Professional Documents
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George Salvan Architectural Theories of Design
George Salvan Architectural Theories of Design
REVISED EDITION
USEFll. REf€1£NC€
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fiRCHITECTORfiL
THEORIES OF DESIGN
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Dedicated to all future
Architects
The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and hardworking
artist and graduate of architecture, Mr. Jerry Jun Suyat who spent sleepless nights w ith the
illustrations and all of the layouts of the dummy.
Special thanks and mention is also acknowledged to the artists who made all the illustrations
notably, Clamor Lecitona from NU, who also prepared the cover, Johnny Camsol, Fermin
Balangcod, Roy Pagador, Rey Puno, all from BCF and Reesa Angela Palaganas of SLU.
To those who lent unselfishly their books, like Architect Mike Caluza, Fe Oespabiladeras,
Dean Avelino Cruz of BCF, and to the BCF library through Ms. Macabiog for understanding
my late returns of borrowed books.
To Mr. Luis V. Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing of
books and to Mr. Francisco C. Malicsi, Teresita G. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Villanueva and
Enrico P. Gomez for t heir untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts typewritten by
Thelma i. Villareal, in computerized typesetting. The many students of architecture whose
curiosity about and interest in the Theory of Design and its realization in book form have
been a source of inspiration.
v
PREFACE
The practice of Architecture involves both the conception of an idea and its ultimate expres-
sion in building materials. The process of developing this idea to a point at which a solution
of the problem at hand is reached is known as "Architectural Design". Design must concern
itself with both the practical and the aesthetic. if the resulting structure is to be satisfactory
to an individual or a community, the two must always be combined and not separated.
For some time, students of architecture throughout the country have felt the need for a book
dealing with general ideas concerning the Theory of Design, a book that would be in every
sense introductory, defining the various approaches. outlining the different technical prob-
lems-and relating these two types of material to the creative side of art as well as to its uses
in everyday life.
Contemporary principles are concerned with planning for human needs and are not confined
to the field of architecture alone. Science, Sociology, and Economics also contribute to be
successful design of a building. The Architect of Today must be conscious of the character
of present-day culture and its effects upon the building which house the activities of this
civilization . He must design in terms of his physical and social environment.
Since.this author has been teaching the Theory of Design subject. way back in 1965, there
has oeen so many changes, notably new products in plastics and glass which gave us new
conceptions of the extent of space, while the ability to heat and light our interiors more effi-
ciently has imparted a different quality to the shelters in which we work. play and rest. All
these innovations taken together have made possible the open, flexible plan, and thus
architecture has changed in character.
Realizing this fast growing changes in Architectural Design as seen in the forms, shapes and
images which respond to project needs, the Ministry of Education in cooperation with the
United Architects Philippines met sometime in 1979 to revise the Architectural Curriculum to
a 5-year step ladder course, and came up with a more relevant syllabus for The Theory of
Architectural Design. Scanning the subject matters, the authors realized that not less than
30 books and different topics is needed for references. This is the reason that led to the
author's compiling of notes to suit this new curriculum and infuse the new topics involved.
Majority of the topics on architectural design are behavioral relations between man and
building, ecological interactions between building and nature and the role of building in
man's perception of and orientation to the cityscape.
VII
Briefly, the aims of this book are as follows: To outline a number of approaches to Design
(Physical, intellect~al, religious, symbolic, historical, etc.). To describe and characterize the
different techniques or media in design with their respective limitations and advantages; to
convey an idea of planning and designing of the art object and of the building . Other pur-
poses of this book is to provide practitioners and students of designing and planning with a
review of the new design methods and with examples of each. It may also be of interest to
anyone outside the design professions who is concerned with creative behaviour and with
technological change.
The chapters are arranged in sequence, Part I is for the first semester which deals mostly
with forms and Part II is for the second semester which deals with spaces. Each topic is sum-
marized in such a manner as to guide the instructor to finish and discuss all topics in the
alloted time of more than 40 hours per semester.
viii
LIST OF CONTENTS
-PART ONE-
(FORMS- TWO-DIMENSION)
Chapter 7 FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING ... .......... ~ ........... ..... 215
Horizontal Disposition, 216
Activity Analysis .and Linkages, 2Z7
ix
-PARTTWO-
(SPACES -THREE-DIMENSION)
Chapter 10 RESPONSE TO CONTEXT ........ ..... ............. .... ........ .... .. ... .. .. .. . 327
The Building Envelope, 328
Energy and Architectural Design, 336
Energy Consumption in Buildings, 336
Building Process, 337
Environmental Planning, 341
Site Selection, 342
Elements of Site Control, 343
Passive Solar Planning, 348
Building Design, Configuration, 359
X
Chapter 13 ECONOMIC .. ..... .... . ...................... . ... ................. ... ................ ....
The Cost of the Building Structures, 436
435
xi
INFLUENCES ON
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
I. GENERAL INFLUENCES
NEEDS OF MAN
1. PHYSICAL NEEDS
a. Self preservation . . . .
Food, shelter, clothing- basic
add to this basic needs:
power, water, transportation, ecological balance,
education , sports, medical, livelihood
b. Reproduction-for the population to increase and continue in existen ce.
SHELTEA . .. is something that covers, protects, or defends as a roof that shields
one from the elements and changes.
2. EMOTIONAL NEEDS
The emotional reactions of man have to do with ~he instincts stirred by the forces
of religion and art and with the desire to indulge in recreation . Art in its broadest
interpretation, assumes the various familiar forms painting, sculpture , music, lite-
rature.
3. INTELLECTUAL NEEDS
Educat ion, science and government , demand a proper architectural setting. In-
tellect or reason alone may erect a utilitarian building; emotion w ill endow it w ith
beauty and interest.
2
ACTIVITIES OF MAN
If life is to exist and civilization is to develop, there are f undamental i~putses or desires'
which must be satisfied. These forces may be called the stim~.Jii .~o action . Their effect
upon life and architecture, may be designated as Resulting Manifestations: RM
1. Desire for Preservation -in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and security, civilized rna n
must have commerce, government and religion. These activities call for their accom-
panying structures, or architecture.
2. Desire for Recognition -this is a desire for prestige, pride and ambition, social status,
physical supremacy, intellectual attainment, personal or civic, result in the-struggle
for position.
As a result, man build palaces, skyscrapers, or communities may erect cathedrals
or public buildings and monuments.
3. Desire for Response - This arises from the gregarious nature of man, from his wish for
love, friendship, and sociability.
In seeking the companionship of his fellow creatures, man congregates. His social
instincts call for fraternal buildif)QS and city clubs. His semi -public buildings must
contain banquet halls and ball rooms ; his home must have a living room to make
human association possible.
4. Desire for Self-Expression-This is the urge of man to as,sert himself as an individual.
To do things in his own particular way.
This is responsible for aesthotic expression; f or architecture in its highest forrn,
whicfi result in building of theatres, museums, etc. To show that he is the b~ in
sports or recreation, encouraged the building of stadia, bowling alleys, gymnasiums,
etc.
A. CLIMATE
This affect the habits and temperaments of people. Those near the sea are quiet, taCiturn
and bold people. They are easy going and care-free and produce an architecture different
from people in the cold and forested areas, whose .people plan in advance. This requires in-
itiative, patience and energy.
In the arctic, regions, civilization is less advanced as climatic conditions are so unprotective
and absorb so much energy that the natives have little surplus with which to devek>p civiliza-
tion or art.
In the temperate zones, people are energetic and progress is assured. Here, man may plan
and may realize his ambitions without interference from droughts, mons~. blizzards, or
tropical f evers .
3
EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE
1. PLANS
WARMER CLIMATES COLDER CLIMATES
The plans are more open and often include More compact in arrangement. The severe
courts or patios. cold winds is avoided by providing a cover
from portion of the building to the other.
•oPEN •COURT •
• • •
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BREt:ZE
2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
In the past, walls were load bearing, wall thickness were thick, to carry the load of
the floors and the roof and also to resist the extremes of temperature and to protect
man from his enemies.
4
Today, modern man erects structures to protect his investment from depreciation
and himself from the curiosity of his neighbors. W alls are no longer bearing walls.
They no longer carry loads as thin as the material will permit. The development of in-
sulation makes it possible to keep out the heat and the cold in a highly satisfactory
manner.
1 11l ~
5
v 1-ttload carried by columns
Thirt wall
3. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS
The roof protects the interior from the elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the
sun, etc.
5
Entrance porches are the result of the desire for protection. The driving rains and
cold w inds made these porches a de.sirable adjunct to the entrances.
I 0 0 u 0 0
0
-Modern Developments-
However, with new inventions and innovations, steel and concrete construction. in-
sulation, and modern drainage make almost any kind of utilitarian roof possible.
The roof may be flat even in cold countries and invisible from the ground. The roof
has now become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh air and sunshine contribute
to the health of a nation.
l -I
{ I
4. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS
Windows - permit the entrance of light and circulation of air
Doors, 9tairs, corridor-circulation of human traffic and materials
6
- In the Past -
WARMER CLIMATES COLDER Cll MATES
Windows are usually small in order not to Windows are usually large in order to cap-
admit too muct light, which produces ex- ture the greatest amount of light, and heat
cessive heat and glare. the interior.
----J
\ \~
warm cold
-Modern -
In the architecture of the 20th Century, there has ceased to be the relation between windows
and climate that existed in the past. We can now heat or cool our houses in a satisfactory
manner with less reference to the sizes of openings and windows often simply contribute to
the cheerfulness of the interior.
In the last few years, there has come a new conception of hygienic and therapeutic possibili-
ties of the window. A type of glass has been devek>ped which does not filter out the ultra-
violet rays of the sunshine; as does ordinary window glass.
Man also invented machines for air conditioning, heating, ventilating and this machine age
brought about the suggestion of windowless buildings.
5. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS
WARMER CLIMATES COLDER CLIMATES
With brilliant sunshine, pronounced mould- Sculpture and mouldings are usually deep-
ings are unnecessary and undesirable. When ly cu rved and undercut to catch the max -
mouldings are used, the curves should be imum amount of light.
f latter and more subtle.
7
Color is a decorative element which in warm countries assumes an importance rivaling that
of carvings. Plain wall surfaces in white or light pastel tones, with their various textures
catch the sunlight and allow an interesting play of shadows from projecting roots and adjoin-
ing trees. Colored tiles are also conspicuous in the architecture in the mediterranean coun-
tries.
B. TOPOGRAPHY
In the earliest periods of civilization, the elements of topography-mountains, deserts and
seas-constituted barriers to migration. This retarded the intermingling of people and the
cross-fertilization of cultures. Ideas traveled slowly, and the customs and atts of different
countries assumed definite national patterns.
However, as navigation became more of a science, the sea that had been a barrier became
an aid to travel and communic_ation.
Topography, in its broadest sense, may mean the general terrain or contour of the surface of
the entire country. If the country is small and the topography is uniform, there tends to be a
similarity of character in the architecture. It may be nationalistic and may assume traits com-
mon to the entire area .
8
0 0 0 0 D
C. MATERIALS
The gifts of nature for the structures of man are limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc.
(timber) clay for brick and ore for metals .
In the past, certain materials have had a local use and have influenced the development of an
indigenous architecture. Since there was lack of methods of conveyance.
However, they have changed as new contacts were made and as new developments came
into existence. Ideas were borrowed, commerce and industry grew and now modern
transportation has made building materials international in distribution and use .
9
Congestion, economic pressure requires proximity of allied f ields of endeavor
and adds to the problems of the architect and city planner. This complexity of
our social system is reflected in our architecture.
2. Man's Personality.
By his appearance, something is known of his interests from t he type of house
in which he lives. In a similar manner, it is possible to trace a comparison bet·
ween the personality of a nation as reflected in its clothing and its attitude
toward architecture dS seen in its buildings. Clothes give an indication of the
simplicity or complexity of the existence of its inhabitants which in turn controls
the development of its architecture.
GREEK ... .. .. .... ....... ...... ...... ...... .... .. . ... ........ ...... .................. DIGNITY
Scholarly and philosophical refinement was characteristic of the lives of people,
we find the costume consisted of a simple, flowing robe. Much attention was
paid to the body and to physical health. The existence of the Greeks was reduc-
ed to the essentials, and this was reflected in their dress and architecture. They
did not build on a grand scale, but rather sought for purity of detail and develop-
ment of technical skill. Ornateness in dress had no place in their simple here ac-
tivities.
FRENCH RENAISSANCE
This was a period of multiplicity of detail in court life, in dress and in archi-
tecture . Social etiquette was so complicated that all naturalness was aban-
doned . Life was artificial and theatrical. and likewise the costumes of the
period . Powdered wigs and brocaded coats made congruous the jeweled
canes and lace frills . The furniture was colorful, but the chairs w ere often
straight and uncomfortable. All this splendor would have been ina·ppropri·
ate in a simple setting. The architecture had to be ornate in order to har-
monize with the activities which it housed . Buildings were crowded with
rococo details wl;lich hid structural lines and often prevented truth of ex-
pression.
This elaborate architectu re lined wide avenues lavishly decorated with
fountains and gardens-all designed for the purpose of being ostentatious.
10
VICTORIAN
The flowing whiskers, beribboned bonnets, mutton - leg sleeves, and
bustles were simply a reflection of the jig-saw ornament and sheet-metal
cornices of the buildings of that period. Again, it was an ugly and drab
variety, without the color of the French Renaissance.
CONTEMPORARY
Although present-day civilization is complex, we have been blessed with
simple attire for both men and women. The dress of today is probably due
to the fact that the science of medicine and health has kept step with other
developments, and our people have been impressed with the necessity of
fresh air, sunshine, and exercise. These were difficult to obtain under the
restrictions of the 19th C.
The desire for freedom of movement and an interest in athletics is reflected
in the contemporary movement in architecture, which, in seeking to inter-
pret buildings in terms of the needs of the people, is placing the emphasis
upon plain wall surfaces.
11
CONTEMPOAAAV
12
3. Man's Interests.
It has been pointed out that the activities and .interests of man are· directly
responsible for the type of architecture which he develops. This is showl'l in the
typical structures like the
house-which provides shelter for man during his hours of rest.
factory -offers a place in which to work and to produce a commodity of
exchange.
church - affords spiritual relaxation and opportunity for worship.
1. HOUSE - in the past, houses were small and compact, the hall was used as a
workroom and dining room. When the scene changed from the farm to the
city, wealth and servants, and large houses were easily maintained. This was
the age of pretense and show. Plans were complicated and of various sizes,
shapes, disorganized and unrelated to human needs . This was the Victoria n
House
The Contemporary house-is called a functional type and one of comfort, There
is a desire to take full advantage of sunlight .and air. The walls are opened as
much as possible, and the interior is related to the exterior terraces and
gardens in a pleasing manner. Thus, the principle of comfort prevails In the
20th Century designs.
13
2. FACTORY -in the early days, man often worked at home, it was the age of
craftsmanship, the period of individual effort. Those who created products
required by their fellow men took pride in each article. Business was personal
rather than impersonaL
When the industrial period arrived, with the last lialf of the 19 century, the
small shops grew into factories, and little thought was given to efficient ar-
rangements or pleasant working conditions. Labor was unorganized with
few windows, light and air was insufficient and the result was gloom and in-
effeciency.
The present century-an age of competition and mass production. There must be
efficient operation in order to compare favorably in price and quality. Proper
working conditions have been outgrowth of this kind of business life, and as
a result, well-planned factories and pleasant surroundings are often typical of
portions of our industrial cities.
3. CHURCH-in the past, people worshipped different gods and only the priests
enter the temples. The exterior then received more attention. Then the chris-
tian religion built churches to hold congregation to participate in the wor-
shipping of God. For that reason the interior is in many respects more impor-
tant than the exterior.
The medieaval churches was not only a place for worship but also a center of
education for the masses who could not read or write. The carvings and
sculpture of the exterior and interior furnished a chronology of biblical
events.
When the people learned socially to read and write, especially with the inven-
tion of the printing press,-sculpture became, instead of the pictorial, a
stressed decorative quality. The preaching type of church was developed,
causing an auditorium, to be included . This was a participation of mental
rather than a physical one .
Modern churches now are designed to provide mental, physical, as well as
spiritual relaxation. The modem church has now classrooms for educational
work, halls and parlors for social gatherings and a gymnasium for the exer-
cise of the body.
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.. 0 0 0 _., • u 0 0
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cont-emporary church forms
The present century has brought countless inventions and discoveries. Old standards of
thought and living have been modified or abandoned. New activities have called for struc-
tures to house them, and new materials and types of construction have made these build-
ings possible.
a. TRANSPORTATION-made possible the carrying of all kind of building materials
from one end of the earth to the other and has created structures unknown a
few generations ago. The automobile has made necessary the garages, filling
stations, and bus terminals. It has rendered almost obsolete our narrow streets
designed for the horse and buggy. The airplane has brought about the develop-
ment of airports, while new types of steamships with increased tonnage have
given added importance to docks and warehouse. The expansion of the
railroads has created the magnificent passenger and freight terminals and has
made possible our large in.distrial centers.
b. COMMERCE - large, complex and taller buildings are constructed to house the
new business activities like banking, finance, etc.
c. EDUCATION -with mass education, schools and colleges are scientifically
planned, and their functions are numerous and involved.
The newspaper is also a powerful agency in the attempt to keep people inform-
ed upon the current affairs of the nations, and libraries and museums offer
unlimited facilities to those who would read and study.
In the past, museums were designed to resemble palaces with little thought to
the education and comfort of the public. The modern museum is designed to
display the art of the past and the present in order that it may be studied and ap-
plied to contemporary needs. Simplicity of arrangement, satisfactory lighting,
and ease of circulation are primary requirements.
d. REHABILITATION-labor-saving devices have brought about time for leisure and
the need for recreation. There is a universal interest in sports and entertain-
ment, both by spectators and participants. As a result, we have theatres and
dance halls, arenas, ballparks, golf and city clubs.
15
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
The social life of a nation and the resulting architecture are linked closely with the economic
conditions under which people live. The nature of trade, commerce, industry and agriculture
determines to a large extent the occupations and standards of living within a particular coun-
try. These factors influence the types of buildings erected and the materials used.
As nations modify their basic economic institutions through changes in manufacture, trans-
portation, and communication, new modes of living come into existence, and new architec-
ture must be developed to conform to these customs. We are interested, therefore, in the
economic status of individuals as they constitute a nation , and not in their private finances.
We are also interested in economy in architecture. Buildings may be so designed that thete
is economy of space, of movement, and of materials. These factors control to a large extent
the cost of an architectural project.
During the present century the concentration of wealth in our cities has been responsible for
our attitude toward certain types of architecture. Investments rule our lives, and the process
of building must lend an attentive ear to the caprices of finance. We erect structures many
stories in height, but mechanical devices render them obsolete in a few years and they must
make way for those with later developments. True economy in architecture is not using inte-
rior materials but the omission of useless decoration and the inclusion of sensible planning.
Man's economic system remained unchanged for centuries-until the present industrial age.
Previous to this age of machinery, power and energy were supplied by the hands of man or
the backs to animals. Production was relatively slow, and the hours of labor were long. Now
electrical or steam power is furnished in almost unlimited quantities, releasing man from the
machine and creating new economic and social problems. Man can now work less and pro-
duce more.
The future promises shorter hours of labor and longer hours of leisure. This increase in lei-
sure suggests a changed mode of living, It will promote the erection of those buildings which
have to do with recreation. relaxation and education. More time will be devoted to the reha-
bilitation of the mind and body . This possible change in our economic structure may thus,
have a profound effect upon our social life and our architecture.
