MATH4058-E1

1 MATH3020-E1

• Always justify your answers unless instructed otherwise.

• Where you use standard results, state clearly which they are.

• Throughout, unless otherwise specified, the scalar field is 𝔽,

where 𝔽 may be either ℝ or ℂ. Also ℝ+ = [0, +∞).

(𝑛) (𝑛) (𝑛)

1. (a) Let 𝑎(𝑛) ∈ ℓ1 with 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝑎(𝑛) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … ) = (𝑎𝑗 )∞ (𝑛)
𝑗=1 . The sequence (𝑎 ) ⊆ ℓ
1

is said to converge componentwise to 𝑎 = (𝑎𝑗 )∞ 1

𝑗=1 ∈ ℓ if for every fixed 𝑗 ∈ ℕ, we
(𝑛)
have 𝑎𝑗 → 𝑎𝑗 ∈ 𝔽.

Give an example of a componentwise convergent sequence in ℓ1 which is not a Cauchy

sequence in ℓ1 . Explain why the sequence you have constructed does not converge in
ℓ1 . [8 marks]

(b) i) Let 𝐴 = {(𝑎𝑗 )∞

𝑗=1 ∶ 𝑎𝑗 ∈ ℝ, 𝑗 ∈ ℕ, |𝑎𝑗 | ≤ 1/𝑗}.

Prove that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑐0 , where

𝑐0 = {(𝑎𝑗 )∞
𝑗=1 ∶ 𝑎𝑗 ∈ ℝ, 𝑗 ∈ ℕ, lim𝑗→∞ 𝑎𝑗 = 0}.

Prove that the set 𝐴 defined above is not contained in ℓ1ℝ .

[8 marks]

ii) Let 𝑎 = (𝑎𝑗 )∞ ∞

𝑗=1 ∈ ℓℝ with 𝑎𝑗 = 1 for all 𝑗 ∈ ℕ.

Given that ℓ1ℝ ⊆ ℓ∞ 1

ℝ , prove that for every 𝑏 ∈ ℓℝ , we have ‖𝑏 − 𝑎‖∞ ≥ 1/2.

Prove that (ℓ1ℝ , ‖ ⋅ ‖∞ ) ≠ ℓ∞ 1 1 ∞

ℝ , where (ℓℝ , ‖ ⋅ ‖∞ ) is the closure of ℓℝ in ℓℝ .

[8 marks]

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2. (a) Let 𝐸 = {(𝑥, 0) ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1} ⊆ ℝ2 .

By using the definition of the Lebesgue outer measure in ℝ2 , prove that 𝑚∗ (𝐸) = 0,
where 𝑚∗ (𝐸) is the Lebesgue outer measure of 𝐸 in ℝ2 .
Explain why 𝐸 ⊆ ℝ2 is a Lebesgue measurable set and why 𝑚(𝐸) = 0. [5 marks]

(b) It is known that every open interval in ℝ2 defined by

𝐼 ∶= (𝑎, 𝑏) × (𝑐, 𝑑) = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏, 𝑐 < 𝑦 < 𝑑} ⊆ ℝ2
is a Lebesgue measurable set with Lebesgue measure 𝑚(𝐼) = (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑑 − 𝑐), where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑏, 𝑐 < 𝑑.

Let 𝐸 = (0, 1] × [0, 1) = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 < 1} ⊆ ℝ2 .

∞
Prove that 𝐸= 𝐼𝑛 , where 𝐼𝑛 = (0, 1 + 1/𝑛) × (−1/𝑛, 1) for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
⋂
𝑛=1
Prove that 𝐸 is a Lebesgue measurable set in ℝ2 and determine its Lebesgue measure
𝑚(𝐸).

You may use relevant properties for Lebesgue measurable sets in the Lecture Slides.
[7 marks]

(c) i) Suppose 𝑔 ∶ ℝ → ℝ is a Lebesgue measurable function. By using the definition of

Lebesgue measurable functions and properties in Proposition 2.3.2, prove that the
modulus |𝑔| ∶ ℝ → ℝ of 𝑔 defined by |𝑔|(𝑥) ∶= |𝑔(𝑥)| for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is a Lebesgue
measurable function.

