C. What is the excess of temperature at the center of the rod over that air?
Also find out the heat lost from the rod.

Take:   C1 cosh mx  C 2 sinh mx

 T∞

plate Diameter=1.25 cm , L=15 cm plate

at T1 at T1

Answer: ϴ=26.8 C

C: thin rod (L=30 cm ,D =0.5 cm and k=65 W/m C ) is subjected to environmental

condition of T  20C , h  50 W / m 2 C  . If the rod is insulated at the end part and

subjected to heat source with 200 C

the whole rod. Calculate the heat losses from the rod and its efficiency when the
length is decreased to the half value.

Temperature distribution along fins,

1-Annular fins

2-Array fins

Introduction:

Bessel type differential equations come up in many engineering applications such as

heat transfer, vibrations, stress analysis and fluid mechanics. We now consider one
particular example in heat transfer that involves the analysis of circular fins that are
commonly used to cool the cylinders of internal combustion engines and piping
systems. A typical schematic of a single circular fin on a pipe is shown in the figure
below. The fin is designed to add additional surface area in order to help cool the pipe .

The fin provides heat to transfer from the pipe to a constant ambient air temperature
T∞. We now wish to establish the differential equation relating temperature in the fin
as a function of the radial coordinate r. The governing equation comes from an energy
balance on a differential ring element of the fin as shown in the figure below.

ANNULAR FINS:

In thermal engineering, an annular fin is a specific type of fin used in heat

transfer that varies, radially, in cross-sectional area. Adding anannular fin to an object
increases the amount of surface area in contact with the surrounding fluid, which
increases the convective heat transfer between the object and surrounding fluid.
Because surface area increases as length from the object increases, an annular fin
transfers more heat than a similar pin fin at any given length. Annular fins are often
used to increase the heat exchange in liquid–gas heat exchanger systems.
Surface area for the annular fin
 Above equation solved by using Bessel function theorem, so to simplified graph
can be used as follow:

1- Calculate the radius ratio

2- Calculate the value of (X) axis
3
Lc2 h / kAp 12
3-  f % calculated from the graph

4-from fin efficiency calculate the rate of heat transfer for annular fins qf

ARRAY FINS:::(THE OVERALL EFFICIENCY) (ηo)

a-rectangular array fins b-annular array fins

The total rate of heat transfer by convection from the fins and unfinned surface may
be expressed as:

--------1

Where: the convection coefficient h for fins and unfinned surface, and ηf is the
efficiency of single fin.

-----2
 --------(3)

---------(4)

---------4

------5

From knowledge of ηo
from a fin array.
Where:: α is heat transfer coefficient

NOTE: Practical procedure how to calculate heat transfer rate from a finned tube by
using the total heat transfer:

1-Specify efficiency of individual fin ηf by using graphs or suitable equation.

2-Calculate the total surface of the finned tube At=NAf +Ab

3-

4-Calculate the maximum heat transfer rate.qmax= h.At.ϴb

5-Calculate the actual total rate heat transfer qt = ηt.q max

FINS EXAMPLES

This week includes examples and problems for different fins

1-A
the back side of the board to the surrounding medium. The temperatures on the two
sides of the circuit board are to be determined for the cases of no fins and 864
aluminum pin fins on the back surface.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The temperature in the board and
along the fins varies in one direction only (normal to the board). 3 All the heat
generated in the chips is conducted across the circuit board, and is dissipated from the
back side of the board. 4 Heat transfer from the fin tips is negligible. 5 The heat
transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over the entire fin surface. 6 The thermal
properties of the fins are constant. 7 The heat transfer coefficient accounts for the
effect of radiation from the fins.
Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k = 20 W/m°C for the circuit
board, k = 237 W/m°C for the aluminum plate and fins, and k = 1.8 W/m°C for the
epoxy adhesive.
Analysis (a) The total rate of heat transfer dissipated by the chips is
Q  80  (0.04 W)  3.2 W

The individual resistances are

 Rboard Repoxy RAluminum Rconv
T1 T2
T2

2 cm

A  ( 0.12 m) ( 0.18 m)  0.0216 m 2

L 0.003 m
Rboard    0.00694  C / W
kA (20 W / m.  C)(0.0216 m2 )
1 1
Rconv    0.9259  C / W
hA (50 W / m .  C)(0.0216 m2 )
2

Rtotal  Rboard  Rconv  0.00694  0.9259  0.93284  C / W

The temperatures on the two sides of the circuit board are

T T
Q  1  2  
 T1  T 2  QR total  40 C  ( 3.2 W)( 0.93284  C / W)  43.0 C
Rtotal
T T
Q  1 2  
 T2  T1  QR board  43.0 C  ( 3.2 W)( 0.00694  C / W)  40.5  0.02  43.0 C
Rboard

Therefore, the board is nearly isothermal.