16
FUTUREHOME by Elizabeth Pennisi
For Portia Isaacson, a computer scientist, futurehome is a fantasy come true. The white,
two storey, stucco, suburban Dallas home, will be an electronic showcase, but with spiral
staircase, hot tub, art gallery and style. A quick call to-or from-a computer ensures that her
hot tub will be warm when she arrives or informs her when her teenaged children have got-
ten home from school. If a business meeting keeps her from getting home in time for her
husband's birthday, a computer controlled scenario, complete with loving messages, ro-
mantic lighting, favorite music and appropriate videos, will let him know he hasn't been for-
gotten.
Answering the door is obsolete. A camera shows who it is by sending a close-up view of
newcomers to wherever Isaacson is in the house. Then she can open the door remotely.
Can't find the keys or the husband? Via video cameras she can scan shelftops and table sur-
faces. Motion censors track each person's room-to-room movements.
It will take 13 computers, 14 telephones, 26 tv monitors, 8 miles (13 kml of wiring, several
video casette recorders for this future home. Isaacson has robots for pets, a sculpture of
stereo and video components that seem to float in space, futuristic plant stands that are real-
ly computer terminals, and a media " command center", that includes four (4) 25-inch (60
em.) tv's, a 40-inch (100 em.) tv projection screen, 2 VCFS, and compact and laser disc
players.
At futurehome, a master computer is in charge . It receives data from the rest of the house
and sends out commands, dimming lights, changing thermostat setting, and switching tv
channels and volumes. Using a text-to-speech converter, the computer can answer and
make telephone calls. When someone - a housekeeper or tardy teenager, for instance pun-
ches in their individualized codes to get into the front door, the computer can be cued to let
Isaacson know, either where she is in the home or at work.
It can tell the condition of the house, not only can lights or favorite music be turned on as a
person enters a room, a synthesized voice can welcome guests, remind a son to keep his
feet off furniture or wake a husband in time for dinner.
Heating and airconditioning are regulated electronically, and the computer tracks tempera-
tures in each room so that the new occupants can assess airflow throughout the house.
Once computerized, the entire house can be run from any one of 10 personal computers by
pointing with .a light pen to a particular room pictured on the screen, and designating a task
to be completed: lights on or off, specific music to be played, tv show to be recorded.
Or "scripts" can be written that coordinate activities for emergencies, normal household
maintenance, even family tends to take care of intruders, a security script: If a security sen-
sor detects a break-in, the computer could be programmed to flash all the lights, blast the
stereos, wake up and tell the residents where the stranger is lurking, perhaps even inform
the burglars that they are being filmed.
The Interior looks like the tv series Star Trek. Instead of a wall-sized painting, an elec-
tronic sculpture welcome visitors. THe black components of an audio ahd video systems are
set into a glosSy, black metal wall on shelves not visible to viewers. Recessed lighting along
the wall edges adds to the effect.
17
THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE
The various periods of historic developments have left to this age buildings which may be
identified as temples, cathedrals, factories and bungalows. These have been built to house
the activities of man, and to these structures has been given the name of architecture.
Architecture may be a group of buildings or a profession. The term "architecture" is an in·
elusive one. lt may refer to the process of designing a building and supervising its erection. It
may also be regarded as the procedure assisted with the conception of an idea and its realiza-
tion in terms of building materials.
Architecture is represented by a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the require·
ments of logical function, sound construction . and beautiful composition. It is only when all
of these qualities are present that good architecture can be said to exist. In its broader
aspects, architecture is shelter, not only for man during the various hours of his daily exist-
ence-work, recreation and sleep-but also to protect all the activities of human race.
Man begins to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature and
made usable by the ingenuity of civilized peoples. Space, in itself is indefinable and intangi-
ble and has no limits. Yet when it is enclosed with stone and steel according to accepted
rules of composition. the result may be called " architecture".
In providing shelter it is to be observed that buildings have walls and roofs, doors and wind-
ows, and that these elements are assembled in a simple or complex manner. Whatever the
type or character of the building, parts of it are more evident to the observer than others-
the exterior is more readily seen and understood than is the arrangement of the rooms,
which is called the plan. Thus, there exist the invisible and visible structures, or the plan pat-
tern and the apparent volume.
18
THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE
By enclosing space, volume or mass is created. If this space has. no relation to the activities
of man, there exist only the simple geometric forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere.
If the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed interiors are treated so that the forms are
related to human needs, then they may be regarded as architecture. Visible structure is com-
posed of form and surface as follows:
1. FORM
MASS or volume or evidence of the 3 dimension
• direction -vertical or horizontal axis of the mass
• shape - geometric qualities
2. SURFACE
AREA - surface with two dimensions as in a facade of a building
• texture - surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or smooth
• tone - light and shade caused by openings, projections
• color - inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues
FORM
In an architectural discussion the accepted definition of form deals with shape and when the
figure is three dimensional, it becomes mass.
In architectural composition, mass is more important than surface. In the design of a build-
ing, "we should proceed from the general to the particular". from mass to detail. The
approach to design should not be through the details of a style but rather through a consi-
deration of the mass of the building which grows out of the function for which it is planned.
Ge11eral part-iculai
(Ma%} roof
wlrtdows
doors
walls
details
MASS can be vigorous or weak; it can have vitality and strength, or it may be indecisive
and faltering . If it is correctly composed in an arresting manner, mass alone will arouse a de-
finite emotional reaction. It will stimulate the observer with the sense of its completeness.
Ornament should simply enhance a building .
tn order that mass may be decisive, it should be directional. It should be either'horizontal or
vertical. !
\
In architecture mass is usually volume, and the surfaces which enclose space have area.
19
Horizot1ta\ 'lertical
20
Major Horizontal , Two major 'lerticats
Two t11i11or horizontals. (ThiS t?reaks up
t11e purely horizontal quali-ty of the
compositiott)
VOLUME;
A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume. Con-
ceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. All volumes can be ana-
lyzed and understood to consist of:
21
l vertices) where several
plat1es come together:
- solid
(void space)
22
form of .a tree
circular lt1 shape
~ 0 D
~
D 0
Since our perception of a plane's shape is distorted in perspective,
we see the true shape of a plane only when we view if frontally.
b. Size: The real dimensions of form, its length, width and depth ; while
these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is
determined by its size relative to other forms in its context.
c. Color : The hue, intensity, and total value of a form's surface; color is the
attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environ-
ment. It also affects the visual weight of a form .
23
d. Texture: a
The surface characteristic of form; texture affects both tattile and
light-reflective qualities of a form's surfaces.
left side of a river, left side of t+te road. rtgl1t side of a tree.
front oF a hotel. Back of a warehouse .
24
OBJECT
f. Orientation: A form's position relative to the ground plane, the compass points
or to the person viewing the form.
The cardinal points NESW have since remote times been given
prime importance among the factors determining the structure of
the world. The word orientation comes from "orient" the direction
of sunrise. Christian churches were always oriented by the altar to-
wards the East. The East as the origin of light is also the source of
life. The west as the place Qf the setting sun is filled with all the ter-
rors of the earth.
NORm
AMIANAN - I~OCANO
HllA6A - TA6AL06
WEST EAST
~----------~------------
LAUD- ILOCAHO C\4YA- lLOCANO
I<ANLURAN· TA6Al.Q:; 51LAN6AN- TA6A1.06
SOUTH
AEW;ATAN- I LOCANO 25
TIMOS - TA6AL06
-"~"'~""-!.- J- ~- 1_-- Q_
,.LANE . FRONT t..EFT SlOE
---- ------ RIGHT SIDE
Q_ __JAJ.~~>-"~~t.---
person viewing -+he form
g. Visual Inertia: The degree of concentration and stability of a form; the visual iner-
tia of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation rela-
tive to the ground plane and our line of sight.
<))
• All of these visual properties of form are in reality affected
by the conditions under which we view them:
,.[
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<0
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26
2. our distance from the form
3. lighting conditions
4. the visual field surrounding the form
SHAPE
Shape is a plane's primary identifying characteristic. If refers to the edge contour of a plane
or the silhouette of a volume. It is the primary means by which we recognize and identity the
form of an object. Since it is seen as the line that separates a form from its background, our
perception of a form's shape will depend on the degree of visual contrast between the form
and its background.
SILHOUET TE 27
In Architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of:
1. planes (floor, walls, ceiling} that enclose space
2. openings (windows, doors) within a spatial enclosure
3. the silhouettes of building forms
PRIMARY SHAPES
should be viewed as it is distorted in perspective.
a. t/Je circle: a series of points arranged equally and balanced about a point .
I/
....... -- '
......
\
1 \
I
\
' ........ __..,. /
I
b. the triangle: a plane bounded by three sides, and having three angles.
c. the square: a plane figure having four equal sides and four righ t angles.
28
D D
CIRCLE: the circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-
centering in its environment, Placing a circle in the center of a field will rein-
force its natural centrality.
0 0 0
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a~ o +-O
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a J't'\ o
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0000
stable
fixed in
self-centered dynamic
place
• •
29
Composition of circles and circular segments
TRIANGLE: ... signifies stability When resting on one of its sides, the triangle is an ex-
tremely stable figure. When tipped.to stand on one of its vertices, however, it
can either be balanced in a precarious state of equilibrium or be unstable and
tend to fall over onto one of its sides.
PLAN
30
SECTION OF AN ART MUSEUM
SQUARE: ... represents the pure and the national. It is a static and neutral figure
having no preferred direction. All other rectangles can be considered varia-
tions of the square, deviations from the norm by the addition of height or
width. Like the triangle, the square is stable when resting on one of its sides,
and dynamic when standing on one of its corners.
stable
31
PLATONIC SOLIDS
The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate volumes whose forms are dis-
tinct, regular and easily recognizable. These forms are referred to as the platonic solids.
Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles generate cones and pyramids; squares
generate cubes.
The SPHERE is a centralized and highly concentrated form. It is, like the circle from which is
generated, self-centering and normally stable in its environment. It can be inclined toward a
rotary motion when placed on a sloping plane. From any viewpoint, it retains its circular
shape.
..... ,·
Project fOr a11 agriculture looge
by : C. IedouX
32
-" -:_; .,;_ ~
The CYLINDER is a centralized about the axis defined by the centers of its two circular
faces. It can be extended easily along this axis. The cylinder is a stable form, if it rests on one
of its circular f aces; it becomes unstable when its central axis is inclined.
r'"~
~stable_Q_ (~0 ~'
Ut1stable "'-
The CONE is generated by rotating an equilateral triangle about its vertical axis. Like the cy-
linder, the cone is a highly stable form when resting on its circular base, and unstable when
its vertical axis is tipped or overturned . It can also be stood on its apex in a precarious state
of balance.
UI1Stabfe
33
The PYRAMID . .. has properties similar to those of the cone. Because all of its surfaces
are flat planes, however, the pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any of its faces. While
the cone is a soft form, the pyramid is relatively hard and angular.
pyramid Of cheo~
The CUBE ... is a prismatic form that has six square faces of equal size, and twelve edges
of equal length. Because of the equality of its dimensions, the cube is a static form that lacks
apparent movement on direction. It is a stable form except when it stands on one· of its
edges or corners. Even through its angular profile is affected by our viewpoint, the cube re-
mains a highly recognizable form.
e;table
a 110U5B
34
REGULAR FORMS
Regular forms refer to those whose pa_rts are related to one another in a consistent and or-
derly manner. They are generally .stable in nature and symmetrical about one or more axes.
The platonic soli"s are prime examples of regular forms
OLD
Forms can retain their regularity even when transformed dimensionally, or by and the addi-
tion or subtraction of elements.
A
~' /J
0
IRREGULAR FORMS
Irregular forms are those whose parts are dissimilar in nature and related to one another in an
inconsistent manner. They are generally asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular
forms. They can be regular forms from which irregular elements have been subtracted or an
irregular composition of regular forms.
r---..-- ..._
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-- --7
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35
Since we deal with both solids and voids in architecture, regular forms can be contained
within irregular forms. Similarly, irregular forms can be enclosed by regular forms.
irregulzsr composi'tion oF
r~ular fbr-ms .
..---
d
/~ Irregular forms withiH a
v~~' regular field
4
36
THE TRANSFORMATION OF FORM
All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the platonic solids, variations
that are generated by the manipulation of their dimensions, or by the subtraction or addition
of elements.
1. DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS:
A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain
its family identity. A cube for example, can be transformed into other prismatic forms by
altering its height, width, or length. It can be compressed into a planar form, or stretched
Into a linear one.
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t I I
t I I
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A spherical form can be transformed into any number of ovoid or ellipsoid forms by
elongating it along an axis.
A pyramidal form can be transformed by altering the dimensions of its base, modifying
the height of its apex, or by moving the apex off of its normal vertical axis.
I
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37
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2. SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATlONS:
A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume. Depending on the
extent of the subtractive process, the form can retain its initial identity, or be transformed
into a form of another family. For example, a cube can retain its identity as a cube even
though a portion of it is removed, or be transformed slowly into a polyhedron approx-
imating a sphere .
SUBTRACTIVE FORMS:
We search for regularity and continuity in the forms we see within our field of vision.
If a platonic solid is partially hidden from our view, we tend to complete its form in a regu-
lar manner, and visualize it as if it were whole. Similarly, when regular forms have frag-
ments missing from their volumes, they can retain their formal identities if we perceive
them as if they were whole and complete. We refer to these mutilated forms as sub-
tractive forms.
\ I / ' I
' .......__!'_/ _/I_ _ _ _ _
__ \ . L - IJ - - . . . J
I --..1
38
Because they are highly recognizable, forms that are simple and geometrically regu-
lar, such as the platonic solids, adapt readily to subtractive treatment. These forms will
retain their formal identities if portions of their volumes are removed without deteriorating
their edges, corners and overall profile.
Ambiguity regarding a form's original identity will result if the portion removed from
its volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its profile.
In the series of figures below, at what point does the square figure with a corner portion
removed become an "l" configuration of two rectangular planes•
J
Volumes may be subtracted from a form to create recessed entrances, well-defined, pri-
vate courtyard spaces, or w indow openings shaded by the vertical and horizontal sur-
faces of the recesses.
39
3. ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATIONS:
A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume. The nature of
the additive process will determine whether the identity of the initial form is retained or
altered.
ADDITIVE FORMS:
While a subtractive form results from the removal of a portion of its original volume,
an additive form is produced by the addition of another form of its volume.
+
40
FOUR {4) BASIC possibilities for two forms to group together are:
1. by SPATIAL TENSION -this type of relatiooship requires t hat the two forms be
relatively close to each other, or share a common visual trait such as shape,
material of color.
2. by EDGE to EDGE CONTACT -in this type of relationship, two form s share a
comn1on edge, and can pivot about that edge.
3. by FACE to FACE CONTACT -this type of relationship requires the tw,o forms
to have flat, planar surfaces that are parallel to each other.
t< !>
41
Additive fOfms, resulting from the accretion of elements to one another, can be charac-
terized generally by their ability to grow and merge with other forms. For us to perceive
additive groupings as unified compositions of form, as figures in our visual field , the com-
ponent forms must be .related to one another in a coherent and close-knit manner.
In order to categorize additive forms according to the nature of the relationship that
exist among the component forms as well as their overall configurations.
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42
TEWAETTO,S ~ETRO IH ~.Rbm6
-- ~m aattrmtts
2. LINEAR FORMS- - -
Consist of forms arranged sequentially in a row.
A linear form can result from a proportional change in a form's dimensions, or the
arrangement of a series of forms along a line. In the latter case, the series of
forms may be repetitive, or they may be dissimilar in nature and organized by a
separate and distinct element such as a wall or path.
d------~J
DDDDDDDDD
.._....... .. .. . . . . . . .... ~
43
A linear form can be segmented or curvilinear to res-
pond to conditions of its site such as topography, view,
or vegetation.
• a linear form can be used to front or define an edge of an exterior space, or de-
fine a plane of entry to the spaces behind it.
44
u
• A linear form can be oriented vertically as a tower element to fix a point in
space.
• A linear form can act as an organizing element to which a variety of f orms can
be attached.
examples: row houses, tovv ·1h ous·.~
- - - - - - - - - - - -+-
3. RADIAL FORMS - - -
Are compositions of linear forms that extend out ward from central f orms in
a radial manner.
45
A radial form. consists of linear forms that extend outward from a centrally
located .core element in a radiating manner . It combines the aspects of centrality
and linearity into a single composition .
The core is either the symbolic or functional cen~er of the ·organization. Its
central position can be articulated with a visually dominant form, or it can merge
with and become subservent to the radiating arms.
The radiating arms, having properties similar to those of linear forms, give a
radial form its extroverted nature. They can reach-out and relate or attach them-
selves to specific features of their site . They can expose their long surfaces to
desirable conditions of sun, wind, view, or space.
Radial forms can grow into a network where several centers are linked by
linear forms.
The organization of a radial form can best be seen and understood from an
aeiral view. When it is viewed from ground level, its central core element may not
be clearly visible, and the radiating patter~ of its linear arms may· be obscured or
distorted through perspective.
4."CLUSTEREO FORMS- - -
Consist of forms that are grouped together by proximity or the sharing of a
common visual trait.
46
co&
0 00
While a centrali.ted organization has a strong geometrical basis for the order-
ing of its forms, a clustered organization groups its forms according to functional
requirements of size, shape or proximity. Lacking the introverted nature and geo-
metrical regularity of centralized forms, a clustered organization is flexible enough
to incorporate forms of various shapes, sizes, and orientations into its structure.
r.n
~
3. They can interlock their volumes and merge into a single form that has a
variety of faces.
47
G.N. BLACI< HOtJ5E, ~KRA6SYDEP: Mat1cHeGter-by- tke-~
Ma5~acl1u~ett~ 1eez-93 ?Gatn:1y at1d :;tearHc;
5. GR ID FORMS- - -
Are modular forms whose relationships are regulated by three-dimensional
grids.
A grid may be defined as two or more intersecting sets of regularly spaced
parallel lines. It generates a geometric pattern of regularly spaced points (where
the grid line intersect) and regularly shaped fields.
The most common grid is based on the geometry of the square. Because of
the equality of its dimensions e:md its bilateral symmetry, a square grid is essential-
ly neutral, non-hierarchical, and non-directional. It can be used to break the scale
of a surface down into measurable units and give it an even texture. It can be
used to wrap several surfaces of a form and unify them with its repetitive and per-
vasive geometry.
The square grid, when projected into the third dimension, generates a spatial
network of reference points and lines, within this modular frame work, any num-
ber of forms and spaces can be visually organized.
48
ROTATED GRIDS
ARTICULATION OF FORM
Articulation refers to the manner in which the surfaces of a form come together to define its
shape and volume. An articulated form clearly reveals the edges of its surfaces and the cor-
ners at which they meet. Its surfaces appear as planes with distinct shapes; their overall con-
figuration is legible and easily perceived. Similarly, an articulated gmup of forms accen-
tuates the joints between its constituent forms to visually express their individuality.
A form and its surface planes can be articulated by: FOUR WAYS
1. differentiating adjacent surfaces with a change in material, color. texture or pattern.
rougl1
49
2. developing the corner as a distinct linear element independent of the surfaces.
4. lighting the form ·to create sharp distinctions of light and dark at its corners.
In contrast to the above, the corners of a form can be rounded and smoothed over to em-
phasize the continuity of its surfaces or a material , color, texture or pattern can be carried
across a corner and the adjoining surfaces to de-emphasize the individuality of the surface
planes and emphasize instead the volume of a form.