[5 marks]

ii) Suppose 𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ is a Lebesgue measurable function. Let

𝐸𝑛 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑓 (𝑥) > 1/𝑛} for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝐸0 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0}.
∞
Prove that 𝐸0 = ⋃ 𝐸𝑛 .
𝑛=1
If we further assume that for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑚(𝐸𝑛 ) = 0, prove that 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 0 almost
everywhere in ℝ.
[7 marks]

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3. (a) Consider a sequence of Lebesgue measurable functions 𝑓𝑛 ∶ ℝ → ℝ for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ defined

by
1, 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 1,
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =
{ 0, 𝑥 < 𝑛 or 𝑥 > 𝑛 + 1.

i) Prove that 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) → 0 almost everywhere in ℝ as 𝑛 → ∞.

[3 marks]
∞
ii) Explain why 𝑓𝑛 is Lebesgue integrable over ℝ and prove that ∫−∞ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 does
not converge to 0 as 𝑛 → ∞.
[3 marks]

iii) Prove that there does not exist a Lebesgue integrable function 𝑔 ∶ ℝ → ℝ such
that 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0 almost everywhere and |𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for almost every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and
for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
[4 marks]

𝑛
1
(b) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) =
2
and 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =
∑ (−1)𝑘 𝑥2𝑘 for 𝑥 ∈ [0, 1] and for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
1+𝑥 𝑘=0
i) Explain why 𝑓 ∶ [0, 1] → ℝ and 𝑓𝑛 ∶ [0, 1] → ℝ are Lebesgue integrable functions
for every 𝑛 ∈ ℕ by using relevant properties of Lebesgue measurable and Lebesgue
integrable functions in the Lecture Slides.
[3 marks]

ii) Prove that 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) → 𝑓 (𝑥) as 𝑛 → ∞ almost everywhere in [0, 1].

[3 marks]

iii) Prove |𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| ≤ 2𝑓 (𝑥) almost everywhere in [0, 1] and for all ℕ.

(Hint: Consider (1 − 𝑎𝑛+1 )/(1 − 𝑎) for 𝑎 ≠ 1.)

[3 marks]

iv) By using the dominated convergence theorem, prove that

1 1
lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ ∫0 ∫0

hence prove that

∞
(−1)𝑘
arctan(1) = ∑ .
𝑘=0
2𝑘 + 1

You should verify that all assumptions of the dominated convergence theorem are
satisfied. [5 marks]

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4. (a) Given that ‖𝑥‖ ∶= 𝛼|𝑥1 | + 𝛽|𝑥2 | for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) ∈ ℝ2 defines a norm on ℝ2 with 𝛼 > 0
and 𝛽 > 0 fixed constants. Prove that there does NOT exist an inner product ⟨⋅, ⋅⟩ on
ℝ2 such that ‖𝑥‖ = √⟨𝑥, 𝑥⟩ for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ2 .

(Hint: A possible way to show this is to find two points in ℝ2 such that the parallelogram
law does not hold.) [5 marks]

(b) Let 𝐻 be a real separable Hilbert space with inner product ⟨⋅, ⋅⟩ and associated norm
‖ ⋅ ‖.
i) Prove that if 𝑢𝑛 → 𝑢 and 𝑣𝑛 → 𝑣 in 𝐻 as 𝑛 → ∞, then we have ⟨𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣𝑛 ⟩ → ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩
as 𝑛 → ∞.

You may use the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality without proof.