(b) Noting that the cross-sectional areas of the fins are constant, the efficiency of the
circular fins can be determined to be insulate
hp hD 4h 4(50 W / m2 .  C)
a     18.37 m-1
kAc kD 2 / 4 kD (237 W / m.  C)(0.0025 m)
 tanh aL tanh(18.37 m -1  0.02 m)
 fin    0.957
aL 18.37 m -1  0.02 m

The fins can be assumed to be at base temperature provided that the fin area is
. Then the various thermal resistances are
L 0.0002 m
Repoxy    0.0051  C / W
. W / m.  C)(0.0216 m 2 )
kA (18

L 0.002 m
RAl    0.00039  C / W
kA (237 W / m.  C)(0.0216 m 2 )

EXAMPLE(2): Circular aluminum fins are to be attached to the tubes of a heating

system. The increase in heat transfer from the tubes per unit length as a result of
adding fins is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The heat transfer coefficient is
constant and uniform over the entire fin surfaces. 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. 4
Heat transfer by radiation is negligible.
Properties The thermal conductivity of the fins is given to be k = 186 W/m°C.
Analysis In case of no fins, heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length is
180C
Ano fin  D1L  (005
. m)(1 m)  01571
. m 2

Q  hA (T  T )  (40 W/ m2.C)(01571
no fin no fin b  . m2 )(180 25)C  974 W

The efficiency of these circular fins is, from the efficiency curve,

 25C
L  ( D2  D1 ) / 2  (0.06  0.05) / 2  0.005 m 

r2  (t / 2) 0.03  (0.001/ 2) 
  1.22 fin  0.97
r1 0.025 

 t h  0.001 40 W/m2 o C 
 L     0.005    0.08
 2  kt  2  (186 W/m C)(0.001m)
o 


Heat transfer from a single fin is=total surface area of single fin
 Afin  2 ( r2  r1 )  2r2 t  2 (0.03 2  0.025 2 )  2 (0.03)(0.001)  0.001916 m 2
2 2

Q fin   fin Q fin,max   fin hAfin (Tb  T )

 0.97( 40 W/m 2 .C)(0.001916 m 2 )(180  25)C
 11 .53 W
Heat transfer from a single unfinned portion of the tube is
Aunfin  D1 s   (0.05 m)(0.003 m)  0.0004712 m 2
Q unfin  hAunfin (Tb  T )  ( 40 W/m 2 .C)(0.0004712 m 2 )(180  25)C  2.92 W

There are 250 fins and thus 250 interface fin spacing's per meter length of the tube.
The total heat transfer from the finned tube is then determined from
Q total,fin  n(Q fin  Q unfin )  250(11 .53  2.92)  3613 W

Therefore the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length as a result
of the addition of the fins is
Q increase  Q total,fin  Q no fin  3613  974  2639 W

Home work

Hot steam flows through a tube whose outer diameter is 3 cm and whose wall are
maintained at 120°C. Circular aluminum fins of outer diameter of 6 cm and
constant thickness of 2 mm are attached to the tube. The space between the fin is 3
mm and thus there are 200 fins/meter. The surrounding air temperature is 25°C
2
and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 60 W/m .K. Determine the increase
in heat transfer rate per meter as a result of adding these fins

Example(3):
 An Aluminum pot is used to boil water as shown below. The handle of the pot is 20-
cm long, 3-cm wide, and 0.5-cm thick. The pot is exposed to room air at 25C, and the
2
C. Question: can you touch the handle when the
water is boiling? (k for aluminum is 237 W/m C)

T = 25 C

h = 5 W/ m2 C
 Example (cont.)
We can model the pot handle as an extended surface. Assume that
there is no heat transfer at the free end of the handle. The
condition matches that specified in the fins Table, case B.
h=5 W/ m2 C, P=2W+2t=2(0.03+0.005)=0.07(m), k=237 W/m
C, AC=Wt=0.00015(m2), L=0.2(m)
Therefore, m=(hP/kAC)1/2=3.138,
M=(hPkAC)(Tb-T)=0.111b=0.111(100-25)=8.325(W)

T ( x ) - T  cosh m ( L  x )
 
Tb  T b cosh mL
T  25 cosh[ 3.138( 0.2  x )]
 ,
100  25 cosh( 3.138 * 0.2 )
T ( x )  25  62.32 * cosh[ 3.138( 0.2  x )]

Example (cont.)

Plot the temperature distribution along the pot handle

100

95
T( x )

90

85
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
x

As shown, temperature drops off very quickly. At the midpoint

T(0.1)=90.4C. At the end T(0.2)=87.3C.
Therefore, it should not be safe to touch the end of the handle
 Example (cont.)

The total heat transfer through the handle can be calculated

also. qf=Mtanh(mL)=8.325*tanh(3.138*0.2)=4.632(W)
Very small amount: latent heat of evaporation for water: 2257
kJ/kg. Therefore, the amount of heat loss is just enough to
vaporize 0.007 kg of water in one hour.

If a stainless steel handle is used instead, what will happen:

For a stainless steel, the thermal conductivity k=15 W/m°C.
Use the same parameter as before:
1/ 2
 hP 
m     12.47, M  hPkAC  0.0281
 kAC 

Example (cont.)
T ( x )  T cosh m( L  x )

Tb  T cosh mL
T ( x )  25  12.3 cosh[12.47( L  x )]
100

75

T( x) 50

25

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
x

Temperature at the handle (x=0.2 m) is only 37.3 °C, not hot at

all. This example illustrates the important role played by the
thermal conductivity of the material in terms of conductive heat
transfer.