50
EDGES & CORNERS
For a comer to be formally active in our visual field, there must be more than a slight devia-
tion in the geometry of the adjoining planes. We search for regularity and continuity in the
forms within our visual field, and we will tend, therefore, to regularize or smooth out slight ir-
regularities in the forms we see. For example, a wall plane that is bent only slightly will ap-
pear to be a single, f lat plane, perhaps w ith a surface imperfection. A corner could not be
perceived.
At what point do these formal deviations become an acute angle? A right angle?
LLL
a segmented line 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 oo···· ·· · ... oo ······ a straight line?
t::::==---
CORNERS define the meeting of two planes. If the two planes sil'(lply touch, and the corner
remains unadorned, the appearance of the corner will depend on the visual treatment of the
adjoining surfaces. This corner condition emphasizes the volume of a form .
51
FOUR WAYS A corner condition can be VISUALLY Reinforced
1. by introducing a separate and distinct element that is independent of the surfaces it
joins. This element articulates the corner as a linear condition, defines the edges of
the adjoining planes, and becomes a positive feature of the form.
2. if an opening is introduced at the corner. one of the plane will appear to bypass the
other. This opening de-emphasizes the corner, weakens the definition of the volume
within the form, and emphasizes the planar qualities of the surfaces.
3. if neither plane is extended to define the corner, a volume of space is c~eated tore-
place the corner. This corner condition deteriorates the form's volume, allows the in-
terior space to leak outward and clearly reveals the surfaces as planes In space.
---r·-,~-~-
,
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1
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52
4. Rounding off the corner emphasizes the continuity of a form's surfaces, the com-
pactness of its volume, and softness of its contour. The scale of the radius is impor-
tant . If too small , it becomes usually insignificant; if large, it affects the interior space
it encloses and the exterior form it describes .
.• \i i•
,i I l
I l ]I
1
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t
! ! II I
I I ;
!
I
l
i I i
J I l
.li
I
ARTICULATED CORNERS-
independent of the
adjoining planes-
strengthening the
edges of a form.
54
Ei11steht Tower
Rounded corners emphasizing continuity of
surface, COMPACTNESS OF VOLUME
AND SOFTNESS OF FORM.
PLAN CONFIGURATIONS
[]0
ments. They can be used in combination with one
another or with other elements of form to define a
rich variety of spaces.
56
~L
/..._
''•--/'',..---' '; /7~
~r
'
/ ' < - ' ' /. /
/
-- ' ' ,.t
r, c::JL
L~ «r
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}(ingo Housing Unit
by: Jom Utx011 Dmurl'
A BASIC UNIT
57
parallel planes define a volume of space between
them that is axially orienteo toward the open ends of the
configuration.
58
U-shaped configuration defines a field of space that has an in-
ward focus as well as an outward orientation .
et1closed J
and well-
defitted ;V --- q;;~
rear- .._____,J ex: troverted
irt rtature
.! -------view
I ----...
pri11cipal
I L5
I
The open end will remain
the "primary face" and
the plane oppposite will
be the " principal element" \primary
the corners of the configurations can be seen to consist of linear forms. The corners can be
articulated as independent elements. This U -configu ration can be used iri building forms
and organizations.
,.. ,..
~ ~
OL JO _II_ __.J,._
AU-shaped building can define a forecourt for a building's approach as well as a recessed
entrance within the volume of the building form itself.
• •
59
Fo ur planes-closure - since the field is completely -enclosed, its space is introverted.
-m 1
If openings are introduced at the corners of the space, t he individual identity of the planes
will be reinforced and encourage movement.
Openings provide continuity w ith adjacent space, they can begin to weaken the enclosure of
the space, depending on t heir size, number and location .
. .l
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1
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I
To achieve visual dominance within the space, or become its primary face, one of the en-
closing planes can be differentiated f rom the others by its size, form, surface, articulation, or
the nature of the openings within it.
pro-nary
60
SURFACE ..... .
Architectural surface are· Areas of materials which enclose a building and are of secondary
importance to the masses which they create. But in order that a building may be wholly sa-
tisfactory in its appeal, the necessary attention must be given to the Treatment and articula-
tion of the exterior. The surfaces of a structure must have texture, tone, and color.
A. TEXTURE
Refers to the quality of surface treatment. Texture is usually associated with materials. Lime-
stone may be polished and reflect light in sparkling manner,
61
or it may be rough and coarse
62
·.,
··~.
·\J"oo···
Surface covered with brick have a different character from those in which wood is emloyed.
Thus, texture depends largely upon the choice and use of materials. The selection of a
definite material fixes, to some extent, the character of the f inal effect , but the treatment
which is given to that material often produces startling results.
There should be a consistency in the selection of the texture of materials-a harmonious re-
lationship between the various surfaces. Contrast and the variety must be present but the
character and the quality of different textures should agree.
,·
~::--~·
..
. --.__;_: . ..::~,:-:.~.-·:..:...~!!"~-~--~---::~~:.._~·
. ,.:11,;;{:j\~-- ~~-;-,,_.,. -~·- ;' .
~
· ,. . -
··::c, .. ·.·.,·:.·.::.·_;::·_·::::.··
.... :: :;.- . : = ~ ·
.' '.--:;.: :~.·::'iit:M ~'!~-- ~~~c..-.:~ ..
Simplicit-y of co11tempor~ arcf1i1ecture p~uce~
le~~ tone. Restricted ro sfladowg of c:a11opy, mcised .,.,
li11e~ , and opettinqs. ,
63
Polished marble and bright chromium are symphathetic with each other but usually do not
combine well with rough field stone or brick. The character of each particular type of room
or building calls for a corresponding type of texture.
Texture can be used to destroy a form perception. The figure below showing the different
texture on different sides of the cube cause the experience of form to be disturbed. We do
not perceive a unit from here, but a fragment of a larger now destroyed form. The percep-
tion of a room can also be destroyed in the same way.
Two ways in which the attributes of a sensation of grain may vary hard-soft, smooth-
rough. Material examples of four extreme is shown in the figure below:
HARD HARD
smooth rough
(glass) brick, hollow block
SOFT SOFT
smooth rough
(silk) (wool)
\,
Linear patterns reinforcing the I
height or, length of a form, UNI-
FYING its SURFACES and DE-
FINING its TEXTURAL QUALITY.
64
JbdbdbJL Openings and cavities creating tex-
tile with shadow patterns and inter-
rupting the continuity of a form's
surfaces.
II
The texture of a plane's surface, together with its color, will affect its visual weight., scale
and light-reflective qualities.
D
simple surface of opening articulated surface and opening
B. TONE
Is a variety in the use of the gradations from black to white. Tone comes from the change
of impressions carried to the eye as a result of the juxtaposition of dark and light areas.
Tone, or the creation of light and shade, may be secured by the use of doors and windows,
or by shadows cast by projecting parts of the building, or by mouldings.
65
JUXTA POSITION
To put side by side or
close together (to juxta-
pos~)-to pose for a
painting or picture tak-
ing, to put in position .
Tone cau~ by p~oja;ting surfaces and· by
contrast1119 matenals of walls aHd roof
ResideY!ce , Pasade11a.
Tone gives interest to an exterior and if the results are to be entil"ely satisfactory, requires the
same careful study that was devoted to the general massing . Poor arrangement of windows,
plasters, and cornices can mar a powerful composition.
C. COLOR
The warmer climates have usually produced the most colorful architecture, as in Spain and
Italy with their walls o.f delicate hues, tile fountains and wainscots, and richly contrasting
roofs, Color as distinguished from tone, results from the hues of the spectrum. It may be in-
herent as in marble which is colored by nature, black or gray stones, white or cream stone,
red clay bricks. It may use colored tiles or metals. It may also apply colored wallpapers.
Or it may apply or rather be applied, as in the case of surfaces which are painted or decor-
ated by man.
l \
Color requires intelligent handling and a thorough knowledge of harmonies and values·: The
/
color scheme .of a building should be carefully studied, with an understand,ing of the
character of the materials which are to produce the colors. Simple conventionalized ar-
rangements in subdued tones are preferable to garish and bizarre effects.
The relationship between color and the character of a building results from the combining of
warm and cool colors in the proper amounts.
67
the warm colors, the reds and the yellows, tend to advance toward the observer (usual-
ly for wide roo.ms)
the cool colors. the blues and the greens, appear to recede, showing infinity, immensi-
ty of space (usually for small compact rooms)
Also the more neutral colors should be used for the larger areas, reserving for the more
brilliant accents those bright colors w hich overpower the composition unless sparingly used.
The visual weight of a plane can be increased or decreased by manipulating the tonal blue of
its surface color.
68
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF COLOR
Various colors have a strongly emotional effect on people. It ref lects the spirit of the people
who create it Color is definitely related to the lives of the individuals and the material things
with which they are associated. Spanish art which is gay and sparkling for example are pro-
duced by a dashing, vibrant people.
RED - tends to produce rage or passion; it is exciting and stimulates the brain.
It has an aggressive quality and is frequently associated with violence
and excitement.
(medium red) suggests health and vitality
(bright red) often has amorous connotations.
YELLOW - denotes gayety; stimulating cheering - to the lazy, upsetting to the ner-
vous. It is the most luminous color. Yellow also demands attention, and
so it is used in dangerous locations, such as the edge of a subway plat-
form to mark the hazard, while red used to be the color for firetrucks,
yellow is now preferred.
ORANGE - has a stimulating effect and should usually be used in relatively small
amounts. The occupant of an orange office, for instance will become ill
at ease after a short time and will leave it at every opportunity.
BROWN - is restful and warming but should be combined with orange, yellow or
gold because it could be depressing if used alone.
GRAY - suggests cold and is also depressing unless combined with at least one
livelier color.
WHITE - is cheerful, particularly when used with warm colors like red, yellow and
orange.
PURPLE - is sedative and soothing. It suggests a stately or melancholy atmos-
phere. Cheerfulness or cowardice, cheapness.
BLUE - is peaceful and tranquil. It reduces excitability and therefore helps one
to concentrate.
GREEN - has a cooling quality and it acts as a sedative.
This psychological use of color has been related to architecture for centuries. Theatres and
circuses are gay and brilliant with banners, decorations and pageants. Bright colors
stimulate the imagination and excite the senses to produce a feeling of joy and pleasure.
While the funeral chapel is sombre in its color appeal. Garish hues would be an offense to
those who come in a mood of respectful worship, whereas, subdued colors lend themselves
to the spirit of the occasion. The color scheme of a restaurant for dining and dancing should
be quite different from that of a library for reading and meditation.
Color can be used functionally. We can make it maximize or minimize the size of objects.
Color can be used to help express architectural forms - and -if carelessly used, it can
destroy architectural form. Color on walls, floor, and ceiling is modified by other colors pre-
sent in the same area. For instance, if three walls of a room are a warm gray and the fourth
wall is a shade of yellow, the yellow will be reflected in the g ray walls and will modify their
appearance. Again, the pate green may look good in a room until a bright shade of green is
used next to it. Suddenly the gray green looks gray and quite inadequate.
70
An enclosed room which is painted with warm colors makes those who work in it feel warm.
Similarly, if a large, open, windowed space with a great deal of glass painted with coot col-
ors, people who work in it .sometimes feel chilly.
One is 'prepared' "for a room's color if the entrance is painted a complimenta.y color. Deep
colors always seem to make the walls of a room seem heavy, while pale pastel colors seem
to make the walls light. If a room is long and narrow, its appearance can be modified by
painting the end walls with warm colors-red, yellow, orange. Similarly in a small room, the
walls can be made to recede by painting them with cool colors such as green and blue.
COLOR USAGE . ...... .. .. .... .. ..... ... ... .... ... .. .. .. .. . varies according to lo~ation
1. RESIDENTIAL
Colors used within the home must be tolerated by the whole family. If members of a fami-
ly have tastes which differ widely, they may be satisfied by selecting the colors of their
own rooms.
The plan of living of a household group should be studied before any color selections are
made. Someone engaged in a business which uses a great deal of energy shl"luld have a
retreat at home-a room with a quietly harmonious color scheme . A person whose day is
spent in a monotonous business, on the other hand, will probably enjoy color contrasts
and bright colors.at t.ome.
2. COMMERCIAL
The commercial institution is a home away from home for many people, and the inclina -
tion to introduce some of the principles used in residential work is always present. But all
the colors in such an installation must relate to each other and to a central scheme. and
personal choice which conflicts with the appearance of the general scheme cannot be
tolerated.
There are a number of reasons for such color ~ont rol, the main one being that there is
usually a certain amount of circulation of personnel ; and everyone may have different col-
or opinions.
In most cases the walls of the lobby of a commercial building should be stimulating and
exciting, and the corridors should be neutral, so that when the doors of the offices are
open, harmony will be apparent. Individual offices may vary in color, texture and
materials, but they must have a basic similarity.
The main objectives in determining the color scheme of a commercial installation are to
provide colors which are rich, definite, and harmonious which will be easy·to live with,
and which will contribute to the efficiency and well-being of all who tenant the building.
Colors should be subtle; for example, no brash greens or blues should be used unless
compensating colors are used with them. Where offices are located upon an uninterest-
ing interior court, the colors of such offices should be ''sunny" and brilliant.
3. INDUSTRIAL
The kind of artif icial light must be taken into consideration in the design of industrial inte-
riors. It will depend, to a large extent, upon the type of operation performed. It is equally
important that the proper kind of light be used to avoid shadows and glare. For ease of
seeing, it is generally wise to keep the wall color darker than the machines or work
benches. If the space is small, the walls can be warm in color (yellow, orange, etc.)
71
\: , ,, /j~~!' if ~t~~~~J i\ p.t:pg!fc. ~Yf!~ 1 ~ t~ fi~ 1IO.-iii·W~•~the walls
,~ 0 ~jifa~l~, oe ~in~a(ioOl color. ~SJ9·.qf the sjze, Qf th•;SPaqer to ~ically
assiSt the workers to bear the he,al. -.t .. ,.. ~,,... . .
Qeo<1 'lt-J .,Sf"Wla(ty.l~ ·~ #l•~ ~..: ~~ g9J~. -'ft"f\ ~.~t)O!J~ ~~~~.,on _!tttJ walla.
t .. C~IMtOJlS 1'4 qeAdY.,11, t!ldu,st~ii;~HP-dl,np ~Y~rPer~Jl~ pairltfld ,IIJ ;Y'?Jiew or ver-
'ld b• ~.. mipi~ to POint the,n put ~«? OJ*8toi'S qf trucksr forklifts;.etc. •
91h • • , 9r\f · ·~••if'>"' ·
.at. ~ SAFJi.T¥·GO.LOA GUID.E S
RED - " Stop"
basis color for identification.
no rn:lol oJ 0 n,h1iJ:J , a, fV• protectfo.n equipment and :apparatUs, suE,h,J~ purqe_~~eta,
Sprinkler piplngs.
b. dangerous
.
caria of inflammable liquid, barrk-.ades nr tamoorary obs·
.J/'T l'1r ·-.l"'' ~-- ~~-.- -
tructions.
met G ~ c.;' st~ ..!stop~ts oh 'I"I~Jild~QS maentt"fMM;' si~"'tiLltdnj or switches
JJ indlcat$s pfohibltion. '' ~ -
to
ORANGE - "Danqer"
4. INSTITUTIONAL
The interiors of institutions such as hospitals, youth detention centers, child care
facilities, nursing homes, and mel)tal health facilities-are carefully studied in order to pro-
vide the most favorable environment for patients, visitors and staff. The aim should be to
provide an atmosphere that is friendly and inviting .
Color and illumination are probably the most important of the visual elements. While
pastel colors are most often emplo')(ed in patient rooms, variety can be obtained by deep-
ening the tone of the bed wall, painting the window wall plus an adjacent wall a deeper
tone, or perhaps using a contrasting color on one or two of the other walls. If the room is
an odd shape, the judicious use of the two tones of color can help visually improve its
proportions. A dado of wood or other material is an additional tool for providing color
variation. The use of pattern to provide visual relief should be taken Into consideration in
the overall scheme of patient rooms as well on other areas.
Reception areas, dining rooms, day rooms, libraries, and chapels can provide patients,
staff and visitorS with welcome relief from the functional areas. Colors, furnishings, and
illumination can· be varied to provide relaxing atmosphere.
Laboratories and specific examination areas such as X-ray, operating and other treament
rooms may be attractively designed with cheerful coJors. The use of wall graph_jcs is often
a good solution. There is no reason why an X-ray or radiology room cannot be treated in a
decorative manner, despite the seriousness of the activity therO quite abstract graphic
design on a wall, complementary to the color scheme, may provide just the right balance
to the awesome equipment to remind both the patient and professional that they are not
isolated from the real world. The use of colorful utility cabinets and other accessories can
also be considered.
73
In rooms with plaster ceilings. perhaps decorative ceiling lighting fixtures can add the
needed note of interest, or it the ceilings are high, they can be painted a color or other
than white. Vinyl wall coverings should also be considered.
As with any other group of spaces, there should ·be a basic scheme to unify the whole,
but the individual areas should each reflect their own personality.
Long corridors can be used as a tool to unify; the tack ot interest can be countered with art
work and with colorful accents- unusual treatment of the ends of the corridors, of doors
and frames, or periodical spaces, or of handrails, for examples. The flooring in corridors
should also r.eceive careful attention, as it can be employed to good advantage to create
areas of interest.
5. EDUCATIONAL
Very young children prefer strQng colors, but when they grow older, their taste becomes
more sophisticated and subtle. In most contemporary schools almost anything that can
be colored is treated in a bright and brilliant way. Corridor walls, for instance, are
sometimes yellow ; rooms facing cool north light are given warm tones, and those facing
warm south light are given cool tones. The front wall of each classroom is often painted
darker than the other walls of the room. Every effort should be made to select a color that
will be of approximately the same value as the color of the chalkboard so as to minimize
eye fatigue.
It colors are pastels. bright accents are employed for furniture and accessories- say
bright blue, yellow, chinese red, or blue green. Doors and trim are usually darker than the
walls in which. they are located, and painted doors can be given variation and additional
interest by the use of various colors.
NOTE
Establishments such as department stores and retail or specialty shops require special color
treatments. By careful observation, one can be able to formulate guidelines similar to those
given above. Each type of building has its own needs, and these must be analyzed before
any color scheme is designed for a specific project .
When the room was finished, it was impossible to distinQuish any difference in colour bet-
ween the walls painted c and e, and the same was true forthe walls painted q and i. In the
corner where e and i met, however, a distinct difference in colour could be seen and this was
also the case in the corner c, q.
The explanations is that the two sides of a corner form part of a room. As ·a result of this
pressure, we try to perceive a uniform colour and this is easier when the.colours are 'shadow
colours' of each other. They are then perceived as the satne local colours in different il-
lumination. This perception is impossible if the difference in lightness is too great, and then
lhe two wall colours are perceived at different local colours.
74
One special result of the influence of form on colour is the "spread1ng effect". In this figure,
divide into halves by a finger or pencil placed betw een the black and wh1te gnlles. Where the
red meets the black parts of the grill, it becomes darker tllan where it meets the white, an ef-
fect directly opposed to contrast induction.
75
The effect o f the visible size on colour
A colour covering a sma11 surface is less intense in colour than the same local colour spread
over a large surface. This may be called the "area effect" . It is well known to architects and
interior decorat ors that a w all painted in accordance with a given colour sample has a much
stronger colour than the sample itself .
The colour on a figure may change at times according to the distance from which it is
observed. The deep blue and pale yellow bands change to black, and nearly white w hen
looked at from a distance. Thjs is apparently caused by the diminution in size of the retinal
image.
