CLL-251 Heat Transfer (Forced Convection)

Dr. Manojkumar C. Ramteke

Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Reference Textbook: Heat Transfer by B. K . Dutta

1
4th Feb, 2021
 Forced Convection
1) In case of convective heat transfer it is not difficult to make a differential heat
balance over an elementary volume considering all kinds of energy input, output,
generation and accumulation terms in order to obtain a partial differential equation
that governs the temperature distribution in the medium.
2) But in most practical cases, it becomes a formidable task to solve such equations
for the calculation of heat transfer rates.
3) To simplify this, the heat transfer correlations are developed to calculate the heat
transfer coefficient though these have error as much as 25 – 30 %.
4) Although the simplest way to visualize convective heat transfer to or from a surface
is to assume the existence of a stagnant fluid film at the wall, no such film does
exist in reality.
5) It is true, however, that in the case of heat transfer from the surface, most of the
heat transfer resistance is offered by a narrow zone of fluid near the surface, called
boundary layer, but the fluid in this zone is never stagnant.
6) The concept of boundary layer is of vital importance in understanding the flow and
heat transfer characteristics near a wall.
 Flow Over a Flat Plate
Free Stream

V Eddies

Buffer Zone
δ(x)
Laminar Sublayer

Laminar Boundary Layer x→

Transition Zone
Turbulent Boundary Layer
The boundary layer thickness increases
with the distance x from the leading
Velocity profile can be solved to
edge of the plate δ = δ (x)
obtain the boundary layer thickness.
Characteristics of Boundary Layer flow depends
on the Reynolds number: Rex = ρVx /μ Rex < 5 ⨯ 105 → Laminar
5 ⨯ 105 < Rex < 106 → Transition Zone
106 < Rex → Turbulent Zone
 Thermal Boundary Layer
Free Stream Velocity = V
Free Stream Temperature = T0
V, T0
Velocity = V
Thermal Boundary Layer

Velocity Boundary Layer

Plate temperature, TS

Prandtl number: Pr = ν/α = (μ/ρ)/(k/ρCP)

Pr < 1 → Momentum Boundary layer is within Thermal Boundary layer

Pr > 1 → Thermal Boundary layer is within Momentum Boundary layer
Pr = 1 → Thermal Boundary layer Coincides with Momentum Boundary layer
 Average Heat Transfer coefficient

V, T0
θ
A

d
Separation Point
Stagnation Point

Blower used to cool the liquid flowing through Cylinder

Nusselt number: Nu = hd/k

Heat transfer coefficient decreases with θ
as the boundary layer thickness increases.
It is minimum at separation point. Then it
increases due to formation of eddies and
Nu
wakes which increases the heat transfer.

Average Value of heat transfer Coefficient 90 180

0
is used
Θ→
 Dimensional Analysis
1) Though solving the heat transfer problems became possible due to high-speed
computers, the way to solve these easily for approximate results is the use of
correlations in terms of dimensionless groups.
2) The technique of dimensional analysis is a powerful tool to identify the
dimensionless groups which are used to correlate the variables that influence a
particular physical process.
3) The first step is to identify the relevant variables, parameters or properties. For
example, in the case of convective heat transfer to a fluid flowing through a circular
pipe, we can say from our experimental findings and our understanding of the
physical phenomenon that the heat transfer coefficient h depends upon the fluid
velocity V, pipe diameter d, thermal conductivity of the fluid k, its specific heat CP,
density ρ, and viscosity μ. So, h, V, d, k, CP, ρ and μ are the variables and
properties we identify for the purpose of forming dimensionless groups.
4) Dimensional analysis teaches us how to cluster two or more of these quantities.
5) Buckingham Pi Theorem: If the equation Φ (X1, X2, …., Xn) = 0 is the only relation
among the quantities X1, X2, …., Xn and if it holds for any arbitrary choice of the
units in which these quantities are measured, then the solution of this equation has
the form f (π1, π2, …., πm) = 0 where π1, π2, …., πm are independent dimensionless
products of the Xs. Further, if P is the minimum number of the primary quantities
necessary to express the dimensions of Xs, then n – m = P
Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe
Quantity Dimension
h (W/m2ºC) Mt-3T-1 (1)
V (m/s) Lt-1
d (m) L The primary quantities [mass (M), length (L),
k (W/mºC) MLt-3T-1 time (t), and temperature (T)] are necessary to
express the dimensions of the quantities in (1).
CP (J/kgºC) L2t-2T-1
Therefore, number of dimensionless groups (m)
ρ (kg/m3) ML-3 will be 7 – 4 = 3. We choose following
μ (kg/ms) ML-1t-1 combinations to express π1, π2, and π3.