Example:

A heat sink with the fin array shown must dissipate 4.0 W from a base at 70 C by
 C. Each fin is made of aluminum, is 1.5 cm long and is

0.5 cm in diameter. How many fins are needed?

Example:

A thin rod of copper (K=100 W/mK)1.25 cm in diameter spans the distance

between two parallel plates 15 cm apart and equal temperature. Air flow in the
space of the rod. The surface temperature of the plates exceeds that of air by 40 K.

What is the excess of temperature at the center of the rod over that of air?Also find
out the heat lost from the rod ?
Solution:

The governing equation for this problem is:

 2
 m2 
x 2

The general solution for above equation is:

  x   A cosh mx  B sinh mx

Boundary conditions are:

at x=0 ϴ=ϴb and at x=L ϴ=ϴb

using boundary condition we get:

A=0

1  cosh mL 
B  b  
 sinh mL 
  1  cosh mL  
   x    b cosh mx    . sinh mx
  sinh mL  

Heat flow

d
Q   KA
dx X 0

Heat flow from two plates =2Q

d   1  cosh mL  
 Q   KA  b cosh mx    . sinh mx   5.8 watt
dx    sinh mL   X  0

Example:
Example: A diagram of a heat sink to be used in an electronic application is shown
below. There are a total 9 aluminum fins (k=175 W/mK),Cp=900 J/kg.K and
ρ=2700kg/m3
thick. The spacing between adjacent fins ,S, is 3 mm. The temperature of the base of
the heat sink is 60 С , when the external air temperature is 20 С. Under these
conditions, the heat transfer coefficient is 12 W/m2 K. Temperature distribution along
the fin is:

cosh mL  x
 x  b
cosh mL

Determine the heat transfer through the heat sink, fins effectiveness, and overall
efficiency.
Preview questions

K=186W/mK. Assume Fin efficiency is 95%. Calculate the overall surface efficiency
A:Find the amount of heat transferred through an iron fin of thickness 5 mm, length 10
cm and width 100 cm. Also determine the temperature difference ϴL at the tip of the fin
at: 1- -heat convection at the tip.

Assuming the atmospheric temperature of 28°C K=50 w/mK, h=10 w/m2K, ϴb=80°C.

B-Why is the one dimensional heat flow assumption important in the analysis of fins
problems?

C- Why are the annular fins more efficiency than others?.

(D=0.25 cm, L= 3 cm) distributed with distance 0.6 cm as illustrated in Figs.(1-a) & (1-
b). If the fin base temperature is 100°C, cooling air temperature is 30°C and h= 35
W/m2. °C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from the finned plate and the
 f  tanh mL / mL .

L= 3 cm 0.6 cm

D=0.25 cm
0.6 cm
1m

0.6 cm

1m
 Fig. (1-a) Fig. (1-b)

CHAPTER FIVE

Conduction into Two dimensional analysis - Analytical solution

INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 2 steady-state heat transfer was calculated in systems in which the

temperature gradient and area could be expressed in terms of one space coordinate.
We now wish to analyze the more general case of two-dimensional heat flow. For
steady state with no heat generation, the Laplace equation applies.

∂2T ∂2T
 + =0 [3-1]
∂x 2 ∂y 2

assuming constant thermal conductivity. The solution to this equation may be obtained by analytical, numerical, or
graphical techniques.

The objective of any heat-transfer analysis is usually to predict heat flow or the tem- perature that results from a
certain heat flow. The solution to -1) will give the temperature in a two-dimensional body as a
function of the two independent space coor- dinates x and y. Then the heat flow in the x and y directions may
be calculated from the Fourier equations

∂
qx = −k A x [3-2]
∂x

∂
T
q y = −k A y [3-3]
∂y

These heat-flow quantities are directed either in the x direction or in the y direction. The total heat flow at any
point in the material is the resultant of the qx and q y at that point. Thus the total heat-flow vector is directed so that
it is perpendicular to the lines of constant temperature in the material, as shown in Figure 3-1. So if the temperature
distribution in the material is known, we may easily establish the heat flow.

- General Considerations
• Two-dimensional conduction:

– Temperature distribution is characterized by two spatial coordinates, e.g., T (x,y).

– Heat flux vector is characterized by two directional components,e.g., and . q ′′x, q′′y
• Assuming steady-state, two-dimensional conduction in a rectangular domain

with constant thermal conductivity and heat generation, the heat equation is Poisson
equation:

• Assuming steady-state, two-dimensional conduction in a rectangular domain

with constant thermal conductivity and no heat generation, the heat equation is
Laplace equation:

Solution Methods

Solution Methods:

1– Exact/Analytical: Separation of Variables

�Limited to simple geometries and boundary conditions.

2– Approximate/Graphical ( q = 0 ) : Flux Plotting

�Of limited value for quantitative considerations but a quick aid to

establishing physical insights.

3-Approximate/Numerical: Finite-Difference, Finite Element or Boundary

Element Method.

�Most useful approach and adaptable to any level of complexity.