76
The blue areas in the pattern are printed with exactly the same Ink. Note that the left s1de
blue seems darker than the blue at the right. Now look at it from a distance, the effect is
heightened.
77
When the widths of red, white and blue are
all equal, the blue band looked wider than
the red one.
The iradiation effect-the white figure looks larger in size than the black one. They are
geometrically equal.
78
THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITION
Architecture has the same basic principles which are common to painting, sculpture, music
and literature. It deals with unity, balance, rhythm, and composition. It is organized around a
central plot, as in a novel. It has design, as has a sonata. It can be rhythmic as the dance. A
painting has contrast of color, and a fine piece of sculpture has beauty of form and line.
Good architecture attains pleasing composition through the relation of contrasting masses
and tones.
It is difficult to isolate a single quality and consider it alone. A synthesis of all the principles is
necessary in order to insure a unified and satisfactory composition, but for the sake of
study, it will be nec.es~ry to analyze separately these qualities and their application to archi-
tectural problems. Mere recognition of these principles does not, however, insure a success-
ful design. An individual may be a good critic but still be unable to write a poem, paint a
landscape, or design a building.
Creative ability, in addition to a knowledge of application of the elements of design, is neces-
sary for the production of distinguished results. Ability to discern between what is fine and
what is mediocre that quality which we call TASTE-must be developed.
GOOD TASTE is that discerning judgment which one exercises in connection with the bet-
ter things of life. Good taste steers an individual through the seas of social adjustments and
aesthetic decisions. It enables him to choose correctly in accordance with cultural or artistic
standards. Popular taste, however, is so often a matter concerned with group action and
changes so with the times, that it is not a reliable guide. Taste must, therefore, be based
upon a knowledge of the rules of proper conduct with respect to our actions and of the prin-
ciples of good composition in regard to our artistic endeavors. Good taste and creative abili-
ty together should produce buildings which merit the name architecture.
80
~
t;;::j
•
2 -A 2 -8
3-A 3 -B
4 -A
* . .,;·,) t * ~ .
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t
'
~j~~~;!-~
.
,:. . ~ .. (
'~~· . . .
. .'
vrVit..VA
..........
*
5-A 5-B 6-A 6-6
81
•
7-A 7-S
~
•
• 9-A
• 9-B
10-A
82
, I
l
14-A 14-B
83
1- A 1- B
2-A 2-B
·~ . ·.. : .. :·......
:. . .·... ..; :....
=··.
• •I • ••
....
3-A 3-B
Lt-A 4-B
5- A 5-B
84
G- A 6-8
·~
.'
..
7-A 7-B
8- A 8-B
The following discussions is concerned with the application of the BASIC principles of
composition to space - enclosing elements .
I. CONTRAST . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variety
DIMENSION II. PROPORTION . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . relationships
Ill. SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . size, magnitude
GRAVITATIONAL IV. BALANCE equilibrium
CURVES
V. RHYTHM .. .. . .. . ... .......... .. .... repetition
HIERARCHY VI. UNITY .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. harmony
VII. CHARACTER .. .. . .. .. . .... .. .. . .. expressiveness
85
CONTRAST ............. .. variety
Our physical impressions are made possible through contrast. We can hear because of the
contrast between silence and sound, because of the difference between the lengths of the
sound waves~ We can feel because of the contrast between the quality of objects. The
nerves in our finger tips tells us that some things are cold and smooth whereas others are
warm and rough. W e can see a building because of the contrast in the shapes and textures
of the surfaces which enclose space to make architecture.
Not only is it possible for us to see a building through the element of contrast but also the
building is given beauty and interest by t he difference between the types of treatment which
are introduced . It is essential that certain areas, directions, and colors vary or differ from
others so that by contrast the qualities of each are emphasized. It is t hrough contrast that we
secure proper scale, proportion, and unity and consequently, a satisfactory design.
TYPICAL CONTRAST:
1. CONTRAST OF FORM
shape
mass
2. CONTRAST OF LINE
direction
type
3. CONTRAST OF SIZE
4. CONTR AST OF TONE
1. CONTRAST OF FORM
In order for a shape to be interesting there must be variety or contrast . Square and
circular areas may create a diversified interest.
an arc11 "pleasing
cot1trast tq t11e opet1ir1g
on eri11er Side.
01 RECTIONAL
A line may also offer contrast on account of its change in type or character. It may be
curved or straight, regular or irregular, broken, or continuous.
In an architectural example, contrast of type of line gives an interesting contour or
silhouette to a building.
z
curved
/VV'NVvV\!V
I
straight
re~ulejr
~
;v)\;W~
broken
CQtf(tl\OlS
3. CONTRAST OF SIZE
Deals with objects which may have the same shape and direction but may vary in
size. If this change in size is gradual and uniform, the result is called gradation .
87
In the architectural example below, the rectangular windows and door contrast with
each other in the matter of size.
r--1= ~
,...-
rU u [L
r==; r=
r 1 ~
r=1 L I 1
' I
rectzmglec.:;
4. CONTRAST OF TONE
Tone may be secured by contrast of texture, openings, or planes.
The exterior of the building is given interest on account of the contrast between the
dark roof and the light walls. This feeling is strenghtened by the introduction of the
darks of the openings and by the shadows cast by the projecting wings of the build-
ing. Contrast of tone is secured in the examples below of abstract design, by the use
of black and white, or gray and white, areas.
88
COMBINATIONS ... . .. .
An architectural composition is presented which illustrates in a combined way some of the
various types ot contrast. There is, first of all, contrast of mass - not only with references
to whether it is cylindrical or rectangular , but also with reference to the direc tion of the mass
or volume. The entire composition is decidedly horizontal ; but variety is secured by the ver-
tical direction of the tower, of the end wings, and the chimneys. Contrast of shape is also
present in the rectangular and arched openings of the building, and contrast of ton e is
secured by the darks and lights of the roots, walls, and w indows.
CONTRAST is the opposite of SIMILARITY . If similarity exists to a marked degree, the ef-
fect is monotony . The facade of a building may consist of a simple, unadorned wall pierced
with many uninteresting windows, and the effect may be very monotonous. On the other
hand, it is--possible to go to the other extreme and to have contrast which is too violent. Pi -
laster, belt courses, and decoration may be used too profusely. The resul t will.be a restless
disorganized design which lacks repose . It is thus, necessary that contrast be present in and
just the correct amount: enough to give variety but not an excess; which will cause confu-
sion.
89
CONTRAST IN ARCHITECTURAL SUBJECT:
1. CONTRAST OF MASS
D0tt1it1at1t element
Vertic(~! volu111e
,Tower
This figure show an interesting combination of rectangular masses based upon con-
temporary practice. Here there is contrast of vertical and horizontal volumes giving a
composition in abstract form which becomes capable of housing human interests
through the introduction of windows, doors, and floor levels. A pleasing composi-
tion is secured chiefly by the relationship which exists between the various block-like
units of the buildings and by the disposition of the windows which give interest to
the surfaces of the masses.
In this figure, attention should be called to the manner in which the eye is carried
along to the tower by means of a series of minor vertical units which prepare one for
the climax of the dominant element near the centre. Consideration should also be
given to the horizontal treatment of the windows on the left, which emphasizes the
direction of that portion of the building and opposes the vertical feeling of the forms
near the main entrances.
It is well to remember that contrast is opposition. If verticals did not oppose horizon-
tals, if openings did not differ from wall, and if accents did not successfully compete
for the interest of the observer, contrast would not exist.
There is also here a transition in the relationship between masses . This situation is
shown where the adjacent volumes prepare the observer for the dominant vertical
near the centre of the composition.
2. CONTRAST OF DIRECTION
Here again is an interesting contrast between the horizontal direction of the compo-
sition and the dominant vertical accent of the tower, which is called the major con-
trasting element, while a minor vertical is to be seen at the left. The termination of
the tower gives additional emphasis and contrast to that part of the structure.
There is also present in this connection contrast of tone, which is seen in the deco-
rative treatment of the upper and lower portions of the tower. Interest in other parts
of the facade is secured by the contrast of the windows with the wall surfaces. In the
wing at the right, the upper windows are pointed and are larger than the rectangular
ones below, while at the left the arched openings with balconies are surrounded by
large areas of wall space which again give variety and contrast.
~0
_r,.,.,.-r,-,.~-r of wiHdJW a11d wall -5p~
eon+ra~t of Tun:;jliiti&ii:il
Minor vertr'cal
It is also necessary that the various units in plan should vary in size and projection in
order that a monotonous exterior effect may be avoided. The different elements
must be wide or narrow. long or short. so that some may be more important than
others . In addition, there should be a variation in the projections of the various parts
of the plan , in order that the proper emphasis may be secured.
3. CONTRAST OF CHARACTER
wmdow;
DOME7iiC
~ma liar eKtr.attc.e
The church and the parish house must be similar in general feeling, but the use of the
various architectural details must express the different function of each particular
structure. The church must have ecclesiastical character and the parish house must
harmonize with the former, but not to such an extent that it might be mistaken for a
place of worship. This calls for a subtle balance of contrast and similarity - the con-
trast of character.
Here the spire of the church which we associate with ecclesiastical buildings gives a
suggestion of function, and the import ant entrance indicates the public character of
the structure. The house has smaller w indows than the church, their size being regu-
lated by the interior which they are to light. Tt,e shutters and chimneys impart a
touch of domesticity and intimacy which would not be desirable in the church and
which is lacking therein . Contrast of direction is also present . The church is vertical,
whereas the parish house is horizontal. Contrast of size is evident - the large church
over the smaller dwelling.
91
4. CONTRAST OF TREATMENT
a. same material used in different treatment
- ._.l
In this drawing, there is found contrast based, not
on direction or mass, but upon the handling of the
~
h--1--.- various surface. Interest is secured by changing the
1-Cr-
h::l::r
t,it Qt [:::5=
fr-1--r- character of the treatment of the upper and lower
8E et
L~
1:2--r: lr-:r::r fl oor is heavy in character and horizontal in direc-
l:r:-5= n--r::r= tion_ The treatment of the upper floors is more re-
fined in its use of detail, and a vertical feeling is se-
cured by the use of columns and pilasters. The arch
"' entrance also offers the quality of variety when
I. _,_ used with the rectangular door and windows, while
~ t-r
_I_
Y1'1Q~l
:I thrust of the columns against the inert weight of
1 .~ ..1
I the entablature.
..L
rr-
~ ~ ~
1
RI i
~
lg
_l 0
_l _II_
0 H II
1 i 9 1 ..l b. contrast of pattern different materials
g l
rs
92
c. contrast of area
The general direction of the building is horizontal, but the treatment of the exterior is given
variety by the introduction of vertical piers. In the roof, the lines of the tile oppose the horizon-
tal direction of the roof itself. A satisfactory contrasting relation exists between the width of
the windows and that of the piers. The piers are wider than the windows and provide for dissi-
milarity of surface, or an interesting proportion of parts.
It is evident that contrast result from dissimilarity, or the association of unlike masses, areas
or tones. Contrast is also opposition -opposition by which one element w ages a successful
battle against competing elements. One shape or color clearly dominates the others. This con-
dition may also be called emphasis , but this emphasis must be present in just the proper
amount. If a doorway, a window, or a panel seems to detach itself from the wall or appears
to be unrelated to the rest of the composition, it may be too emphatic in its appeal. The ele-
ment of contrast is too strong.
There is not a satisfactory transition between the surrounding wall surface and the dominant
architectural motif. Therefore, although contrast is essential to a unified composition, transi-
tion should always tend to alleviate the burden imposed by excessive and sudden changes in
treatment. M ouldings and decorative details should have structural or circulatory elements,
and belt courses, cornices, and quoins should help one surface to member gracefully wit h
the next ·and assist in tying t he entire arrangement together in a pleasing and interesting
manner.
93
PROPORTION . .. • • • relationships
PROPORTION
Proportion is largely a matter of relationships. It is evident by a comparison which the eye
makes between the size, shape, and tone of various objects or parts of a composition. These
are certain geometrical forms which have very definite proportions. These are the:
The eye judge them quickly and classifies them with no difficultly.
Just as a circle is more evident and less intriguing than a freehand curve , so is a square less
interesting t han a rectangle. However a rectangle should very definitely take on the propor-
tions of that particular shape. It should not approach a square in its dimensions, because a
state of doubt will exist in the mind of the observer as to its classification.
DRECTANGLE
too short too long
The eye will be unable to decide whether it is a square or a rectangle. On the other hand of
the roctangle becomes too long, it approaches the area of two squares, and there is an un-
conscious tendency for the eye to divide it into two equal space. Thus there is competition
b~tween the two parts. To get the most pleasing rectangular porportion. The golden section
or (Goden mean} was introduced.
94
THE GOLDEN SECTION
Defined geometrically as a line that is divided such that the lesser portion is to the greater as
the greater is to be the whole.
~
/ 1"'--
/
.
I "-.
"
a square first t ake t l1e center then take the diapna!
of the half square .
I
', I
' ....., &.
\\\ 1i I
I
\ >
I
' I
\J A a
I
l
B a -c
11ext trat1sfer the diagonal
to the 11orizontal or construct
draw a vertical line , tl1is is
11ow The Golden Mean Recfcmgle
811 arc.
<f. ,1 / ;;.quare
to check: .' 'v'
\ this 15 Exclusive
95
SOME PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION USED
IN CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
I \
I \.
I \
I
I \
\
\
I
/t llli IM one line
a I
(
Tl1e Equilateral T~iangle
•
The equilateral triangle, or one with eq ual sides and angles, has long been accepted as a
form with good proportions. It is static and stable. It's centre of gravity is low, and it tapers
in a regular manner from the base of the composition. a triangular arrangement in a painting,
in a sculptural group, or in an architectural massing offers a satisfactory disposition of parts.
It goes so far in insuring good results that the privelege of using it has been abused, and it is
regarded as the easiest way out of a difficult situation.
96
t.:·• - - - -- - --7\· . - ------71
1\ ! \ / :
I ' / \ I .
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I \ \ /
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If the facade of a buidling is developed in such a manner that areas of similar shaped are
repeated through the composition it may lead to a unity of treatment. A sense of harmony
will be the results of use is made of a rythmic repetition of motifs which have a common geo ·
met ric shape as a base .
il
0
;
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97
Classical and renaissance buildings show that arched and rectangular opening are two dia-
meters high .
I
' \
/
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I 1
__ .... /
/
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----
The Circle Circie and Sguare
The circle and square have been found to possess certain properties which recommend
them as a base upon which to begin a design . See figure above. It will be noticed that the
diagonals pass through important parts in the composition.
RELATIONS:
One of the most important phases of proportion and one which should be considered in the
development of a facade is the relation of the solids to the voids, of the wall surfaces to the
openings. It is necessary that one clearly dominate the other that the element of a contrast
will be present. If there is a similarity between the width of the windc;,ws and the spaces bet-
ween , indecision or competition will exist.
98
In classical , Romanesque, and Renaissance buildings, where heavy stone construction pre-
dominates. The windows and doors usua lly occupy a minor portion of the facade and the
w all surfaces are quite dominant.
When the Gothic builders learned the art and science of transmitting t he thrust or weight of
the vaults to isolated buttresses. the w alls of the cathedrais became unimportant. Large areas
of stained glass took the place of these walls, and regularly spaced piers carried the load of
the roof and vaults.
In contemporary architecture, the cantilever of concrete and steel f rees the designer from
many restrictions of masonry and construction and there is a tendency to use openings free-
ly.
This 15 a
Th ts IS a more.
c..ommon ~~n
.
lnTe_r"e~T~~ 99
Des1~n
Example of Lack of correct proportiol1
too high
same dista11ce c
bigger
a '
lower
==;=. Grnaller
100
Proportions May be Based on the Following Factors:
.... _
---
when oig artd lot1g iltis stone
will colla~ ul1der- it9 owt1
weight.
stone used aG a ftx* bridge
Rt=J¥®~
-- ____ ~
""'-......
,...,-
.,. .... .,. ~- -~
~
wad plank
when lortg will Saj
All materials have rational proportions
that are dictated by their inherent
strengths and weakness. Masonry
units like brick, are strong m compres-
sion and depend on their mass for
strength, and are volumetric in form
logs are also volumetric in element and
is used in log cabin construction.
Wood is flexible and is used as beams
and posts steel are strong both in com·
pression and tension.
t
)
~--+)(
c
101
2. Manufactured Porportions
Many architectural elements are sized
and proportioned not only according
to their structural properties and func-
tion, but also by the process through
which they are manufactured. Be-
cause these elements are mass-
- produced in factories, they have
standard sizes and proportions im-
posed on them by the individual manu-
/ factures.
/"-- -~
. ........ /
-,~
102
1.20 L .eo Doors and window units are sized and
proportioned to fit into modular ma-
sonry openings.
tJ ~
siael
:@
~.J.pl~
Proportions
The size and proportions of structural
elements such as beams, columns, are
woodet1 P'5t directly related to the structural tasks
Iaiiy column
po5t bigger they perform and can be, therefore;
visual indicators of the size and scale
of the spaces they help enClose.
T r------'J ~ ......__---4
Since beams transmit their loads nori-
zontally across space to their vertical
supports, its depth, therefore is the
critical dimension. and its depth to
span ratio, is a good indicator of its
r-~ structural role.
103
The proportion of a truss may depend
upon its type.
I It Lobby
~ft
.....-······.,
········
······
~- ....-···-·
.••••. ·
.-·""'
104
c. Proportions between heights and areas of rooms are
controlled by the capacity and lighting requirements of
the room .
/1.\1
I
I .''·.'
I ."
l
0
classica l order
hig~er height
of ceili11g
i i
WHOLE'
WliotE
PART~
WINDOW
DOOR
WHOLE
WKOL.E
~PART
106
The ' KEN ' modular grid is a Japanese
w ay of proportioning the size of rooms
where one MAT is 3.1 5 x 6.30 or 1 x 2 ken
in Kyo-man method. The standard Tata -
cni floor mat is 3 x 6 shaku or 1/ 2 x 1 1<en
This uses 6 shaku = 1 ken grid in the
lnaka-Ma Method.
0
RJ 3- Mat Room
ITO
4 - Mat Room
t---
6 - Mat Room
107
I
l
8- Mat Room
l
1-- r---
ANTHROPOMORPHIC PROPORTIONS
These systems are based on the dimensions and proportions of the human body. Anthropo-
morphic proportioning methods seek not abstract or symbolic ratios, but functional ones.
They are predicated on the theory that forms and spaces in archite<:ture are either containers
or extensions of the human body and should, therefore, be determined by its dimensions.
The dimensions and proportions of the human body affect the proportion of things we
handle, the height and distance of things we must reach, the dimensions of the furniture we
use to sitting, working, eating, and sleeping.
In addition to these elements that we used in a building, the dimensions of the human body
also affect the volume of space we require for movement. activity and rest.
108
Le Corbusier.S ' MODULOR ' . . . . . . . osrng the Goldett Se:tiot1
In 1942 , Le corbUs·, er begat1 his study and publis11ed the ·' Modular "
a Harmo11ious Measure iD the 11umaM scale u11ivers21lly applicable
+o Architecture at1d Mecha11.1CS. He tkerefore t:ased his measuri11g
-tool , the Modt.Jior. or both mathematics (The aesthetic di111e11siotts
of tHe 6oldet1 Sectiot1 a11d the Fitx:mace1 Series ) . and the pruFXJrtiol1s
Of tl1e f1uma11 oody ( FU11ctiot1al dimel15i011S ). These sysiEm of
meDsurement governs leHgtl1, surfaces. at1d volumes , a11d '' Mairrtai11
-the huma11 scz:tle everywhere ." It coo!d lend itself to a11 infj11ity of
comPina-tio~s.