W (Watt) = J/sec = kg m2/s3

Where the ɑ1 – ɑ5, b1 – b5, and c1 – c5 are unknown constants.

 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe

Equating for π1:

Equating powers on both sides we get

M (2)
Express all constants in
(3) terms of ɑ5
L
(4)
t
T (5)

From (4) and (5) (6) From (2) and (3)

(7)
From (6) and (7)
Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe
Equating for π2:

Equating powers on both sides we get

(8)
Express all constants in
(9) terms of b5
(10)

(11)

From (11)

From (10)

From (8)

From (9)
 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe
Equating for π3:

Equating powers on both sides we get

(12)
Express all constants in
(13) terms of c5
(14)

(15)

From (14) - 3(15) From (15)

From (12) From (13)

Thus, the seven variables in this problem can be related to three dimensionless groups:
Re, Pr, Nu
 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe
It is possible to arrive at the same dimensionless groups without going through the
formalism of the Pi theorem. For example let us assume a power law dependence of
h on the remaining quantities

Equating powers on both sides we get

M (16)
L (17)

t (18)

T (19)

From (19)
From (16)
From (18)

From (17)
 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer
to a Fluid Flowing Through Circular Pipe

(20)

Nu = C Prβ5 Reβ6

Experimental heat transfer data in turbulent flow are mostly correlated in the form of
above equation. It should be noted that dimensional analysis does not tell us how the
dimensionless groups in a particular problem are related. In other words, it is silent
about the possible functional form of the correlation.
In equation (20), we arrived at specific functional form because we assumed a power
law type dependence at the beginning.
 Dimensionless Numbers in Heat Transfer

Nusselt Number:

Consider heating of a fluid while it flows through a pipe of diameter d. At a certain

axial position, let the wall temperature be Tw and the bulk fluid temperature, Tb (Tw >
Tb). The heat flux at the wall is

Reynolds Number:

Prandtl Number:
 Dimensionless Numbers in Heat Transfer

Stanton Number:

If we consider a temperature difference of ΔT across the wall and the bulk fluid
Convective heat flux = h ΔT
If the fluid flows at an average velocity V, the rate of energy transport by bulk flow or
by movement of the liquid per unit area of cross section = mass flow rate ⨯ specific
heat ⨯ temperature change = ρVCPΔT

Ratio of two quantities:

Again the heat flux due to conduction across the distance d under the same
temperature driving force is (k/d) ΔT

Peclet Number:

Pe = Re Pr

Graetz Number: This is similar to Pe and is used for heat

Gz = Pe d/L
transfer in laminar flow in pipe
 Experimental Determination of the Heat Transfer
Coefficient
1) A correlation for the heat transfer can be developed only on the basis of a
substantial amount of experimental heat transfer data for a particular system.
2) For correlating heat transfer coefficient, experiments should be performed with a
large number of fluids so that a wide range of values of the physical properties (ρ,
μ, CP, k) is covered.
Large number of fluids ⇒ for varying (ρ, μ, CP, k)

Pipes of different diameter ⇒ for varying d

Velocity of the fluid should be varied over large range
L

d
T2 T1

In experiment, T1, T2 and velocity V is measured at

steady state. ρ, μ, CP, k are measured at (T1 + T2)/2
Saturated Steam temperature
 Experimental Determination of the Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Heat Balance

Heat Gained by the Liquid flowing through the inner pipe = Heat Transferred from
the Fluid flowing in outer annular region

Re, Pr, and Nu are calculated for varying (ρ, μ, CP, K, d and V). Using the Non-
linear regression, following equation is obtained.
 Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficient

1) Systems of various shapes and different flow conditions are encountered in

practical heat transfer calculations.
2) The common shapes or geometries are cylindrical, spherical or flat. The most
common flow problem involves flow through a circular pipe.
3) The other important flow problems are flow through a non-circular duct (e.g., a
rectangular channel), through a packed bed (e.g., catalyst or some inert material
forming a regenerative bed), in an agitated vessel with internals, through a jacket
over a reaction kettle, across a bank of tubes, etc.
4) Again a flow of a fluid in the system may be internal (e.g., flow through pipe) or
external (e.g., flow across the outer surface of a pipe)
Laminar flow through circular pipe:

Hansen, 1943: Re < 2100

Fully developed flow and h is the average heat

constant temperature of transfer coefficient
pipe wall

Sieder and Tate: 0.48 < Pr < 16700

0.0044 < μ/μw < 9.75
Pe d/L >108
 Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficient
Turbulent flow through circular pipe:

Dittus - Boelter: 0.7 < Pr ≤ 160

d/L < 0.1
For heating (Tw > T): n =0.4
Re ≥ 10000
For cooling (Tw < T): n = 0.3
Applicable for moderate temperature difference

0.7 < Pr ≤ 16700

Sieder and Tate: d/L < 0.1
Re ≥ 10000

Applicable for large temperature difference

Seban and Shimazaki: Pe > 100

L/d > 60
Applicable for heat transfer by liquid metals flowing through pipe
 Heat Transfer in a Laminar Tube Flow
Consider the tube flow system as shown in Figure. We wish to calculate the heat
transfer under fully developed flow conditions when the flow remains laminar. The wall
temperature is Tw, the radius of the tube is r0, and the velocity at the centre of the
tube is u0. It is assumed that the pressure is uniform at any cross section. The velocity
distribution may be derived by considering the fluid element.

Δx
r ← τ(2πrdx)
r

(p) πr2 → ← (p +dp) πr2

r0 Δx
q x
The pressure forces are balanced by the viscous – shear forces
 Heat Transfer in a Laminar Tube Flow

The pressure forces are balanced by the viscous – shear forces

Boundary Condition: u = 0 at r = r0

Velocity at the centre of the tube: u = u0 at r = 0

Velocity distribution: (1)

This is a familiar parabolic distribution for laminar tube flow. Now consider the heat
transfer process for such a flow system. To simplify the analysis, we assume that
there is a constant heat flux at the tube wall.
 Heat Transfer in a Laminar Tube Flow
The heat conducted into the annular element is dA

The heat conducted out the annular element is dA

(2)

We assume that the heat flux at the wall is constant, so that the average fluid
temperature must increase linearly with x or

This means that the temperature profile will be similar at various x distances along the
tube. The boundary conditions are
 Heat Transfer in a Laminar Tube Flow
To obtain the solution of (2), the velocity distribution must be inserted. It is assumed
that the temperature and the velocity fields are independent i.e., a temperature
gradient does not affect the calculations of velocity profile. This properties remain
constant in the flow.

Integrating:

Integrating again:

The boundary condition is

The second boundary condition has been satisfied by noting that the axial
temperature gradient ∂T/∂x is constant (this is already used while integrating the
above equation). The temperature distribution may finally be written in terms of the
temperature at the centre of the tube (at a specific x).
T = Tc at r = 0 ⇒ C2 = TC (3)
 Heat Transfer in a Laminar Tube Flow
(3)

Local heat flux: q = h(Tw – Tb) Tb is bulk temperature

From (3):

For constant wall heat flux:

(4)
For constant wall temp:
 Flow through Non-Circular Duct

rH = Hydraulic radius =

Equivalent Diameter: de = 4rH

For rectangular duct of sides l1 and l2:

It is to be noted that the wetted permitter for pressure drop and heat transfer can be
different.