• Consider heat transfer in a long, prismatic solid with two isothermal surfaces

and two insulated surfaces:

Exact/Analytical: Separation of Variables

• Exact mathematical solutions to heat conduction equation

• Only limited cases can be solved this way.

• Simple 2-D case is illustrated for a rectangular plate with three sides of the plate
held at a constant temperature T1 and the fourth held at T2.

Let ϴ=T-T1/T2-T1 then boundary is changed to ϴ=0 at three sides and ϴ=1 at top
side as shown in figure..

The solution uses separation of variables, i.e.,

To calculate the Cn new method can applied for the above example:
NOTE:

1- equation 3-
values[n=1,3,5,7----]

2-heat transfer into two dimensional qxy =qx+qy

If the fourth boundary condition is changed ,the analysis for the two dimensional
conduction problems
Summary:

-Select the governing Laplace equation

-Using the product form.

-Convert the partial differential equation to the ordinary equation.

-Using the separation of variables method

-Equate the equation to constant(separation constant).

-Solve the ordinary differential equation.

-Using the first three boundary conditions to calculate the constants.

-Using the final boundary condition to calculate the infinite constant Cn.

-Choose the odd value to (n) to calculate the summation of temperature at each
position

Example:
the temperature at three sides is constant 280K.The temperature at the top side is
320K. Determine the temperature at the center of the plate.

T=320K

T=280K T=280K

2  1  1n 1 
 1,1   c     sin nx / W . sinh ny / W  / sinh nH / W
   n 1  n 
T=280K

Where:   T  T 1

 c  320  280  40K

 2  2 sin  / 2. sinh  / 2  / sinh    3 sin 3 / 2. sinh 3 / 2  / sinh 3  

2
 1,1  40   2 
    5 sin 5 / 2. sinh 5 / 2  / sinh 5  ......... 

 1,1 
80
0.3985  0.005988  .000155  .......  10.000 K


T1,1=10+280=290 K temperature at the center of the plate

Q: Consider a two dimensional problem of conduction through the square plate

(W=H=2 m) and the temperature at three sides is constant 280K.The temperature at
the right side is 420K without heat generator and steady state condition. Determine
the temperature at the center of the plate with analytical method.

Numerical solution theory. Two dimensional conduction

Pretest questions

Numerical solution theory.

Analytical solutions to partial differential equations exist only for a limited number o
f cases,whereas so called numerical methods can be used to obtain an approximate
solution. The two most
common numerical methods are finite difference and finite element methods. Th
e main idea of thenumerical methods is to calculate the values of the unknown hea
d only at limited (finite) number of
points which are usually called nodes. Analytical solution if it exists -
could be used to calculate
values of the unknown at any point in the problem domain. The purpose of this mat
erial is to solve
practical examples using finite difference method, which is much easier to pro
gram and is very useful in the process of "learning by doing".

The general equation for Tyx with steady conduction.

constant thermal conductivity. without internal heat generation. is called Laplace’s

equation :

∇2T = 0

The Laplacian is a sum of several second partial derivatives. Faced with a steady

multidimensional problem, four routes are open to us:

Solve the problem analytically.

Obtain the solution graphically.

Solve the problem numerically.

NUMERICAL PRESENTATIONS:

Finite Difference Formulation

• The numerical methods for solving differential equations are based on replacing
the

Differential equations by algebraic equations.

• For finite difference method , this is done by replacing the derivatives by

differences.

• A function of temperature that depends on x .

• The first derivative of f(x) at a point is equivalent to the slope of a line tangent to
the curve at that point.
Another approximate solution method is the use of numerical techniques :

finite-difference, finite-element, and boundary-element methods. We will present

the finite-difference method for steady state condiction.

Each node represents a small zone with an average temperature of that zone

assigned as the node’s temperature. The nodes and mesh are set to the user’s

convenience, the finer the mesh the more accurate the calculation (at increased

computational time).

F
difference form of heat conduction
Numerical solution-examples

Pretest questions
1-Steady state temperature (K) at three points of a long rectangular rod are as
7
W/m3
K. Two of its sides are maintained at a
constant temperature of 300K, while the others are insulate .

a- Determine the temperature at nodes 1,2 and 3.

b- Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit length from the rod using the nodal
temperatures.
Solution: ٍ◌Thermal analysis of the all bar as below:
2- Consider steady two-dimensional heat transfer in an L-shaped solid body whose
cross section is given in the figure. The thermal conductivity of the body is k = 45
W/m · °C, and heat is generated in the body at a rate of g= 5 x 106 W/m3. The right
surface of the body is insulated, and the bottom surface is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 120°C. The entire top surface is subjected to convection with
ambient air at T∞= 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 55 W/m2· °C, and the
left surface is subjected to heat flux at a uniform rate of q L = 8000 W/m2. The nodal
network of the problem consists of 13 equally spaced nodes with Δx = Δy = 1.5 cm.
Five of the nodes are at the bottom surface and thus their temperatures are
known(120°C). Obtain the finite difference equations at the remaining eight nodes.

Example: Consider the square as shown in figure .The

and the top face at 500C,while the other faces are exposed to an environment at
100C,h=10WW/m2C and k=10W/mC.