-lt--u'3~
First step 5ecot1d step Third step
con5truct a square take the ce111ter 1ransfer tl1e diagonal
a11d draw a diago11al to the b:15e
The ooldet1
Section . l
~
(perfect rec temgle) [
I
I
Fourth step
complete ·the rectat1gie
-70
Note : This is a formull! using 1-93m Fift11 step : from the center
or ~>-o " average Height ofa per5011 line draw a 90° Jit1e
for any neigl1t Ofa ~rso11 , use his corres~r~d1119
"avel 11eigl1t to s-tart tt1e sqJare.
109
2.26 -1.83= .4'5
1.83 - 1.40 : .43
.80 -.70:::.16
. 70 - .54 =.16
. 54 -.4'5:: .II
. 4'?> - .1'>2::; .II
.'32 - .27= .OS
.2.7 - . 22~ .OS
0 - -·- - --·-
.22 - .19: .03
_ _ _. I~ J~ =.0'3
. 16 +.II : .'27
.27t.l6 =--43
.4'3 t.'Z7::. .70
.?ot.\6 =-.86
OO+.'Z7"' 1.1:3
1./3 tzr: r.-.o
1.40 t .27 t .16:: I.93
I. 83 t .4'?l -:?28
BASED ON
1.11:5 HEIGHT
110
\.\~
1"\'' ·'\
7. t).5 H \~. ~
i-------------····-·························--·-~·'.-
1······~·· ~----i\ \\
.L...---- . ~. I. ' \
! '
\
\
_J
111
w
:I:
:~
.Ill
'~ ~
\Jl
~
i <;)
:o. ~1'2
ili~
·~.....
~ :J:i
lilt-
-~"'
-~ ~
-~
0
-~ ~
·:r ~
~
::::
:r
·C.
·iiS
X
;~
I '
-_.-· -t-..... -···-;··--
. ~. ~ I_
. ::C:j
2· "'
L--············------
111
SAL VANS
• FURN ICUBE •......... .. using Head Dimet1sio11
(as resed on Le corbusiers MODULOR)
This autl1or coi.-1ed tHe word Fur11icube from " Furniture~ a11d cube. which
is formed by perfect squares. The .9Jidet1 sectio11 is based 011 SQUARE.
As the modulor uses LS3 ( ~.'-o" ) r!eight of a pgrso11 , mostly all
furl1iture it1 tke market is ba6ed 011 th., s standards. 1l1e author deems
it nece5sary tnen io 5eek a For-mula 1o produce a com fortatJie HEIGHTS
for a11 irtdividual person, from midget to gia11t5. attd t1ot nece55arily t:>e
forced io use 'Hte staHdard ne·lghts fbr 6 Footers.
I HEIGHTSOF!NDIVIDUAL
J 6'-6'-' l6'-o'' s'-e" Is'- 6'' s-:-,_--:4,;-rs'~-o"'"4-,_-8-::-~.,
l I
.. -· . 1.9S~_i!.S3M f.72M p.67M 1.62M_ l.SZM 1.42M
UR~- Comfortable r-- SIZE _o~~DS or' H" itt meter
Heights Formula 1 0.252 0.233 0.219 0.213 0.200 0.193 Q.IM
- - .--1- - t--- - · ·- . ···--!--
' Foot stool ~t i o.70{H) DIS 0-16 0.15 o.1s 0.14 0 .13 0.12
1
low ~tool 1. 158 (H) I
·.. :o 29 ~- <J25 o.24 o 23 o. 22 0.20
1Bedattcfckair-·- 1. ss (H) --- ·- o 46 o.43 o.40 o.::e o.ze o.:;s a.:;;
Din{~g table- --··· _3.. (H) - ·-. 0.7? '?-70 !0.6S . 0.:~:~2_:~1 .a.s7 0.54
Office table 3.1S(H) .0.79 o.733!0.69 o.67 o.04 o.ro o.~
Coffee taole .. j__-~~fH) ·· ·-· ··ro.54 ~ 047- OAS. 0.44 o.~l o.~
. c.art:J-fable : ~- 0.66 0.62 OW 0-=8 0.'::5 ~.51
yar .
; Bar stool
2.95(H)
· _3.!0(H}
2.53fH)
---==-- 71
o:~3.
0.64. r-·-
0.90 o.e1· 0.78 0.70 o.2!_ ~
o.ss o.s3 to.~z 0.43 0.45
o.sg +---t--
1--- - - - - +-·- ......:,...-::---- -- -+--=->'---=.-t---i
lavaiory -·-- 3.22(H) 0.91 .0.75 0 .70 O.GB O.f.G jO.ef 0/57
Kitchef1 cabinet -·· -3.8S1H) 0.97 0.90 ·o.84 0.82 0.73 0.74 0.09
Railit1 - --- -- . - 3.-io(H) 0.93 0.86 0.91 0.78 O.?fi> 0.11 Q.~
Shoulder- re~t 4.Ss (H) 1.03 o.gg 0.93 o.B7 ·
1.22 l.f3 l.cxo
Anttpit ~t ___ . 6.0(H) 1.51 1.40 1.31 lt.z7·1.23iJ.J5 lOS
Height of persot1 7.8S(H) 1.98 1.83 I.B:J l!iJ7 1.61 LSI 1.41
- · t---·,~...,..------+---:-7"t-:--+--;--::-:-t--:-~ --::-=--t-:-::~
Vertical reac~ 9.70 (H) 244 2.26 2.12 ~- 00 1.99 !.97 1.74 ,
1
112
Z. 11COAU!::> 1-70H
~- ----1
~~1 ~ () () ~
f) I - ~ " / ~EAO"--\ ~5~~ ;:
\ I I J I I \ It- ....
I I
~.?
p · --+--t---i-+--+-+---t-+-+--\-··- I I r--.. \ ~o-
: _. ~-:
.,1/ 'e' • ~ ) II) ~
L \. I • I ) \\1 \ :% -
\ J ' o,;v V u V • -·· Po H \ ! I zH \ '\' ~ :x:
) .\ ) J ~ ';) \ lVJ ---~\I ' ~ 1--:;:;. ··-~ ...
I ;EAA \ I \ \ . ~ :~ WJ h J I~ \, L) T
, ( \ I 'l\ v \!) ~\ JV'~
--- ----~=+~....... ·-+---·· .. --\----tt---+-~---+t-<,...-- -~,...---tt---1--t----
--
)
- -- -----;,..!="'V+-+.-:IM"-:i- · - . -
I . - . - . .. - ·-
'
--f---t--+---+---
~
9YEARS } j :r
!J \ \ \ \ ....
- - ... .. . .
I~EARS
. --·- -- . -· -----~~ .. -- · f
J \ '
~ ' f
) -
( '\.
~
r----
' / '- ;,)'i ~ "'' / '\.. , <ih l.
v -- _.) ~ ·~
, 3D HEAD ALLOWANCE FOR ~HOE:~ •/.? H_~ Hi:EL_ALLDW~CE..J 1
5
BODY SHAPE OF A
1-"
"-"
(JJ
MAN AND WOMAN
D
1"',- ----- --- b1', c ',
l . . . . . ., ''
\
\
I ', '
I ',
a', '-,
''' \
\
\
1
I
'' \
+-,-:_~~-'~,
\ 4
I
I
, __ _ ' -.... \
-'
I
'' \
\
I .... , '' \
I
' .... '' \
\
6
I '
I ~-~ f"" __ _ ,
3
' '
\
1',
I ''
I ' ..... '' \
I :5.:::~ 1<-- - - : ....
' \
I ........
I
I ' ' '' \ \
I ~---- '
I
: ---~
'~ ','
... '\
I
1...-- - - - - - - -
c
J
8
' ,\'.,
',
'
draw a diagonal d-1 ' , , ',,
........ '
" , ' ',' at1d di;wwt::~f
~':7"·-
d-2 to
: '~~ FOit1t o. tHe itttef13eeti011
L - ---- - ----·-L-----~---...lt 0 of d·l witl1 tke vertical
d1
--------- d2.1', d3 edge of tl1e squa~ is
I'" .........
"'
~'-,
\
point 1 . draw a
: horizontal line to
"' ' '' \
\ it1rersect d- z from
1
'" ''' , \
\
' ' ihe p?itrt 2 draw a
""', ~" ,
\ vertical line .
"' \.
\
'
"" '" \
" \
115
as diagonal c. repeat tne proce~ u11til you create a
serie~ of 6q{JareG getti119 smaller proporti011ate!y
~--------~-----
;
A B C D E F GH
116
PROPORTIONING StST&MS
d·3 d-4
Exampte 1
fr()tf a ~uare 1, of tke diago11al ig tke widtn cf -tHe 11ext
Y2
square 2. Then Y2 of -Hie diag1Hal of ~re 2 will ~ the
widtH of tke next GQJa~ 3 and t;O ott
~quare-s
square-~
square-2.
square -1
b. SQUARE SYSTEM
a square of side 1 kas a dia_gonal let1gff1 =ji
-two para /lei sides cf the ~are are extended
il1definitely. Rota+i0t1 of GUc~ive diagot1al$
formG a dyttattnc GerieG of rect311gles
front a 5ka~ datum .
118
seri~ , projected itt two dimet1~ions of(e~ eJ ~rie~
C. This dyHamic
of~~ witH ar~ of I,Z,3.+.!i'.~.7.... $quare unit~.
5ubdivisiot1 Manager
~
Office r
...
L
Security office
Toilet·- t.
T L
,J
"'t
5ecunty
d~1 is the fir5t diagottal with o as i+fs ceHter draw at1 arc uM+il it
re;:;c~es the diaQQ1al 1 with 1tte iJ1tersectiol1 draw a horizontal litte.
COmpleting tke Gecmd ~Uc'1m, usi11g tHe ~de ~ -tke diag::Jtfal d-z draw c3f
an:: till it readteG diag~al line e at1d complete o ~are ~ witk tke ~ide
of 50qua~ 3 as d~l, draw a11 an: till rt reach~ diag:mal ~~ complete
ttte GqUal!' .
/
+
I
I 7 3
1 5
z
6
120
A~ .6eri~ ~H ~generated ftom a regular pentagott.
-ceilil1
'
9 '
\
s ' \
\ '
1 '' \
~parallel line~
''
& ' \ ''
'' '
\
\ ' \ \ ''
5 ''
\
' \
\
'' ''
\
'5
'' \
'' '\ \
\
'' '\
'
\ '\ '' '\
' \
'\ '\ \ ' \
2 ' '\ \ \ \
' \
'\
'' '' '' \ \ ' \
\
\
\
\ \
'\ \ '\ '\
1 '' \
' \ \
floor
0 ' ' \ \ \
'
121
a vertical liHe am be divided to equal p3rt~. (or example into 10
by u~ittg a diagol1.31 mea~unmret1t- equaling 10, ju5t con;truct a
horizontal line. iff1~ is done for rnea~rement· of ~l'i:iit? . Con~t~ring
parallel line~ will make the equ:al part~ /CMger but agaiH i11 equal
part~ . Thi~ i5 c.31lea AritHmetic Progre~iort or AP. The ~Me~ oF
numl/er7 l.i?,3,4,S,G.7.8.9,IO IG art AP witk a~ of1 and a
commort differeYice of
II
At1 AP grow~ tJy ~{mp/e il1tere?t. It-s rate of c~ange 1~ a:t~~t:mt
t11ro0311out the 5erie;;. Arcf1itect~ u~ AP for ae7111etic a11d ph~ical
ecettomy i11 the duplildtion of moaule7 frum their brick~, tna~mry,
t imber? , COl'lcrete forrnwork etc. Arithmetic mean i~ tht Wtal
?Um divided by 2, therefore ?.7 and .3=E -= IS the aritHmetic
2
mean and thu5 AP i~ ~. 1s, at1d 27
W~ett 111e arc ~ diviMd into ~ert (more or I~) equal pa-t~ an4
tne dia~::mal<? a~ cot1~tnJCted to 1oucl1 tne vertical line, It will
prOOllce a proFtJrtianate dirni.,y~hi11g diStance;; -so that tHe 11igher
portiat1 IS biggsr- ifa1 tfte lower portiOH. Thi~ w~ ~ t:>y -Hte
122
Greeks wnere1n +he figure~ ItT tke Higl1er fOr tiot1~ are m~e bigger
fJ(J that it appear? t1te ~me when ~e11 from below.
9 :x~-.=z7
27 X~-= 9l
01 ')C' ~ ..- Z4~ at't:t ~ [t>rtk
z ')(3=~
lP)(~-=18
18 X 3:: _?f
$4 )(~:: Jf>Z.
'~ )(~:4~
123
Whirling triangles
Whirling triangle help our understanding of spirals.
Considering similar triangles, programmed so that the longest side of
one triangle becomes the shortest side of the next, they subtend
similar angles at the origin, the centre of rotation.
The whirling equilateral triangle is the simplest, completing a regular
hexagon in one revolution.
In any two similar triangles, the ratio of areas equals the square of the
ratios of corresponding sides. Therefore, when whirling a 3, 4, 5
triangle, the correspondidng sides of adjacent triangles are in ratio of
5:3. Their areas are in ration of 25:9.
Whirling a right angled triangle so that the medium side of one
becomes the shortest side of the next produces a spiral sitting neatly
on the x andy axes.
124
SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . size
Scale has reference to proportions which are good for humans. Scale deals with the relation
of architectural motifs, such as doors, windows or mouldings, to each other and the human
figure. Architecture must be adapted to human needs. Doors should be large enough to
walk through in comfort but not so gigantic that they require an almost impossible physical
effort to close them.
Steps should be of such a size as to permit easy ascent and descent. Ceiling heights must be
properly proportioned to the size and function of the room. In order to prevent one from fall-
ing from one level to the next, a balustrade should be related to the human figure in such a
way that safety is secured. Thus, design is a matter of the adjustment of architectural ele-
ments to meet the needs of the human race, and proper scale should be present when this
adaptation is made.
While proportion refers to the mathematical relationships among the real dimensions of a
form or space, scale refers to how we perceive the size of a building element or space rela-
tive to other forms. In visually measuring the size of an element we tend to use other ele-
ments of known-size in their context as measuring devices. These are known as scale-giving
elements, and tall into two general categories.
a. building elements whose size and characteristics are familiar to us through experi-
ence like doors, windows, tables, chairs, stairs, etc.
b. human figure.
In architecture, therefore, we are concerned with two types of scale:
1. GENERIC SCALE- the size of a building element relative to other forms in its context;
(three windows indicate three stories, the small window indicate a small room
inside).
[[[]
~
~
110 scale
~
-
~
......__
-
125
2. HUMAN SCALE- the size of a building element or space relative to the dimensions and
proportionl) of the human body.
In this figure, there is an area which represents the facade of a building but it has no
scale. There are no details of any kind which might tell whether the building is thirty or
one hundred fifty meters long. The structure lacks doors, windows. and steps-all of
those elements which might give some hint as to its size-the human element is
missing, the figure of a man.
,n)
lli
a orte ~storey buildil1g
a model of a building
a two- storey !Mldittg
In the above figures, a man has been introduced and immediately we are in a posi-
tion to estimate the size of the structure,whether it is a one or a two storey building.
Scale is thereby established.
126
1111 II II
IIII
One must always remember that a small building must necessarily contain few win-
dows, but t hat of a large structure may have many openings. The above figures
show how the number of doors and windows give a definite clue to the comprative
sizes of the other . If the top figure is about 15 meters long then the figure below
is about 30 meters long.
Correct scale is then to bring all parts of the bu ilding and landscape into proper rela·
tion with each other. The various elements should be correctly related to human
uses. A door should be of such a size that they may be entered without fear of dis-
comfort. While, the windows should have a better relationship to the floor levels,
wall areas and functions of the interior.
127
2. Sizes of familiar materials and those of nature. Example, the size of bricks or hol-
low blocks which is usually 0.20 height and 0.40 length or the common plywood
which is four feet (1.20 m} wide and eight feet long (2.40 m).
0
f
() ~
<t: E
Normal
6ft. ~ ()
tl/
1.som. 0 C)
io
- ----m{
7. Economics
depends upon the budget of the owner. A limited budget will provide a
smaller building, a lower ceiling height.
A building maybe in proper scale but is entirely out of proportion. Proportions are
only referrable to one another, and therefore, a building may have good proportions
and yet be entirely out of scale or vise versa.
Ex. A well-proportioned door for a residence may be out of scale
a
for" huge cathedral.
128
SCALE TYPES
SCALAR SEQUENCE
Simple A'ug"ession
Prsparati<M - Surprise
COifstriction --Relief
129
BALANCE and
GRAVITATIONAL CURVES
Gravitational-natural tendency toward some point or object of influence. The gravitation
of people towards suburbs.
AXIS
The most elementary means of organizing forms and spaces in architecture. It is a line estab-
lished by two points in space and about which forms and spaces can be arranged in a regular
or irregular manner.
Although imaginary and not visible, an axis is a powerful, dominating, regulating device.
Although it implies symmetry. It demands BALANCE .
The specific disposition of elements about an axis will determine whether the v.isual force of
an axial organization is subtle or overpowering, loosely structured or formal, picturesque Of
monotonous.
130
An axis has qualities of length and direction, and induces movement and views along its
path. An axis must be terminated at both of its ends and can be reinforced by defining edges
along its length.
I,
\
---- ·------·
--[-·-·1
I
I
I
The terminating elements of an axis serve to both send and receive its visual thrust. These
terminating elements can be any of the following :
The notion of an axis can be reinforced by defining edges along its length. Tbose edges can
be simply lines on the ground plan, or vertical planes that define a linear space coincidental
with the axis.
*'---:
131
There are three {3) types of BALANCE in the study of composition .
1. SYMMETRICAL BALANCE .. . . .. .... . .. ....... .. ... .... ..... .... ... .. . ... . monumental effect
centralized
formal
radial
2. UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE ......... . informal
3. GRAVITATIONAL BALANCE picturesqueness of
surroundings.
1. SYMMETRlCAL
a. Central axis-the easiest and simplest kind of balance in which the elements are
arranged in precisely the same manner on either side of a central axis or line.
Not only is the arrangement similar but each object is exactly like the one occupy·
ing the corresponding position on the opposite side. In this kind of balance the
eye catches at a glance the equality of attraction on each side of the centre of the
composition.
All elements are duplicated -shape for shape, size for size, and tone for tone.
The left half of the composition is identical with the right half. This type of
balance gives a feeling of repose and order. It is straight forward and direct. The
effect of monumentality is more readily secured by the use of a symmetrical com-
position than by an informal grouping of units.
9
i
r ·. . -.. . ____. . . .
!
.•f
b. Formal
There is another type of balance which approaches absolute symmetry but which
lacks some of the essentials of this kind of composition. At first glance the
elements on one side of the central axis appear to be identical with those on the
opposite side, but upon closer examination it is found that such is Aot the case .
The general mass and grouping of parts may be similar, but there are dissimilar-
ities in plan, elevation, or details. The volumes of the balancing units may corres-
pond, but there may exist a difference in their shapes and surface treatments.
This type of composition is called 'Formal Balance.'
Formal Bnlance
.)
133
l
fl
different in texture
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Here the two units are located at equal distances from the central shaft and are
similar in mass or bulk. However, they are unlike in plan and in elevation , though
the general eff ect is still one of simple balance.
c. Radial
Is characterized by an arrangement where all the parts radiate from a center like
the spokes in a wheel.
2. UNSYMMETRICAL (Informal)
Unsymmetrical or occult balance is more subtle and elusive, and is more difficult to attain. It
attempts to satisfy the eye without any effort to place equal masses at similar distances from
the center of the composition. It is the grouping, in an informal manner, of elements of vary-
ing sizes and shapes .