[6 marks]

ii) Suppose {𝑒𝑛 }∞ 𝑛=1 is an orthonormal sequence in 𝐻. Suppose 𝑢 ∈ 𝐻 satisfies 𝑢 ⟂ 𝑒𝑛 ,

that is, ⟨𝑒𝑛 , 𝑢⟩ = 0 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Let 𝑉 = lin({𝑒𝑛 }∞𝑛=1 ). Prove that inf{‖𝑢 − 𝑣‖ ∶ 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 } = ‖𝑢‖, where lin({𝑒𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 )
is the closed linear span of the set {𝑒𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 in 𝐻.
[7 marks]

(c) Let 𝐻 be a real separable Hilbert space with inner product ⟨⋅, ⋅⟩ and associated norm
‖ ⋅ ‖.
Suppose both 𝑈 and 𝑉 are linear subspaces of 𝐻 and for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and every 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉,
the following inequality holds:

‖𝑢‖‖𝑣‖
|⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩| ≤ .
2
Prove that 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = {0}.

Prove that for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and every 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, the following inequality holds:
‖𝑢‖2 + ‖𝑣‖2
‖𝑢 + 𝑣‖2 ≥ .
2
[6 marks]

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5. (a) Define 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑥1 𝑒1 for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … ) ∈ ℓ2ℝ , where 𝑒1 = (1, 0, ...0, ...) = (𝛿1,𝑗 )∞
𝑗=1 ∈
ℓ2ℝ with 𝛿1,𝑗 = 1 if 𝑗 = 1 and 𝛿1,𝑗 = 0 if 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑗 ≠ 1.

Let 𝑆 ∶ ℓ2ℝ → ℓ2ℝ be the (forward) shift operator defined by 𝑆𝑥 = (0, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … )

for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … ) ∈ ℓ2ℝ .
Given that 𝑇 ∶ ℓ2ℝ → ℓ2ℝ is a linear operator, prove that 𝑇 ∶ ℓ2ℝ → ℓ2ℝ is bounded
with ‖𝑇 ‖ = 1.

Prove that ‖𝑇 𝑆‖ < ‖𝑇 ‖.

[6 marks]

(b) Let 𝐻 be a real Hilbert space with inner product ⟨⋅, ⋅⟩ and associated norm ‖⋅‖. Suppose
1
𝑢 ∈ 𝐻 with ‖𝑢‖ = 1. Define the linear operator 𝑇 ∶ 𝐻 → 𝐻 by 𝑇 𝑥 = ⟨𝑥, 𝑢⟩𝑢 for
2
𝑥 ∈ 𝐻.
i) Prove that 𝑇 ∶ 𝐻 → 𝐻 is a bounded linear operator with ‖𝑇 ‖ = 1/2.

You may use Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for the inner product without proof.

[4 marks]
1
ii) Prove that 𝑇 2 = 𝑇. [3 marks]
2
iii) Determine 𝑠 ∈ ℝ such that (𝐼 − 𝑇 )(𝐼 + 𝑠𝑇 ) = (𝐼 + 𝑠𝑇 )(𝐼 − 𝑇 ) = 𝐼 to prove that
𝐼 − 𝑇 is invertible and its inverse is a bounded linear operator. [4 marks]

(c) i) Suppose 𝛼 = (1/𝑛)∞ ∞ 2 2

𝑛=1 ∈ ℓℝ and 𝑀𝛼 ∶ ℓℝ → ℓℝ is the corresponding multiplication
operator.
Let 𝑆 ∶ ℓ2ℝ → ℓ2ℝ be the (forward) shift operator defined in Part (a) above.
Prove that if 𝑥 ∈ ℓ2ℝ satisfies 𝑀𝛼 𝑥 = 𝑆𝑥, then 𝑥 = 0. [3 marks]

ii) Let 𝛼 = (𝛼𝑗 )∞ ∞ 2 2

𝑗=1 ∈ ℓℝ . Suppose the multiplication operator 𝑀𝛼 ∶ ℓℝ → ℓℝ satisfies

⟨𝑀𝛼 𝑎, 𝑎⟩ ≥ ‖𝑎‖22

for all 𝑎 ∈ ℓ2ℝ , where ⟨⋅, ⋅⟩ and ‖ ⋅ ‖2 are the inner product and norm of ℓ2ℝ
respectively.

Prove that inf{𝛼𝑗 ∶ 𝑗 ∈ ℕ} ≥ 1. [4 marks]

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