The block is 1 m square. Compute the temperature of the varicose nodes at

indicated figure and heat flow at the boundaries.
Example: Consider a large uranium plate of thickness L = 4 cm and thermal
conductivity k = 28 W/m · °C in which heat is generated uniformly at a constant rate
of g = 5x106 W/m3. One side of the plate is maintained at 0°C by iced water while
the other side is subjected to convection to an environment at T= 30°C with a heat
transfer coefficient of h = 45 W/m2 · °C, as shown in Figure.
Considering a total of three equally spaced nodes in the medium, two at the
boundaries and one at the middle, estimate the exposed surface temperature of the
plate under steady conditions using the finite difference approach into one
dimentionl.
Example:

In figure below calculate the steady state temperature distribution at appropriate

Example:

Calculate the steady state temperature for nodes 1 to 9 in figure below:

 CHAPTER SIX

PRINCPLE OF HEAT CONVECTION

Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to
another by the movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat
via mass transfer. Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical
situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection
is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although
sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used
to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and
heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming. The process of transport by fluid
streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is generally
associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a river.
In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is
always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat
conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of
heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction.
 Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (steams and
currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations
due to variations of temperature in the fluid.
 Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid
are induced by external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating
an artificially induced convection current.[11]
 Mixed Convection: combined forced and natural convection

Newton law of cooling:

Convective heating or cooling in some circumstances may be described by Newton's
law of cooling: "The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in
temperatures between the body and its surroundings." However, by definition, the
validity of Newton's law of cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from
convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference
that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case.
In general, convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradients, and in
some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply.

Factors Affecting Convective Heat Transfer:

1-Geometry: flat plate, circular cylinder, sphere, spheroids plus many other shapes.
In addition to the general shape, size, aspect ratio (thin or thick) and orientation
(vertical or horizontal) play a significant role in convective heat transfer.

2-Type of flow: forced, natural, mixed (combined)convection as well as laminar,

turbulent and transitional flows. These flows can also be considered as developing,
fully developed, steady or transient.

3-Boundary condition: (i) isothermal wall (Tw = constant) or (ii) isoflux wall (qw =
constant)
4-Type of fluid: viscous oil, water, gases (air) or liquid metals.

5-Fluid properties: symbols and units

Definitions of fluid properties:

1-Density
The density of a fluid, is generally designated by the Greek symbol is defined as the mass of the
3
fluid over an infinitesimal volume. Density is expressed in the British Gravitational (BG) system as slugs/ft ,
3
and in the SI system kg/m .
If the fluid is assumed to be uniformly dense the formula may be simplified as:

2- Specific Weight
The specific weight of a ' fluid is designated by the Greek symbol (gamma), and is generally defined as
3 3
the weight per shitty unit volume. The units for gamma are lb/ft and N/m in the imperial and SI systems,
respectively.

*g

g = local acceleration of gravity and = density

Note: It is customary to use:

2 2
g = 32.174 ft/s = 9.81 m/s
3
= 1000 kg/m

Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

The relative density of any fluid is defined as the ratio of the density of that fluid to the density of the
3
standard fluid. For liquids we take water as a standard fluid with density ρ=1000 kg/m . For gases we take
3
air or O2 as a standard fluid with density, ρ=1.293 kg/m .

Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids
there can be wide differences in behaviour under stress.

Fluids obeying Newton’s law where the value of µ is constant are known as
Newtonian fluids. If µ is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity
gradient. This is true for most common fluids.

Fluids in which the value of µ is not constant are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
There are several categories of these, and they are outlined briefly below.

These categories are based on the relationship between shear stress and the
velocity gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid. These relationships can be seen
in the graph below for several categories.
Viscosity

Viscosity, µ, is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between

molecules, which offers resistance to sheer deformation. Different fluids deform at
different rates under the same shear stress.

Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than fluid with a low
viscosity such as water.

All fluids are viscous, “Newtonian Fluids” obey the linear relationship.
 Ѵ= m2/sec=104 stockes and μ =kg/m.s= 10 poise

Viscosity (represented by μ, Greek letter mu ) is a material property, unique to

fluids, that measures the fluid's resistance to flow. Though a property of the fluid, its
effect is understood only when the fluid is in motion. When different elements move
with different velocities, each element tries to drag its neighbouring elements along
with it. Thus, shear stress occurs between fluid elements of different velocities.

Velocity gradient in laminar shear flow

The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was studied by Isaac
Newton and he proposed that the shear stresses are directly proportional to the

velocity gradient. The constant of proportionality is called the

coefficient of dynamic viscosity.
Another coefficient, known as the kinematic viscosity ( , Greek nu) is defined as the
ratio of dynamic viscosity and density.

It is the property of a fluid that quantifies resistance to flow of the fluid.

 Dimensionless groups

Dimensionless parameters
Dimensionless parameters are used to simplify analysis, and describe the physical
situation without referring to units. A dimensionless quantity has no physical unit
associated with it.
In the study and analysis of convection processes it is common practice to reduce the
total number of functional variables by forming dimensionless groups consisting of
relevant thermophysical properties, geometry, boundary and flow conditions
1- Reynolds Number
Reynolds number (after Osborne Reynolds, 1842-1912) is used in the study of fluid
flows. It compares the relative strength of inertial and viscous effects.