134
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The eye must be satisfied when one is working for unsymmetrical balance. But the eye must
be trained to perceive the accomplishment of this result. A see-saw is used as an example
wherein a lighter weight is farther from the fulcrum and a heavier one nearer. In an informal
arrangement the larger and heavier masses should be nearer the centre of the group , while
the lighter, lower and more horizontal elements may constitute the long arm.
l0t1ger- dista11ce
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In this unsymmetrical diagram, the room on the left carries up higher and thus forms a more
important exterior mass. The centre of gravity of the composition is near the main entrance,
and one feels that the long, low mass to the right is balanced about this fulcrum by the
heavier, more compact portion at the left.
135
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3. GRAVITATIONAl or PICTURESQUE
This kind of composition is the complete adaptation to its surroundings. This type of com-
position is often far removed from conscious composition. Picturesqueness is the opposite
of symmetrical composition. Essentially, it is a quality which is not composed but freely
results from time and the forces of nature .
One sense. rather than sees, a state of equilibrium . The gravitational is typical arrangement
of nature, in wh ich a landscape is in form al in its disposition of parts. Its arrangement is ac-
cidental, and it may be good in its composition or it may be lacking in this quality. Nature
works in an unconscious manner with no attempt to meet man-made rules.
The artist puts upon canvas his interpretation of the scene before him, modifying it to suit
his own particular fan cy. He moved trees, houses and even mountains about so that they
will conform to a pattern which embodies the principles of good design. He secu res informal
balance in a number of ways. He n:-ilY use small areas of bright colors on one side of the
painting to balance a large area of neutral tone on the other, or he may create a feeling of
movement in order to equalize a static quality in another part of the composition.
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Balance suggests a gravitational equilibrium of a single unit in space, or of pairs symmetrical-
ly arranged with respect to a central axis or point.
In picture-making, balance refers to a "felt" optical equilibrium between all parts of the
work. The artist balances forces horizontally, vertically, radially, diagonally in all directions
and positions.
There are several factors which, when combined with the ele-
ments to balance in a work of art. These factors or variables
are position or placement, size, proportion, quality and direc-
tion of the elements of these factors, position plays the lead
role. If two shapes of equal physical qualities are placed near
the bottom of a picture frame, the work will appear bottom·
00 heavy or out of balance with the large upper space. Such
shapes should be placed in positions which will contribute to
the total balance of all the involved picture parts.
In seeking balance, it should be recognized that the elements of art represent " moments of
force". The eye, as it travels over the picture surface, pauses momentarily for significant pic-
ture parts which are contrasting in character. These contrast represent moving and direc-
tional forc es which must counterbalance one anoth er sc that a controlled tension results.
137
•
RHYTHM movement repetition spac1ng
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2. ACCENTED RHYTHM -if the openings or details are arranged in such a manner
that some are more important than others, then the eye grasps the significance of
this relationship and pauses longer in cbntemplating the larger elements.
138
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Rhythm refers to the regular or harmonious recurrence of lines, shapes, forms, or colors. It
incorporates the fundamental notion of repetition as a device to organize forms and spaces
in architecture. Almost all building types incorporate elements that are, by their nature, repe-
titive. Beams and columns repeat themselves to form repetitive structural bays and modules
of space.
Windows and doors repeatedly puncture a building's surface to allow light, air, views, and
people to enter its interiors. Spaces often recur to accomodate similar or repetitive function -
al requirements in the building program. This section c;liscusses the patterns of repet ition
that can be utilized to organize a series of recurring elements, and the resultant visual
rhythms these patterns create.
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139
140
Rhythm is ORGANIZED MOVEMENT. It must be directed and controlled. If unrelated
noises occur, such as the din of the factory, there is no organization and hence no rhythm. If
w indows and doors are thrown into the facade of a building in a haphazard manner, there is
no scheme or sense to the arrangement and again no rhythm.
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UNITY ... and ••• HIERARCHY harmony
Unity suggests harmony. If a structure has unity, it must have contrast, rhythm and scale.
To have harmony, all the unrelated parts of an architectural arrangement are brought into
proper relation to each other so that a satisfactory composition is obtained. If unity prevails,
all the unimportant parts must be kept in their places and be made simply to assist the major
units in the roles which they are to play in the development of the structure. This is similar to
a well-organized business group or a disciplined army. There must be the leaders and those
who assist the leaders, each with his own particular function to pertorm.
The simplest kind of unity dealing with motifs of more than one member is to be found in or-
dinary REPETITION . Like repetition of sound or beads of the same size and spacing. To
give emphasis and interest, an accent is then introduced.
In an architectural composition, the elements must be arranged in such a way as to insure
the domination of the less important parts by the major masses of the building.
COt1ti t1Uity
There are at least seven (7) ways of producing an effect of UNITY in a design.
1. There must be a central motif, a theme, or a center of interest. The attention of the
observer must be drawn to this focal point.
2. The major masses of the building should dominate the less important ones .
3. All the units should together form a compact and coherent ensemble:
4. The element of emphasis must be introduced. It may be secured by the size, posi-
tion, or tr~tment of a particular motif which is to give the desired importance to that
particular part of the building.
5. By limiting the amount of treatment seen at one time.
142
6. -By selecting details, materials, colors, etc. in harmony with the basic idea.
7. By selecting styles, furnitures and furnishings in harmony with the surroundings.
COMPETITION
When elements compete with each other for the place of importance. There is competition.
This causes ' DUALITY' or the presence of two strong conflicting personalities or masses re-
sulting in c;liscord and redundancy. The towers appear attenuated and unstable. The shared
element is too weak to counteract the overturning force acting on the towers.
53me height
I t/ cett+er of interest
143
Jack of u11ity
144
CONFUSION
Another kind of competition where dissimilarity is too pronounced. There is no harmonious
treatment and dissimilarities in architectural elements such as door, windows are combined.
There is no definite architectural character and no central the"me .
•
C011fusiol1 of two towers. dormers, wi11dows, tree
In this figure, the pointed arches and the half-timber-the semi-ecclesiastical and the domes-
tic qualities -are not in symphathy with each other, and confusion prevails.
In the figure below an attempt has been made to correct the faults which are apparent in the
confusing figure above. There is simplicity. The two towers have been reduced to a single.
important unit, and emphasis has been increased by the placing of the two trees so that the
eye is more easily led to this dominant part of the composition.
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145
The principle of HIERARCHY implies that in most architectural compositions, real differ-
ences exist among their forms and spaces. These differences reflect in a sense, the degree of
importance of these forms and spaces, and the functional, formal, and symbolic roles they
play in their organization. The value system by which their relative importance is measured
will, of course, depend on the specific situation, the needs and desires of the users and the
decisions of the designer. The values expressed may be individual or collective, personal or
cultural.
In any case, the manner is which these functional or symbolic differences among a building's
elements are revealed as critical to the establishment of a visible, hierachical order among its
forms and spaces.
For a form or space to be articulated as being important or significant to an organization, it
must be made visibly unique. This can be achieved by endowing a form or shape with the
following:
1. Exceptional SIZE
ODD
D
tion by being significantly different in size than all other
elements in the composition. Normally, the dominance is
DOD
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146 View of FI<Jrm1C6 il/ustrati~ ike domil1~ of #te catttedral over t11e
Uli:at'f la.-rd5ai~
2. Unique SHAPE
Forms and spaces can be made visually dominant, and
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(b} the centerpiece of a symmetrical organization.
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{c) the focus of a centralized or radial organization .
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150
•
CHARACTER. • • • • . expressiveness
Buildings have points of similarity, like walls, doors and roofs but have different purposes
and appearances. In any architecture which is worthy of the name, the exterior of a building
expresses the intemal function and so MANIFESTED CHARACTER is the External Expres-
sion of Internal Qualities. The element of character grows out of the function of the building
and the consideration of all the creative principles of composition.
Character in architecture is derived from three (3) types. They are characters from :
1. FUNCTION, Of use of the building.
2. ASSOCIATION, or influence of traditional types.
3. PERSONALITY, or the human quality or emotional appeal.
1. FUNCTIONAL CHARACTER
The most important kind of character in architecture is that which results from the purpose
of the building or the reason for its erection. The use of a structure naturally calls for a cer-
tain disposition of parts, and this arrangement affects the appearance of the exterior, by
which we largely judge character.
Examples:
a. Museum-must have galleries with ample wall space and top light, which elimi-
nates windows and necessitates the use of skylights.
b. A school building - must contain many windows to admit the necessary side light
and to offer an interesting contrast with the possible monotony of the classroom
walls.
c. Shop - a structure with large show windows is usually a shop for the display and
sale of merchandise.
d. Factory - readily seen from the exterior to express the efficient operation of the
manufacturing within. The exterior shows often only the structural mem-
bers - which are stripped of all unnecessary decoration together w ith the enclosing
expanses of the glass to light the interior. The building has little architectural show,
it is simple since it is to raise revenue.
e. Monument-serves to perpetuate a memory of a person or an important event. It
does not produce any revenue. It must be impressive and should have dignity and
command respect. Its function, then, is to be monumental, usually symmetrical. in
arrangement and uses permanent materials like stone, steel, concrete, or some du-
rable and heavy materials to produce a feeling of lasting effect.
f. A Bank-should have dignity-it is a building designed to house an activity which
is very near to the heart and mind of the average citizen-that of caring for his
money. The building should Inspire confidence in its integrity. This building houses
an activity which is work.
g. Movie- Cinema House -a place of relaxation or recreation after a hectic day of
discharging one's obligations of the day. In this building psychological use of color
and decoration is important. Bright colors and unusual or unique architectural ef-
fects quicken the imagination and cater to the holiday spirit. This building houses
an activity of man-that of relaxation.
h. House - should reflect the informal intimacy of home life.
151
2. ASSOCIATED CHARACTER
This comes from the influence of ideas and impressions related to or growing out of past ex-
periences. We know by association anq experience that the various races have different phy-
sical characteristics and we are thus able to distinguish between an Oriental, a Negro, a Cau-
cacian, and an Indian. We often associate such features as color, eyes, height, nose and
others.
In a similar manner, we have come to recognize buildings by features which have long been
associated with that particular structure. A spire atop a building with stained glass windows
has always told us that the edifice was a church. The use of the classical orders often indi-
cates the presence of a bank, and Collegiate Gothic frequently discloses the identity of an
educational institution.
However, when a mode of construction or type of design is found to be antiquated, it may
be discarded, provided that a worthy successor has been developed to take its place. The
ultra-modernists would eliminate all association with the past. They would allow the func·
tion of the building to control the exterior regardless of the effect.
The contemporary movement in architecture has, however, caused many revisions in our as-
sociation of ideas. It has been necessary to adjust our points of view to the many influences
which are now changing the character of our modern buildings. New method of construct-
ion have grown out of new materials, and it is now possible to use openings in ways which
were not practicable according to our former conceptions of the limitations of btick and
stone. Our attitude toward physical comfort has been revolutionalized .
The home must be more efficient in operation and more pleasant in its interior treatment.
The museum is no longer a place in which to contract museum fatigue by climbing monu-
mefltal stairways, and factories are now airy and cheerful.
If a building functions properly and is composed according to the rules of good design, it
then follows that the character shall or rather should be satisfactory. A bank for example,
need no longer be heavy and semi-fortified. Our bank architecture was borrowed from the
temples of Greece. The massive walls inspired the depositors with confidence. Changing
conditions have brought about a realization that there is a little relation between thick
stones, barred windows , and the security of investments and savings. Only the conspicuous
vault doors remain to advertise the safety of the deposits. Our banks have now become effi-
cient places in which to work, and they present cheerful and dignified interiors in which to
transact business.
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UNIVERS ITY OF . S ANTO TOMAS
152
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BANK
MODERN CHURCH
153
MODERN BANK
3. PERSONAL CHARACTER
Personal character in architecture bears a certain relation to the same attribute in the life of
an individual. It is found .that the element of personality plays an important part in the reveal-
ing of character both with man and with architecture. Members of the·various races have
different traits-some common to several groops, some peculiar to a particular group. The
plantation Negro is often happy. and carefree. The oriental is a mystery to the Caucasian; the
Indian is stoical and taciturn. Individuals are gay or gloomy, sparkling or stupid, graceful or
gawking.
Buildings have qualities which are directly related to their functions, but in addition, they
may possess characteristics which have to do rather with the emotional reaction set up in
the mind of the observer. Like members of the human race, buildings may be sterri and for-
bidding, light and playful, or sedate and dignified, with reference to the impressions which
they are capable of giving.
154
It is to these qualities of vitality, repose, grace, restraint, festivity, dignity, etc. that we give
the name of personal character. If the building is designed. in the proper spirit, this type of
character will grow naturally from the structure itself. It is quite essential that this intangible
quality agrees with the function of the building. Nothing could be more disastrous than to
have a power plant look like an entertainment pavilion -a substitution of festivity for effi·
ciency.
Example:
A dilapidated warehouse has a feeling of humility. A magnificent city hall can take pride
in its size and position.
Personality in a building has more to do with the spirit of the building than its pur-
pose-They are abstract rather that concrete. A building may display the quality of
strength. It may be simple or ornate, picturesque or formal.
A building in itself may be of good design but out of place when transplanted to a set-
ting for which it is not intended. A mountainous summer home would appear in-
congruous in Makati, and a magnificent cathedral would look ridiculous on the lonely
long superhighway. Character is thus also a matter of location.
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An exposition building designed and intended to convey the spirit of gayety and festivi-
ty. This is built for entertainment. The personal character is given through its lightness
and spontaniety of the decoration and the use of vertical accents, banners, etc. The
walls are ·light in thickness, indicating perhaps, a temporary structure. It also has a feel-
ing of openness which relates the interior to the surrounding landscape treatment.
155
A custom-house - here a sense of strength and solidity is required. Strong walls are
deemed necessary, ana heavy masonry with few openings is used to give the de-
sired character. Here all is business all is ;seriousness.
A large house- for those who want to display evidence of his wealth.
156
A simple designed house-for the quiet and unassuming people.
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157
6 . irregular lines-informality (excitement).
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Character then maybe expressed in Architecture by the following:
1. Scale ... when increased, it gives a feeling of grandeur, dignity and monumentali-
ty. However, when scale is reduced, these characteristics are lessened if notre-
versed.
2. Proportion ... regarded to produce formality in character when applied. Example
is triangular massing. The huge proportions applied in the parts of the classical
buildings give them the formal character.
3. Style ... many architects believe that style is character expressive of definite con-
ceptions as for example-grandeur, gaiety or solemnity. On account of tradi-
tions, certain styles of Architecture were adapted for specific types of buildings.
This give the proper or good "Ambience" say, for example, a neat and orderly
modern design of a beergarden as compared to a beergarden with indigenous,
all local materials used.
AMBIENCE -surrounding on all sides, an environment or its distinct atmosphere; or milieu.
MILIEU -environment,social or cultural setting.
158
PLAN COMPOSITION
SCHEME
Good planning is not the placing of areas together in an aimless way . A logical plan must
have a reason behind it - " a parti" , or scheme. If an exterior which tends toward symmetry,
or monumentality, is desired, the plan elements may .be arranged in a balanced manner
about a central axis.
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If a more informal massing is required, the beginning of the development-the plan - should
assume this desired character.
A plan may be simple or complex, depending upon the use to which the building is to be put
and upon the number of units or rooms required. Regardless of the complexity which plans
may assume. They may all be reduced to the simple geometrical shapes which form the
basis for all architecture. Plans and also elevations consist of areas which are recognized as
the square, circle, rectangle, etc. selected for their suitability to the function of the building.
160
AXIAL ARRANGEMENTS
Wrth the exception of the most elementary forms, plans have direction. This direction is
related to the shape and to the relative importance of the sides which bound the plan. This
development of direction leads to the establishment of axis or !iRes about which the com-
position is organized.
As one approaches a building and faces the principal facade, the major axis usually carries
through the centre of the mass in a line directly away from the observer and at right angles to
the main elevation.
/ Major Axis
go•
The principal minor axis usually extends at right angles to the major axis through the centre
of the important element which tends to parallel the main elevation . In a complex plan the
various parts may be grouped around minor axis which show the direction of these units.
The simple rectangle has its long sides perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer
(sfnce in a represented plar-t the principal entrance side parallel to the street usually focus the
bottom of the sheet).
maJOr axis ( LottgitudiHal)
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It will be noticed that the major axis is at right angles to the directional quality of the area, in-
dicating that the shape of a plan is not so important on an analysis of this kind as the location
of the entrance and the arrangement of the internal units.
It will also be found that the axis are sometimes called "Transverse" which cuts the plan in
its shortest direction and "Longitudinal" which extends through the length of the composi-
tion.
PRINCtPLES
A plan, to be worthy of the name, must be "organic". All parts must fit together in such
a way that the composition wilt be disturbed if one element is moved. The axial arrangement
of the plan should connect to various units so that one feels the complete organization of all
the component parts. A plan is developed which will take care of the practical requirements
of the building.
A plan should have contrast of size, shape, character, direction, balance and " emphasis".
161
EMPHASIS
It is often desirable to direct a structure which will house a single important object or to have
one unit of the plan give emphasis to one particular phase of the activity which is to be car-
ried on within. It is necessary that the architecture frame and accent this important object or
activity.
In this illustration. This condition is secured by the use of the semicircular element with in-
ches which impa~ a decorative rhythm and point to the monument in the centre of the com-
position. This arrangement also illustrates the principle of radiation from a single point. The
centre of interest, the focal point-which contributes much to the quality of emphasis. _The
variety secured by the change of direction from the curved element to the straight line which
forms the axis, for the buildings on either side adds to the appeal of the design.
SECONDARY PRINCIPLES
a. Repitition may be present when a number of room of equal size and shape occur side by
side, or when windows, columns, or arches are spaced in a regular manner to give unac-
cented rhythm.
b. Alternation -a synonym for contrast. There may be alternating sizes of re<:tangular ele-
ments or alternation of shapes.
alternation of shape
162
alternation of shape
c. Transition -a satisfactory progression from one unit to another. Small vestibules pro-
tect and act as buffers for the lobbies which follow , and the lobbies allow the visitor to
become adjusted to the situation which confronts him upon entering the building. These
minor elements also give the observer some preparatory indication of the general charac-
ter and use of the interior before introducing him to the more important units.
' .3
2.
1
vesti bule
In a complex plan it is offer desirable not to tell the whole story at once but to allow the
beauty and interest of the interior gradually to unfold itself, reserving for the climax some
definitely predetermined accent. The most important thing to remember in plan analysis
is that a good plan must have organization. The presence of absence of this organic qua-
lity can be seen at a glance, but needs much thought and study. A beautiful plan based
on sound reasoning is the first prerequisite for a successful building.
d . Transformation
The principle of transformation allows a designer to
select a prototypical architectural model whose formal
structure and ordering of elements might be appropri-
ate and reasonable, and to transform it through a series
of discrete manipulations to respond to the specific
conditions and context of the design task at hand.
Transformation requires f irst that the ordering system
of the prior or prototypal model be perceived and un-
derstood so that, through a series of finite changes and
permutations, the original design concept can be classi-
fied, strengthened and built upon rather than des-
troyed.
A series of finite changes and permutations, the original design concept can be clarified,
strengthened and built upon, rather t han destroyed.
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VISUAL ACUITY
AND PERCEPTION
Perception is the process by which we organize and interpret the patterns of stimuli in our
environment, the immediate intuitive recognition, as of an aesthetic quality.