For Annular Flow: d1 d2

For Pressure Drop Calculation:

For Heat Transfer Calculation:

 Heat Transfer Coefficient for External Flow
Flow over a flat plate:
0.5 ≤ Pr ≤ 50
Laminar Boundary Layer: Rex < 5 ⨯105

Turbulent Zone: 0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60

5 ⨯105 < Rex < 107
Flow past Cylinder:

Fand: 0.1 < Red < 105

Flow past Sphere:

40 < Red < 105

Whitaker: 0.65 < Pr < 300
0.25 < μ/μw <5.2
For Laminar Stokes Flow: Nu = 2 (Can be proven analytically)

Only few correlations are given here. Students are advised to refer the book for
other correlations
 y Flow Across the Bank of Tubes
Aligned Staggered
x
SL = Longitudinal Pitch SL = Longitudinal Pitch
ST = Transverse ST = Transverse
Pitch Pitch

V, Ti V, Ti

Diameter, d SD = Diagonal Pitch

Typical Example is waste recovery from the flue gases (flow of hot combustion gases
across the tube bank in water tube boiler.
 Flow Across the Bank of Tubes

For aligned arrangement For staggered arrangement

Since temperature drop from inlet to outlet whereas

the surface temperature of the tube remains same.

Configurati Red,max C m
on
Aligned 103 – 2 ⨯ 105 0.27 0.63
Aligned 2 ⨯ 105 – 2 ⨯ 0.027 0.84
106
Staggered 103 – 2 ⨯ 105 0.35(ST/SL)0.2 0.60
(ST/SL < 2)
Staggered 103 – 2 ⨯ 105 0.40 0.60
(ST/SL > 2)
Staggered 2 ⨯ 105 – 2 ⨯ 0.022 0.84
106
 Flow Through Packed Bed
Heat Transfer Coefficient in Packed and Fluidized Bed:

Pr = 0.7
For Packed Bed: 90 < Redp < 4000

V0 = Superficial Velocity
dp = diameter or effective diameter of particles

For Fluidized Bed:

 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force
1) The calculation of the rate of heat transfer becomes very simple if the overall heat
transfer coefficient, the area of the heat transfer and the temperature driving force
all remains constant.
2) But in many cases, one or more of these quantities may vary. Examples of heat
transport through a variable area (cylinder or sphere) or with a variable heat
transfer coefficient (boundary layer heat transfer) have been discussed.
3) However, variation of the temperature driving force with position in a heat transfer
equipment or device is more common. mc, Tc2
1 dA
2
Tc
mh, Th1 Th mh, Th2

mc, Tc1 Double Pipe Heat exchanger (Co-current Flow)

Th1
Th2
ΔT1 ΔT ΔT2
Temp Tc2

Tc1

1 Distance 2
 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force
mc, Tc2
dA
1 2
Tc
mh, Th1 Th mh, Th2

mc, Tc1
Th2
ΔT2

Th1 ΔT
Temp Tc2
ΔT1
Tc1

1 Distance 2

Double Pipe Heat exchanger (Counter-current Flow)

 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force
Applying the heat balance over small area dA of co-current flow case

(1)

(2)
Negative sign is present as temperature decreases as we move along the length

From (1): Put in equation (2)

(3)

Substituting

(4)
 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force

(4)
Integrating:
At (1) A = 0, ΔT= Th1 – Tc1 = ΔT1

At (2) A = A, ΔT= Th2 – Tc2 = ΔT2

(5)

Heat Balance for both the streams:

(6)

From (5) and (6):

 Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies
Laminar Flow
For Momentum Transfer
in Laminar Flow

For Heat Transfer

through Laminar Layer

r
x

Radial Heat Transfer Radial Momentum Transfer

Tw (Tw > Tr)

Turbulent Flow
Momentum Transfer Heat Transfer
(1) (2)

Where, εM and εH are the eddy momentum diffusivity and eddy thermal diffusivity
 Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies
Momentum Transfer Heat Transfer
(1) (2)

Writing (1) at r = R (i.e., wall) gives the wall shear stress

Where V is the average velocity and f

is a Fanning friction factor

The dimensionless velocity gradient: (3)

Writing (2) at r = R (i.e., wall) gives the wall heat flux

Where Tm is the mean fluid
temperature and h is a heat transfer
coefficient
The dimensionless temperature (4)
gradient:
 Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies
Reynolds Analogy:

1) The gradient of the dimensionless velocity and the dimensionless temperature

at the wall are equal.
(5)

(6)

Heat transfer coefficient can be obtained if friction factor is known

Prandtl Analogy (more realistic):

It assumes eddy transport in the turbulent core and diffusive transport in laminar
sublayer
Chilton and Colburn Analogy:

Correlation for friction factor:

Thank You

36