The value of the Reynolds number is defined as:

where ρ(rho) is the density, μ(mu) is the absolute viscosity, V is the characteristic
velocity of the flow, and L is the characteristic length for the flow.

Example 0.1: Reynold's number for flat plate flow

Air at 293K temperature, and 1.225 kg m-3 density is flowing past a flat plate at 1 m
s-1. What's the Reynold's Number 1 m downstream from the leading the edge of the
plate?

Absolute viscosity for air is 1.8 × 10-5 N s m-2.

Additionally, we define a parameter ν(nu) as the kinematic viscosity.
Low Re indicates creeping flow, medium Re is laminar flow, and
high Re indicates turbulent flow.

2- Prandtl number: P r = ν /α where 0 < P r < ∞ (P r → 0 for liquid

metals and P r →∞ for viscous oils). A measure of ratio between the diffusion of
momentum to the diffusion of heat.

3- Reynolds number: Re = ρU L/µ ≡ U L/ν (forced convection). A measure

of the balance (ratio) between the inertial forces and the viscous forces.

4-Peclet number: P e = U L/α ≡ RePr. It is the ratio of advection to

conduction heat transfer

5- Grashof number: Gr = gβ(Tw − Tf )L3 /ν 2 (natural convection): Measure

of the ratio between buoyancy force to the viscose force

6- Rayleigh number: Ra = gβ(Tw − Tf )L3 /(α ν ) ≡ Gr.P r it is free

convection factor : It Is the ratio between the buoyancy force to the viscous
force

7- Nusselt number: Nu=h.L/kf This can be considered as the dimensionless

heat transfer coefficient: It is the ratio of convection to pure conduction heat
transfer.

8- Stanton number: St = h/(U ρCp ) ≡ N u/(ReP r). It is modified

of Nusselt number.

9- Biot Number=is the ratio between the fluid convection to the wall
 conductivity Bi=h.L/kw.

Note: there an important different between Nu and Bi????

Forced convection by the external flow on the flat plate:

Pretest questions

1-Define :Nusselt number,,Reynolds number,,Grashof number

2-What is the different between laminar and turbulent flow?

INTRODUCTION:

The transfer of heat between a solid boundary and a fluid take place by a
combination of convection and mass transport. If the boundary ia at higher
temperature then a fluid ,heat flows first by conduction through the solid body to
the fluid particles in the neighborhood of the wall. The energy thus transmitted
increases the internal energy of the fluid and is carried away by the motion of the
fluid.
Convection Heat Transfer((Forced convection, external flow))

Convection Heat Transfer includes the following governing equations:

1- Mass conservation equation

2- Momentum principle

3- First law of Thermodynamics

4- Second law of thermodynamics

Fluid flow over solid bodies is responsible for numerous physical phenomena such
as

1– drag force
• automobiles

• power lines

2– lift force

• airplane wings

– cooling of metal or plastic sheets.

Define the following:

i-Free-stream velocity � the velocity of the fluid relative to an immersed solid body
sufficiently far from the body.

• The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the surface (the no slip condition) to the
free-stream value away from the surface (u=0.99U∞) .

ii-Friction and Pressure Drag

• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag ‫ﺳﺤﺐ‬.

• Drag is compose of:

– pressure drag,

– friction drag (skin friction drag).

• The drag force FD depends on the

– density ρ of the fluid,

– the upstream velocity V, and

– the size, shape, and orientation of the body.

iii- dimensionless drag coefficient (CD) is defined as • At low Reynolds numbers,
most drag is due to friction drag.

• The friction drag is also proportional to the surface area.

• The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the difference
between the pressures acting on the front and back of the immersed body.

Drag coefficient

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

• Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow
direction.

• The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is

expressed as
In engineering analysis, a generally accepted value for the critical Reynolds number
is:
 • the thin layer immediately adjacent to the wall where viscous effects dominate is known as
the laminar sublayer

The governing equation for convection are:

a- MASS CONSERVATION

Consider flow on the external plane, and the fluid element inside the
boundary layer is plotted as below;Mass balance on the fluid element:
 M cv 
Note:  M mass flow rate
t
cv

 
M cv  uA  xyz 
t

The mass entering the left side of the element per unit time is (mass flow)

ρ.u.dy (kg/s)

The mass entering the right side of the element per unit time is

 u 
ρ.ux+dx .dy =   u  dx dy (kg/s)
 x 

The mass entering the bottom side of the element per unit time is

ρ.v.dx (kg/s)
The mass entering the top side of the element per unit time is

 v 
ρ.vy+dy .dx =   v  dy dx (kg/s)
 y 

Mass balans on the element yields:

 v 
 u dy +  u  u
dx dy +  v dx +   v  dy dx =0 …for steady state condition
x
 y 

 u   v 
  +  
 x   y 

Mass conservation into three or two dimensional unsteady state, compressible

flow as below
Mass conservation in cylindrical and spherical coordinates

B: Drive the Momentum equation ,external flow , Cartesian

coordinates((Laminar flow)):