The separation of two lines placed end to end can be perceived more readily than the separa-
tion of 2 lines placed side by side.
SPATIAL PERCEPTION
All spatial implications are mentally conditioned by the environmental and experience of the
viewer. Vision is experienced through the eyes, but interpreted with the mind. Perception in-
volves the whole pattern of nerve and brain response as well as the visual 'stimulus'.
Man uses two eyes for the perception of objects in nature and continually shifts his focus of
attention. In so doing, two different types of vision are used STEREOSCOPIC and KINES-
THETIC . Having two eyes set slightly apart for each other, man sees two different views of
the object world at the same time.
The term STEREOSCOPIC is applied to his abilitv to overlap these views, which are slightly
different, into one image . This visual process created an illusion of three-dimensional depth,
making it possible to judge distances.
One of the most frequently employed types of information especially over short distances,
arises from 'Retinal Disparity' or unlikeness of the retinal images in the eys, which are in dif-
ferent spatial positions, thus, if we hold up a cube in front of the eyes, the right eye will see
slightly more of the side face on the right, the left eye slightly more of the side on the left.
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166 ¥
If you focus your two eyes on a pencil held close to the face, while at the same time con-
sciously observing an object further away, the farther object will appear doubled and if we
shift the eyes to concentrate on the object while the pencil is in f,ront, the pencil will be
doubled and the object just one.
In KINESTHETIC vision, man experiences space in the movements of the eye from one part
of a whole work of art to another. Space is experienced while viewing a two-dimensional
surface because we unconsciously attempt to organize its separate parts so that they can be
seen as a whole. In addition, man explores objec.t s surmental recognit ion of them. Objects
close to the eye require more. Ocular movement then those more distant, and this factor
adds spatch illusion to man's Kinesthetic vision.
167
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Reversible Figure:
If a drawing is presented wherein two parts are equally meaningful, there may be
an alternation of "figure'' and "ground" between them.
168
a goblet
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This is a reversible
Figure.
Sometimes it is perceived as a
stair.
or
171
Artistic use of reversible
figure cmd grout1d
Circle litttrr Nc (Heavetf a"d Hell)
a wood cut by Nf.C. Esl1e5. The
angels an4 evil alter11ate but neither
seemG 1o domittare the other lookitt_g
~t flfe black bat -tl1611 swift io
looking at itle white dove .
172
"Ccmcavt and Conv~~" shows can "tna(rr view of the left-hand howe, an intenQ-r
view of the '<ight-IUJnd howe and f!l"the-r an e.xterior or interior view
of the howe in the middk, depending upon one~ choice. 19.U
173
FLUCTUATION
Instances of fluctuation are given by the phenomena of the alternating 'Figure' and 'Ground'
alternating perspective and retinal rivalry. In the following figures showing alternating pers-
pective, one part of the figure appears to stand out in front of the rest of the figure; but there
is alternation, first one pan standing out a·nd then !~e remainder.
NECKER CUBE
174
This figure may be perceived as either depressed or concave. But sometimes it is perceived
as convex or protruding outwards.
or
175
Stare at the dot and
it will give you two
fluctuating Figures.
IMPOSSIBLE FIGURES
When three dimensional forms are illustrated on two-dimensional surface.
When you cover the three prongs at the left with your palms it will show a U-shaped figure at
the right. However if you cover the U-shaped Figure at the right, it will appear as three
prongs.
176
An impossible Figure the Corrected Figure
177
178
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
AFFECTING ACCURACY OF
SHAPE PERCEPTION
The simpler the actual shape which is viewed like squares, triangles, circles, the more likely it
is to be perceived accurately, even though in a very short period of time.
There is a tendency of an observer to perceive for example a square when actually it is a rec-
tangle meaning a square and say it is circle although it is an ellipse.
This tendency to perceive shapes not exactly as they are but in somewhat modified form, is
given great importance by a German School of psychologists, known as the GESTALT psy~
chologist. The world means "FORM". According to them our percepts always possess
some kind of form or arrangement, and we tend to group together shapes close to each
other.
A form of simplication may be through continuity. A shape with a broi<en, disc<;mtinuous or
dotted outline may be perceived as a whole continuous figure. Dotted lines as shown below
are perceived as a Triangle and a Square.
In some complex Figure, a smaller Figure may become swallowed up in a larger whole and
an observer will have difficulty in noticing the simple figures in the complex ones.
a simple
rectangular
in perspective
it is lost
somewhere
in this Figure
The Accuracy and the amount of detail with which shapes can be perceived depends on the
length of time available for viewing them. A period of about a second is necessary for
VISUAL ·ACUITY to reach its maximum. The length of time taken to perceive a simple
shape is related to its size and brightness.
179
VISUAL OR OPTICAL ILLUSIONS
There are further difficulties in perceiving complex forms accurately in detail resulting from
the inability to perceive the parts of the shape independently of the whole. Many of the so
called Visual Illusions.
'VISUAL ILLUSIONS' make their effect because the observer's perception is influenced by
the inclusion of their parts in the whole pattern. In the figure below so-called Muller-Lyer illu-
sion, the upper horizontal line tends to look shorter than the lower, because it is difficult if
riot impossible to estimate the lengths of the two lines independently of the arrow heads
wh ich form part of the same figure .
) actually
itre same
lettgffl
lod<5
bgger
Another example below shows two horizontal Lines, actually straight and parallel, but be·
cause they are combined with the oblique lines, they look curved.
------
> _______...
>
-----
.....______
_....
>
----
~
....-----..
180
A shape may be altered even by the background on which it is super_imposed. The two hori-
zontal lines are in fact straight and parallel although they appear stouter at the middle.
The mirror or water reflection of the word RIGHT becomes WRONG try it with a small mir-
ror.
If a contour divides_a Figure into an upper and lower part, There is a greater tendency for the
lower part to appear as the figure.
When two homogenous, differently coloured fields are shown with one considerably larger
than the other and enclosed it, then there is greater probability that the small enclosed field
will be perceived as the figure.
181
When two homogenous, differently coloured fields are sh own with one considerably larger
than the other and encloses it, then there is gr~ter probability that the small enclosed field
will be percieved as the f igure.
White figures against black backgrounds on black figures with holes in them.
(The white figure appear more readily than the black one with a hole in it.)
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I
I
/ \\
\
\
b cl
I \
J~------------~~
Which is longer distance "ab" or distance "de"?
182
Which is longer distance "ab"
or distance "de"
183
This is perfect square -however-when the square is inscribed it looks distorted
0
When a square was preceded by a series of radiating lines the square distorted in the same
way as if they were expressed simultaneously.
184
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
DEPTH AND DISTANCE
An important feature of our perception of depth and solidity of objects is constituted by the
shadows which are casts upon parts of them by the general illumination. Normally, shadows
appear on the receding parts of objects and indicates recession and hence solidity. Changes
in the appearance of depth can be produced by altering the dir~>.ction of the incident light.
Parts of a surface in relief may be made to appear as if they protruded by directing light on to
it from below instead if from above as normal.
The perception of depth depends upon the direction of the light perceived, not on the physi-
cal direction of light. A concave relief (matrix) can reverse its depth and is then perceived as
a convex (patrix).
""'
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185
FILED AND EMPTY DISTANCE
A depth filled with details appears to be greater than one of the same physical distance which
is empty.
I llllllltlllll
PROXIMITY ...
The proximity of the lines that appears to be in pairs ieads us to see three pairs and an
extra line at the right.
The sa,me lines ~s above, . but with, extensions, lead to the opposit~ pairing: Three
broken squares and an extra line at the left.
][ ][ ][ J
CONTRADICTORY DEPTH FACTORS
186
0
Small square is nearer due to height location' In this figure, when both squares are floating
it shows both are resting on a plane surface. in air. the bigger square is nearer.
VISUAL DEPTH
Despite the fact that the observer 'sees' and 'knows' in reality and feels with his feet that the
floor is composed of plane mosaic stones, it is impossible to avoid a perception of depth.
187
ILLUSIONS OF DEPTH
The illusion, the Transformation of what is real into what is believed to be real, has been a stand-
ard architectural technique since the renaissance .
In France it developed into what we term as trompe L' Oeil, walls or ceilings were painted with
scenery and backdrops in perspective which one would consider as real, adding dimensions to
small areas and widening the visual coverage to even outdoor spaces. Today, wall papers of
sceneries like mountains, forests, rivers, from floor to ceiling and from wall to vvall are available in
the market.
•••
•••
An example is the ceiling treatment of San Agustin
Church in lntramuros which look like a coffered ceiling
in the architectural sense of the word, but a representa-
tioh of the Italian coffered ceiling of the renaissance
period in the form of intricate painting on Tin. In other
words, it is an illusion.
The use of illusions in a room can be achieved by de-
painted signing a modern mural of columns, combined with
abstract color wash, and placing it on wall facing strate-
gic places such as entrances and hallways. The color
gives that extra lift, and the illusion of space gives
depth.
fac-tual sectio11
-·
1. SUPERPOSITION -
If one object appears to cut off the view of another, we usually perceive the first ob-
ject as nearer.
but cat1 be
However it can be concluded that both playing cards are the same size and that the six of
hearts is further away .
189
2. APPARENT MAGNITUDE and RELATIVE SIZE-
If there is an array of like objects of different sizes, the smaller ones are perceived as
being farther away.
Side Viev.J
00
These spheres are viewed as spheres of the same sizes but the smaller ones are far-
ther away such as. the planets.
Which has bigger area, the smaller plain square at the left or the square at the right?
answer: they have the same
area.
190
The example below shows that the inner circles are perceived to be different. The
small circle 'b' looks bigger than the small circle 'a'.
@
b
The experience of apparent magnitude also depends on the total field of perception if the
surroundings are smaller the object looks bigger, if the surrounding objects are bigger, the
object looks smaller.
oo
Ooo
00
ooo
0 0
oo
D a
oQo
p
Circle 'a' and square 'a' both looks smaller than circle 'b' and square 'b' at the right. Actually
they all have the same sizes.
191
Below is an example of Apparent Magnitude.
When the hand holding the stick is covered the first appears to be a large one. If the body is
covered it becomes a small fish.
Apparent magnitude is experienced in relation to a known object. Particularly in comparison
with human beings. This is of particular interest to architects when planning room interiors.
192.
-
The nearer an object is to the horizon. The greater the distance to it is perceived to
be . For objects on the ground, 'nearer the horizon' implies that they are situated
higher in the field of vision.
a Q
21 attY
0 1
b ~ b --+
l;j r
c
-+ c ·-+
4. TEXTUR E-
For irregular surfaces such as rocks or waving surface of the ocean, there is a gra-
dient of texture with distance so that the 'grain' becomes finer as distance becomes
greater.
.. .
. . .. .. .. .. ... .. ........
193
PARADOX OF DEPTH
Engraving by the Dutch Artist M .C. Escher 'Waterfall'. The artists "false
use" of depth cues makes the water appear to move uphill through a series of
"level" channels.
Th~ false depth cues makes the person going down the stairs appear to be
go1ng up from where he came from.
194
CONTEXT:
The hypotheses tested and the percepts formed depend not only on the features of the ob-
ject, but also the context within which the object is viewed. In the example below the center
figure can be seen either as the letter B or the number 13, depending on the context in which
it appears.
12
1-\ 13 c
14
195
ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS
Traditionally architectural concepts have been the designer's way of responding to the
design situation presented in the program . They have been the means for translating the
non-physical problem statement into the physical building product. Every project has within
it what might be described as prime organizers, central themes, critical issues or problem
essences. These all exist within the project situation or within the designer's perception of
the problem situation. The designer must establish what they are, and then out of them, or
in response to them, create concepts for dealing with them architecturally. The designer's
concepts are sometimes called the "BIG IDEA," " BASIC FRAMEWORK" or "PRIMARY
ORGANIZER".
Concepts may be process or product oriented, take place at any stage in the design process
occur at any scale, be generated from several sources, have a hierarchical nature, possess in
trinsic problems and be plural in number and concern within any single building.
As the designer, we are presented with project situations. They come to us from program-
mers or clients and they require a building to satisfy the ou~lined needs. Often, we think of a
building design as consisting of one concept or overall idea . Although it is true that the
design of the project may begin with a single overall direction of how to respond to the pro-
blem, any building design is in fact composed of many concepts. The designer must divide
the project situation into a manageable number of parts, deal with them individually and
then synthesize them into one whole "simultaneous" building.
Some general categories under which the concerns and issues of a building may be listed
and addressed in design are:
1. Functional zoning
2. Architectural space
3. Circulation and building form
4. Response to Context
5. Building Envelope
Economy applies to all of these. The issues of most building types fit conveniently under
these Five categories and taken together, the categories seem to describe most of the impor-
tant concerns about building design.
Depending upon the designer's personality and individual design method he may address
conceptual issues in a rigid sequence or skip among them in some order or at random until
the mosaic of the building solution is finally complete. This sequence of attention to the
respective problem issues and the assignment of emphasis to them by the designer will have
a profound effect upon the nature of the solution. Those issues addressed first in design are
usually the most important in the designer's mind and tend to be solved first. Also, because
they are solved first, they tend to be formalized early and so become the context for solving
the other issues. The remaining issues must adapt themselves to the ones solved first.
198
c. Dependence on or independence of outside reinforcement of self-worth
d. Expansion of one's sphere of influence
e. Concern for fellow man
f. Immediate and deferred goals
g. Conservation of what is scarce and valued.
h. Quest for simplification
i. The material and the spiritual
The designer's posture with respect to these and other issues combine to form his general
life view. (see Chapter on VALUES) p. 468.
2) Design Philosophy of the Designer.
The designer, through his training and experience, has usually developed a design
philosophy, a set of postures or values about design which he relies upon for making
form in building design. Whether articulated on a conscious level or not, these views
of design which the designer possesses profoundly affect his work. His design activi·
ty takes place within and is, in a sense, governed by these basic values about design.
Within a design philosophy there is usually room for many design methods, pro-
cesses and building solutions, all of which. are consistent with the designer's context
of values. Because of his basic tendencies, however, the designer often gravitates
toward some of these more than others.
199
1. Busy - Empty space
2. Dynamic - Serene
3. Filled with distractions - Organized and peaceful
4. Matte - Shiny
5. Sophisticated - Rustic
6. Natural - Man-made
7. Worthless - Precious
As a designer accumulates experience, test his ideas and reflects on his basic inten-
tions, his postures about design surely evolve. At any given point in time however
his philosophy in its present form is brought to bear on the project at hand.
3) View of the problem by the designer presented with a specific design project.
The way that the designer perceives, understands and describes that project occurs
within the framework of his life values and design views. Different designers will
"see the problem" differently. The designers perceptions about the project at those
early stages before planning formally begins, will be some of the most important
thinking that he does in the entire planning processes. This is the area of entire plan-
ning process. This is the area of architectural concept getting at the most general
level. The designing that comes later will be done within the context of this early
thinking.
There are several judgements that the. designer makes about the project that, toge-
ther, constitute his view of it.
a. Whether the project calls for an architectural solution {whether it is in his
province to satisfy the needs). The client may need a new managerial system
rather than a new building.
b. What the limits of the project are: What are the project edges in terms of the
designer's responsibility? (The designer may not be involved in site design).
c. What the categories of concern are within the project that the designer will
use as a checklist this include:
d. Where the designer should concentrate his design efforts on his perceptions
of the problems essence and its unique characteristics.
e. What the physical elements to be manipulated are within each of the issue
categories.
200
~~R~ ·;;;::":~
1!1'1' • • • ----- ~
--~~:;'!..~·-"'' ..
The architectural concept for Saint Andrew' Parish Church 1968 was a symbolic one, based
on the Apostle's crucifixion on an X·shaped cross. The free form interior was designed to
take advantage of its corner-lot site (Archt. Leandro Locsin)
·~-" :c:~.r:~~~~~-~~~:; :- '•1·:......~;~-:'·.-~·~~~ ·~.. ::
.-·.~ ·.........
•
~-;<' ';'
·:;:.... _
Dining room
Coffee shop
Swimming pool
Locker roorns
This unique Golf Clubhouse (Valley Golf Club by Gabriel Formoso) is shaped to resemble a
golf ball on a tee.
201
BAGUIO HYATI TERRACES Hotel was evolved from a design concept which projected the
rugged character of the mountainous region in its exterior and invoke an intimate commu-
nion with nature in its interior. The north facade has been slanted at approximately the same
gradient as the famous Banaue rice terraces thereby opening the guest room balconies to a
maximum of sunlight and mountain air.
PRISM SCULPTURE
202
Constraint-confinement or restriction, "PRISM SCULPTURE" - growing from
repression if natural feelings or behavior the ground - This prismatic form of the new
(to hold back, draw together). Academy for performing arts on Wanchai's
waterfront, Hongkong is the result of the Ar-
chitect's desire to reflect the art and of con-
straints of the site. (The site also presented
problems at the foundations stage as the
building straddles a mass transit railway tun -
nel).
This design concept by Simon Kwan and associates w as the winner of the Royal HK jokey
club architectural competition and the design was a natu ral result of the shape and the site
and the art involved since performing arts require an artistics theme and the result - a sculp-
tural building.
Original design concept envisaged the prism in metal cladding, reflecting light and embody-
ing the idea of movement. As often happens when art meets reality, the concept was
modified to meet the client's financial requirements. The final designs showed a prism clad
in ganulite strips which give a different, more sculptured expression to the concept.
From outside the building is monolithic being taller than the architects originally intended
because of the impracticalities of creating a basement. The mass is broken however, the
organic form of the prism and by triangular windows on the administration block that reflect
the reticulation of triangular space frames.
Inside the atrium, the external granolite finish is used to provide visual continuity. The
theatre block will use different with out schemes to denote th e different walls, using mainly
acrylic coating on the walls, and carpeted floors with some PVC or rubber tiled areas. The
outdoor area is hard landscaped, but in soft curves to contrast with the geometric buildings.
203
The structure's tiered construction is set on a solid two-storey granite base from which four
triangular towers emerge- The highest shaft rising 315m. capable of withstanding wind
loads as high as 615 kg./m2. The tower is designed to wave almost like bamboo during HK's
typhoon winds. The design strength is contained in the building's framework where struc-
tural steel members are bonded with reinforced concrete for stiffness and strength. A new
concept in bracing is employed by using diagonal beams to brace the structure and this
reducing the number of columns and composite reinforcement. This allows higher floor
loadings and reduces the steel required by approximately 40% .
. .. ......... _ ... __ ___
.. ..... - ... -----·-.-
A new and Innovative solarium architectural design concept that allows customers to enjoy
the sun in a cool and garden-like ambience is featured in the third Wendy's outlet at EDSA.
LIVING
IN
CAPSULES
Looking like toy bricks stacked together, the Nakagin Capsule tower Building just off Ginza,
Tokyo, is actually made of Capsules-self. Contained living units with bed, toilet bath, tele-
phone, colour tv set, heating and air conditioning. The deluxe capsules also contain desk-
top calculators, stereo sets, digital clocks and tape decks.
These factory-produced units were attached to two square towers with the aid of a steel
framework whose perpendicular accuracy was kept within 140 mm. There are 140 capsules
attached to the towers, which house lifts, prefabricated stairways and service pipes. The
two towers are connected by corridors on the 3rd, 6th, 9th and 12th flooring. The capsules
are one-man units.
204
CREATIVITY ...
Some people are more creative than others. However there are ways in which you can in-
crease your idea production, which is the basis of creativity. In short creativity is the process
of coining up with new ideas.
e~J
3 Essentials to Development of Creative Skills
1. Ideation-refers to the mental process itself. To ideate
means "to think" and that is of course, how to train one's
self; think in new and unique ways.