There are three equations of momentum into X,Y and Z direction

1-The momentum flux in x direction is the product of the mass with the fluid
flow through a particular side on the control volume( fluid element)

2-For a differential control volume on the fluid , under steady state conditions, this
requirements states that the sum of all forces acting on the control volume must equal
the rate at which momentum leaves the control volume((outflow-inflow))
3-Two kinds of forces may act on the fluid:
Body forces which are proportional to the volume: centrifugal, magnetic, electric---ect
Surface forces which are proportional to the area. static pressure and viscous stresses
Force balance on the fluid element(2D) Cartesian coordinates
Combined the momentum and force balance on the element as below:

i-Momentum balance on a fluid element (2D) (x direction)

1-The momentum entering the left face per unit time is (force) at Newton:

u.udydz  u 2 dy  m . u where dz=1 ……………………1
2- The momentum leaving the right face per unit time is (force) at Newton:
 u   u 
u x  dx .u x  dx dydz    u  dx . u  dx dy where dz=1……….2
 x   x 
3- The momentum entering the bottom face per unit time is (force) at newton:
v.udydz  uvdy ……………………3
4- The momentum leaving the top face per unit time is (force) at Newton:
 v   u 
v x  dx .u x  dx dxdz    v  dy . u  dy dx ………………4
 y   y 

ii- Now the pressure balance on the element:

5- The pressure entering the left face product area, (force) at newton:
P dydz=Pdy
6- The pressure leaving the right face , (force) at Newton
  P  
  P   dx dy
  x  
7-The net force into x direction
  P  
  x dxdy  ……………….5
   
Now the shear force balance on the element:
8- The shear at the bottom face is (force) at newtonx direction
  u  
   dx 
  y  
9- The shear at the top face is (force) at newton
 u  u  
dx   dy 
 y y y  
The net shear force in the direction of the motion(x) is the sum of 8&9

  2 u  
  2 dydx  …………6
 y  
The momentum equation is the sum of: 1,2,3,4,5,and 6
2
 v   u 
And let  u dydx   0 .,,, . dydx   0 .,,, dxdy=1
 y   y 

  2 u  p u u
  2    u 2 dy  u 2 dy  u  uvdx  uvdx  v
 y  x x y

Finally the momentum equation into x direction is:

  2 u  p u u
  2    u  v
 y  x x y

The two terms on right side represent momentum flow from the control volume. The
terms on the left side represent ,net pressure force and viscous force.
From continuity and momentum equations must solved velocity and pressure at each
point in the fluid
C -DERIVE THE ENERGY EQUATION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
The fluid dynamics of a laminar-boundary-layer flow system is considered here
to develop the energy equation and then an integral method of solution is used
to solve it with respect to the elemental control volume shown in Fig. 5.7. The
analysis is made under the following assumptions:

Figure 5.7 Energy Analysis of an Element in Laminar Boundary Layer

1. Flow is incompressible and steady.

2. Viscosity, thermal conductivity, and specific heat remain constant.
3. Heat conduction in the direction of flow is negligible.

The energy balance for the element is written as follows:

Convected energy in the left face + convected energy in the bottom face+
conducted heat in the bottom face+ net viscous work done on the
element=energy covected out the right face+ energy convected out the top
face+heat conduction out the top face.

 u 
Net work on the element dxdy =Viscous force . Length=  . A    .dx
 y 

Where L is the distance through which it moves per unit time with respect to
volume dx.dy.dz

 u
 L   dy
 y 

So the net viscous work delivered to the element is

2
  u   u   u
  dx  dy      dxdy
 y  y   y 

2
  2T   u   T   u  u T 
k .dxdy 2      dxdy   c p  u   T   . dx  dxdy 
 y   y    x   x  x x 
  T   v  v T 
 p  v
 c    T   . dy  dxdy  0
  y   y  y y 

 u 
2
u
IF:  =0 for laminar flow very small ,  0 , continuity equation
 x  x
u v v
  0, 0
x y y
Then

  2T   T   T 
  2    u    v 
  y   x    y 
This is energy equation ,Two dimensional, Cartesian coordinates,steady
Means conduction terms at the left side and the convection terms on the right side.

Note: for the energy equation ,three dimensional, Cartesian coordinates ,steady
   2T  2T  2T   T   T   T 
  2  2  2    u    v    w 
 x y z   x   y   z 

Boundary Layers

Velocity Boundary Layer

• the region of fluid flow over the plate where viscous effects dominate is
called the velocity or hydrodynamic boundary layer

Thermal Boundary Layer

• the thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of points where
 T−Tw

T∞ − Tw = 0.99

Relations for external flow

1. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal

The local values of the skin friction and the Nusselt number are given as

0.664
Cf,x =
Re1/2
x

Nux = 0.332 Re1/2x P r 1/3 ⇒ local, laminar, , P r ≥ 0.6

hL L
1/2
NuL = = 0.664 Re L Pr1/3 ⇒ average, laminar, P r ≥ 0.6
kf
For low Prandtl numbers, i.e. liquid metals

Nux= 0.565 Re1/2xP r 1/2 ⇒ local, laminar,Uniform wall Temperature (UWT) P r≤ 0.6

2. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal

τw 0.0592
Cf,x = = ⇒ local, turbulent, UWT, P r ≥ 0.6
Re0.2
x
(1/2)ρU 2
∞

local, turbulent,

Nux = 0.0296 Re0.8xP r 1/3 ⇒ 0.6 < P r < 100, Rex > 500, 000
 average, turbulent

0.6 < P r < 100, Rex > 500, 000

0.8 1/3
NuL = 0.037 Re Pr
L
⇒
Preview question:

Considering the differential approach, derive the mass conservation equations in

the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems.

External Flow:Thermal and velocity boundary layers, examples

Pretest questions

1-Drive momentum equation into( y ) direction flow.

2- What is meant by a hydrodynamic boundary layer?

3- What is meant by a thermal boundary layer?

Free-stream velocity: � the velocity of the fluid relative to an immersed solid body
sufficiently far from the body.

• The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the surface (the noslip condition) to the
free-stream value away from the surface.

Friction and Pressure Drag

• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.

• Dragis compose of:

– pressure drag,

– friction drag (skin friction drag).

• The drag force FD depends on the

– density ρ of the fluid,

– the upstream velocity V, and

– the size, shape, and orientation of the body.

The dimensionless drag coefficient CD is defined as • At low Reynolds numbers,
most drag is due to friction drag.

• The friction drag is also proportional to the surface area.

• The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the difference
between the pressures acting on the front and back of the immersed body.

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

• Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow
direction.

• The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is

expressed as
In engineering analysis, a generally accepted value for the critical Reynolds number
is:

Local Friction Coefficient external flow

• The boundary layer thickness and the local friction coefficient at location x over a
flat plate:
Heat Transfer Coefficient

1-• The local Nusselt number at location x over a flat plate:

Note: • hx is infinite local heat transfer coefficient at the leading edge (x=0) and
decreases by a factor of x0.5 in the flow direction.

Average Nusset Number

2-• The average Nusselt number

 
Cf  2Cf  x  , N u  2 Nu x

The effect of prandtle number on the boundary layer thickness

Pr =1: thermal and hydrodynamic boundary are the same

Pr >1: thermal boundary is thinner than hydrodynamic boundary

Pr <1: thermal boundary is thicker than hydrodynamic boundary

x 1
 Pr 3
t

Hydrodynamic analysis for the boundary layer on the flow over the flate plate
(Laminar flow) by using integral method: Integral momentum equation

‫ﻟﻐرض ﺣل اﻟطﺑﻘﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺎﺧﻣﮫ ﻟﻠﺳرﻋﮫ او اﻟﺣراره ﻧﺳﺗﺧدم اﺣد اﻟطرق وھﻲ طرﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺗﻛﺎﻣل‬

‫ وﻛﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‬: ‫ﻟﻠﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ ﻓون ﻛﺎرﻣﺎن ﻛﺎﺳﺎس ﻟﺣل اواﻟﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟرﺋﯾﺳﯾﮫ‬

Assumptions: ‫اﻟﻔرﺿﯾﺎت‬

1-laminar flow ,forced convection

2-hydrodynamic functions inside the boundary layer  x , C f ,  x

3- All properties are constant:  ,  , 

dp
4- 0 , y 0
dy

By using the integral solution for solving mass –momentum equations.

Re arrangement the mass and momentum equations into integral form with the
region (0 - δ) from the wall to the boundary layer thickness.

a- Mass equation
 u  v
 dy   dy .......... .......... ........ 1
0 x 0 y

 u
v  v0    dy ……………………………2
0 x

v0  0 and at y  v  

B:Momentume equation:

 u  u 1 dp   2u
 u dy   v dy      2 dy
0 x 0 y  dx 0 y

u
Boundary conditions: at y=δ ---- =U∞ , v=V∞ and 0
y

 u 2  uv 1 dp   2u
 dy   dy      2 dy
0 x 0 y  dx 0 y
 u 2  u   u  
dy  uv   uv 0   
1 dp
         ..................................3
0 x  dx  y  y   y  y 0 

 u 
uv0 =0 and   =0
 y  y 

 u
v    dy and multiplying by U∞ becomes
0 x

 uU 
V U     dy ---------------4 sub eqa 4 into equ 3 gives
0 x

 u 2  uU 1 dp  u 
 dy   dy      ..
0 x 0 x  dx  y  y 0


u u  U  dy   1 dp   u 

 ..
0 x  dx  y  y 0

d   u 
 u u  U  dy  
1 dp
    ..
dx 0  dx  y  y 0

This is the momentum integral equation on the flat plate.((Von Karman equation))

If pressure gradient equal to zero

d   u  x
  u U   u dy      ..
dx 0  y  y 0 

For Nondimensionl form dividing by δ and U∞

d 1  u  u  y    u / U     Cf
   1   d     x 2  ..
dx 0 U   U   U     y /    y  0 U  2
Question:

By using the integral solution for solving mass –momentum equations. Find the
momentum integral equation on the flat plate and the expression for non
Cf
dimensional value of friction coefficient ( ) .
2