2. Idea Quantity-means that the person who is capable of
~!etta to r-emove producing the largest number of ideas per unit of time has
COJ1tet1~ the greatest chance of producing the trully significant one.
In other words, the odds of your coming up with a really
0 !Z/ creative idea are best if you have a lot of ideas from which
to select.
3. lmagineering -letting your imagination soar and then
engineering it back to reality.
Be careful to proceed in this order. In other words, don't
confine yourself to reality and all of its constrain before
you begin thinking of ideas . Think outlandishly, origif}ally,
and recklessly at first. The longer you spend thinking of
ideas, the more apt you are to produce a really wild one.
new cottcept Example, before, a zoo is where you cage animals and
self 9PeniMQ people roam around to w~tch them, now in some coun-
eli111ittat~ 'lite tries it is the reverse. The people are caged inside their cars
cat:t opeHer and the animals roam free.
205
STAGES IN DESIGNING
•
self. Say what you feel. Question what you do not
understand. Speak out when you disagree with
something. Let your thoughts be known: maybe
someone ~lse will hear them and will help you to
problem develop them into a successful venture. Don't be
afraid to have some criticism thrown at you. Con-
structive criticism can be very helpful and you
should seek it. Don't be afraid to try something
@.
so1ut1011
new.
If your design is criticized by others, we may find
that they are applying further objectives or dif-
ferent priorities from our own. The problem is
changing and the information and objectives tend
to increase. Thus the spiral can be used to illust-
206
rate the process to indicate that our knowledge of
the problem increases as we attempt solution after
solution.
Another important trait is "TENACITY". Put ef-
fort in what you think and do. Stick with it. Force
yourself to work at your ideas. Have goals and
work toward them with conviction. Take them se-
riously but don't take yourself too seriously. You
can always do better than you have done in the
cri-tic islt15 past, but work on yourself in the present.
Ptay down your mistakes. Don't dismiss them, and don' t deny them; Just play down
their significance if the situation appears to be wearing dowri your confidence. Spend
your time evaluating the situation: What you did right, what you did wrong, and what
can be done to improve things. Don't second-guess! Accept what you have done, what
has happened, and make the best of the situation.
Recognize the value of criticism, and when you give it, be sure it is constructive. Con-
structive criticism tends to be positive and usually elicits a better human response from
the person who is on the receiving end of it.
Exatt~ple:
r
1-l~;~
\
i! _j :J :. .
L-------'
soluti011
L_____ _
You have a problem, but let us assume that you have been through the process of
analysis, synthesis, and examination; and decided that the concept produced is general·
ly acceptable.
207
Now, think about these:
1. Have you solved the problem?
2. What was the real problem?
a. You are a designer / draftsman and is behind in your schedule.
b. You had to make as many sketcht!s, or schemes as possible.
c. You had to select only one final scheme.
Actually the problem is solved, because of the f inal schemes, you now translate the
sketch design into the building process information and calt this "working Drawings".
But you created another problem: What will you do with all the sketches you made?
The flaw in this solution to the problem is the conventionality of thought that precluded
looking at the case holistically. The investigation considered ~nly one aspect of the pro-
blem: How to make the building safe, and beautiful.
What about tommorrow? No thought was given to the manufacturing later, what would
happen to the construction if the design concepts and details cannot be manufactured?
The holistic approach to a problem, commonly known as "systems approach", allows
us to look at problems from many different angles and disciplines. In the field of housing
and interior design particularly, influences from art, technology, psychology, sociology,
medicine, and physical education, are strongly influential and must include them in the
study.
Since much more information is needed to co-ordinate the building work and to allow
the prediction , measurement and ordering of the many materials and increasing number
of factory-made components. The result is that the initial, tentative solution re-
mains tentative for a considerable time while the details of the design are investigated
and coordinated.
208
ists in t he investigation of their own area of work,
but within the framework of the Basic concept.
The operational stage is, by its very nature, much more a development of stability. Struc-
tural systems and construction. It is thus very easy to lose sight of the conceptual objectives
during the operational process for this reason, it is sometimes helpful to introduce another
design phase.
V. GEOMETRIC
The detailed visual inter-relationships between all the parts of the building as the opera-
tional stage develops. The visual objectives should be kept in mind at all stages but, be-
cause of the inherent difficulties of design team working, there is an increasing need to
consider detailed enginearing decisions in. geometric terms. A heating or a structural unit
may be perfectly practical, in accordance with the conceptual intentions and yet its
visual relationship to other elements of composition may be quite terrible. This will make
the unity or expressiveness of the design. Specialists and Engineers involved should in-
form the architect therefore when the visual design is likely to be affected.
The greatest need is for a closer integration of all objectives in design. With more people
involved this means better communication . The design process is a synthesis of many
objectives and everyone involved contributes to the total design. Each is capable of
damaging the whole entity. Architecture is the complete design, not a specialization
among other specializations.
~ ~--.
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Sometime in May, 1965, the local magazines and newspapers advertised in the papers
the first Box-to-Box contest using empty marlboro flip top boxes with a minimum of 30
boxes with a maximum of 200 boxes. This shall be connected to ea~h other only by
scotch tape and glue without using any other materials like sticks , cardboards, etc. This
contest was a brain child of Mr. Ronnie Pasola of PAC.
This attracted about 2, 500 entries from north to south and as .a preliminary selection 100
entries were selected from photographs sent earlier. This author was one of them. The
100 selected entries were required to be shown in its actual form during the interview
session and of these, 10 were selected to comprise the first 10 winners, out of these 10,
the first. second, third and so on were picked out and the author is proud to say that his
entry, entitled tour of Luzon won the Grand price of P10,000.00 presented at Philamlife
Bldg., Sept. 7, 1965. The presentation of awards was accompanied by the Box-to-Box
pop art show with an exhibit of hundred thrilling designs like the sphinx, eiffel tower,
tower of Pisa , Tinikling, Philippine Eagle, space walk and others. The show was biHed
as " proof of Rllpino Artistry and Ingenuity". The author's entry has the following
features which made it win. It used exactly 200 boxes, the maximum. The wheats of the
209
Bicycle moves when it is guided, and when you leave it alone, it is balanced by the two
wheels through the flat boxes. One side of the red marlboro box was used as the riders'
uniform which make it easily visible an,d outstanding .
METHODOLOGY
In order to Identify a problem. solving it through analysis, and then evaluating the solution;
there should be an 0 RGA N I ZA Tl 0 N. This process can he Ip you save time, make better use
of your time and know what you do with your time ... It can also tell you what you should
be doing.
Methodology or the systematic method of problem solving, builds upon the concept by
helping to make the best use of the design tools acquired in creativity.
Interior design and housing has usually been associated with art, which is at the creative or
intuitive, end~of the spectrum. It is, to a high degree, a creative vocation, as it concern,
themselves with the improvement of life. This is best achieved by developing new
ideas .... then developing it to its fullest, most complete extent.
After training yourself to think freely and unconventionally, to be creative. It is now time to
control and direct the thought process. You must not be purely methodical or purely in-
tuitive. In the design professions, you must be a combination of the two.
"Methodology involves the systematic breakdown of a body of knowledge into its workable
parts," When faced with a complex, multifaceted problem, a methodical person will solve
that problem methodically, or in steps. He or she will dissect and attack the problem in a
logical order. This is similar to eating food one piece at a time and not swallowing the whole
piece at once.
The Design fields thrive on problems. It takes many forms and pervades many professions,
and it is from·some of these professions, particularly science and engineering that designers
have adopted much of their systematic methodology. But why use a method when solving a
design problem, especially since people in design are supposed to be creative and uncon-
fined in their thought.
In the important concept of crea'tivity, there was a word "lmagineering" which means that
you let your imaginatiOn soar and then engineer it back to reality, and achieve a balance. (In
the past people used to imagine themselves flying, towards the sky, now after the invention
of the airplane, they can go to the sky, it is now a reality ).
The organization of a problem from its discovery through its solution can spell the difference
between success and failure. To Brainstorm without recording your thoughts can be a waste
of time. You may forget some valuable ideas. Challenges that you undertake are complex,
no matter how simple they at first may appear to be. It is worthwhile to investigate all
aspects of them so that you know their scope and your actual goals.
At first glance, solving a problem methodically appears to be a Tedious, complicated t~sk.
Success requires tenacity. But there are some hidden benefits to adopting a problem-solving
method. Perhaps the most important benefits is that it forces you to identify the real prob-
lem. Next, it compels you to record your findings in an organized fashion so that you won't
be tempted, literally, to jump to conclusions. Last it provides as efficient mechanism for you
to thoroughly think through your problem before you begin to produce a physical setting. In
short a "Design Method" is the vehicle you use to get a project from its beginning to its
end destination.
2.10
A DESIGN PARADIGM ... (a pattern, example, or model)
DESIGN TOOLS ... ... .
1. Prestatement- This is a statement of the problem that you, the designer will have to
resolve. It may take the form of your initial contact with the client, in which you learn
what he or she thinks should be done. However, sometimes what the client perceives as
being the problem, in fact, may not really be the problem.
Example : Client says "we don't have enough room for all of our good students." All we
need from you is a regular room for the kids to learn in- 30 desks, chairs, and a
blackboard. Just tell us where to put this room, order the furniture for ·it, and
we'll do it.
2. Problem Statement
Although this is the second item on the list, you don't write the problem statement until
after you have determined the problem. First proceed to step 3 and gather "information"
and then you can state the true problem.
Example: The school needs a space in which low-achieving students will feel motivated
to learn and investigate . It should be away from unnecessary environmental
distractions but near the other classrooms and students. The area should sup-
port a variety of classroom activities, including lectures, group discussions,
and physical activity. Flexibility is highly desirable.
3. Information-
This is the exhaustible stage at which you uncover all of the details that relate to your
problem. This is the point at which you do the research: reading, observing and scrutiniz-
• ing. At the stage you meet the people involved in the project, observe them, talk to them,
and sometimes, get to know them.
Record all of the information you will eventually use from:
a. Literature: record, document. and preserve all information that you discover
from written materials books, magazines, etc.
b. Experienced persons: ask verbally or unite anyone who can provide informa-
tion to help your cause.
c. Observation: Your own personal observation of the present situation is essential
in personalizing and validating your data. It provides you with intimate views of
what your problem entails. Personally observing individuals, corporations and the
subtle differences in projects, will enrich your information data .
Examples:
1. Good colors for concentration are pastel yellow, pink, green and blue.
2. Small group discussions and lectures will occur in the space.
3. Outside distractions, such as noise, are undesirable.
4. Twenty-six students will be accomodated.
5. Carpeting will help cut down on noise.
6. Strong contrasts of colors will enliven the space.
7. Free space will add flexibility for furnishings and cJassroom activities.
8. The atmosphere must be conducive to learning.
9. The students are usually unmotivated toward learning .
10. Special Teaching aids are necessary to attain student interest.
211
4. ANALYSIS ...
After completion of information search. You can begin to analyze your data. This is a
'Think Stage" and so do not conceptualize the total solution here. You should be think-
ing about the situation-in parts (Methodically), which you can later arrange into the order
that you determine to be best.
Getting back to the solution of the problem, remember to approach it in stages, a little at
a time. Begin by looking back at the information you collected. Pull out several items that
are relafed and form them into a group . This will become a "partial solution" , which is
actually the solution to one part of your problem.
After itemizing all information, search for all commonalities. Find several it.ems in the list
that seem to be similar in some way. Then compose a unifying statement that incor-
porates these individual statements to form the partial solution. Continue this process un-
til you feel you have formulated a solution for every aspect of your problem.
Next, on the partial solutions, look again for commodities and call them "combined
solut;ons", which are actually verbal description of the final decision you have made for a
major aspect of that problem, if the problem entails more than one part. If it does not,
then the combined solution will be the final project solution but only verbally.
Example:
Partial Solutions Combined Solutions
1. Carpeting should be placed where lec- 1. Two classroom sections will be created:
tures occur so that the space will be one for small group discussions will uti-
quieter. lize contrasting color schemes; a lecture
space will be painted a pastel color. For
2. Strong color contrasts should be used acoustical purposes, the entire space
where discussions will occur. will be carpeted. Venetian blinds, allow-
ing for light and visual control of the
3. Audiovisual aids should be placed where outside surroundings, will be installed at
the entire ciass can benefit from them. the windows. Audiovisual aids and other
teaching aids will be available through-
4. Audiovisual aids that can be operated out the space for individual and group
individually by each student should be use.
provided.
5. SYNTHESIS ....
The conceptualization of your project's solution in a graphic manner. Now you can make
your visual materials and show what the final product will be. This is the point at which
you actually layout spaces, select furnishings, finishing and construction materials.
Examples: All drawings, sketches, verbal descriptions, models, or other visuals that
relate to the project belong here.
6. EVALUATION .. ..
The evaluation of a project may take place at different times. You may do it after the pro-
ject has been finished and has been in use for a while. By visiting the space then, you can
very effectively judge your res.ult and make whatever changes are necessary. This techni-
que is a good one, because it allows you to change unsatisfactory aspects of the design.
However there is an extra expense to you.
The alternative is to check your design before the actual construction of the project. This
type of evaluation consists of a series of questions that you ask yourself, based on what
you set out to accomplish. In each project, there are specific objectives that you must
212
satisfy. Ask yourself questions based upon these objects. Should you answer " NO" to
any of the questions, go back and see what you can do to change your answer to a
"YES". All yes answers will more than likely mean that your solution will basically work.
You should aim to minimize the number of major changes that could occur due to over-
sight .
To evaluate a project before it is constructed, ask yourself questions similar in style to
those examples listed below:
1. Does the space accomodate twenty six students in both physically active and
sedentary activities?
2. Is the space flexible?
3. Does the space contain a variety of teaching aids and areas?
4. Are outside destructions minimal?
In any given locality the height of buildings/ structures shall be governed by the
following factors:
a. Population density:
Consider both the present and projected density in the area.
b. Building bulk:
For a given volume of buildings/structures, that which has.alesser area of
ground coverage may be bui.l t higher than that of greater area of ground
coverage.
c . Widths of streets:
Provide for adequate light and ventilation and accessibility.
d . Traffic conditions and parking/loading requirements:
Provide effective control of traffic and adequate parking/loading facilities.
e . Provisions of land use plans and zoning ordinances .
f . Geological conditions:
Consider soil characteristics, location in relation to fault lines and earth-
quake belts and proximity of volcanoes.
g. Hydrological conditions:
Consider the water table at the site and distance to waterways and
shorelines.
h . Meteorological Conditions:
Consider the frequency and instensity of destructive typhoo~s. prevailing
wind direction , relative humidity, amount of precipitation and the prevailing
ambient.
i. Environmental conditions :
Provide effective control of air, noise and thermal pollution. Promote growth
of vegetation. Optimize natural light and ventilation.
j. Availability and capacity of public utility/service systems:
Consider the availability and adequacy of electric power, potable and non-
potable water supply, drainage and sewerage, transportation and com-
munications facilities.
213
FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND
ZONING
HORIZONTAL DISPOSITION
Solving problems in Architectural Design begins with the familiar study of plan elements,
which develops into consideration of interior and exterior areas and details.
The various units of plan are first arranged in a horizontal manner in order to s£"cure a work-
able relationship between the different areas. This pattern is dictated by the function of the
building and the desirable size and shape of the units themselves. The rooms of a house, the
galleries of a museum, or the units of a factory must be laid out to facilitate movemen_t
through the building, quickly and easily. There should thus be economy and directness of
circulation.
This is called Planning For Potential Circulation . Structures are built to be used, and the
purpose is defeated unless people can go easily and directly from one area to another, and
unless the related areas are adjacent to each other. Architecture thus, begins with a two-di-
mensional plan which is translated into foundations for vertical development.
0 L
RECREATION
2 16
3. Relatedness to departments . Gqals and Systems .
Example: Hospitals
NUR!3'1NG'
J Pediatrics
~~~ve~ J
Ero11ary care ]
[ Ortl1opedics J
~ical !
~rgical j ADMINIST'RATION
(1b5f-Par~~ (Offi~~Acct ~:J
/~~
( NU~
'-.....::f r-../
-~ F-:\
Nurses
eJ
----_/
..
........
217
This is also called the "BUBBLE DIAGRAM" of SCHEMATIC relationship of units- This
allows the organization of the tasks in a space according to their relationship to each other.
4. Sequence in Time
Example: Parking Garage
• H
CHECKING IN
THEN
''CHECl<IN6 OUT"
Returl1
for
Car
~
~ul'i'mlt
TicKet
- Mal<e
Payment ~
Get
Reciept
Wait
for
L:;Jr
~
Get
Car ......... Depart-
5. Required Environments
a. Furniture Types
b. Need for view
No v1ew
218
d. Access to ground or roof /-~
e. Need for vents or exhausts
'-1 r
ll-;~~
it~~~
'. i
l1i~~----~
I ~Kil..W
f. Relative Security
I +---
1 1
£J~~TOR
,----
~
L
MECKANlCAI-
J
L ___ - ·----· ··--· - -
;._ __ . - · - - - __ ____,
219
k. Plumbing involvement
( S""ROOM )
~OROOMJ EINING ) ( Bf:DROOM J
( L I V ING
visual pri18cy
J
[ AdmiHi5'ficrliltt
Jtttettsive care
unit
~ttursery
I CU J~(o~~-ticm J~(ReOO\ery )
..,
)
220
i. Relative Weight
j. Noise produced - by Gymnasiums, Music,
mechanical rooms.
k. Vibration - machinery
I. Wet dry wet -laboratories, toilets, kitchen
dry-offices
m. Trash production (Food prepa ration, Dishwashing)
n. Relative visual clutter
o. Odor production
8
[tra5h J
non- S~:"OkiHg
seattttg
~
Lz_
>
I
I J...
I Vl
~
221
8·: Relatedness to Core Activities
I
Waiting
Clean C!rd
St erile
Uti lit_y
Cbctors
Lockers
& Sleep
Nurses
Lockers
Medical
PreFBrdf·
Prici?=~l
Sequence
Depart
CATWICK, LOt1dot1
222
b. Central Terminal with remote concourses.
[___ "=-=::]
1t t:: t t! I
[ l
I I
11
~+::++ I I
HARTSFIELD, Atlanta
' - - - - t - r - 1-~ I
:t~~::tt
..!.. 1 r
I l
I I
l 1
I 1
L .- _ ____.
c. Central Terminal with Pier Concourses.
cars
d. Linear Unit Terminal.
DE GAULLE II
~ Paris
224
10. Volume of People Involved.
(1
5iHgle House
rfl
Duplex co11domi11iums Apart111e11t!;
Sales peope
craCts tools
rnad1itte
Storage Forklifts
Delivery Truc1<5
FUNCTIONAL DESIGN
This deals with the development of a plan arrangement to serve in a purely mechanical way
the functions of the building. It discovers the proper sizes of rooms and their relations to
each other . It furnish es the elements of comfort: Light , heat and ventilation.
It determines the correct size and location of the structural members which give the building
strength . However, even when all these requirements are satisfied, architecture does not ne-
cessarily exist. The building may remain only an engineering structure without the spirit of
architecture which is called logical beauty.
225
FUNCTIONAl- DIAGRAM SCHEMATIC PLAN
0
{abstract forms) (spatial relatiOt'Jship~, boundaries
articulations, circufati011- ~h?m5.
siU? <( skapeG )
When the problems of the physical environment are broken down into concepts like " ser-
vices", " heating", "community", '!structure". "safety", etc. and ideas about how these
needs or properties are best dealt with are formed. It is highly probable that any particular
way in which they function together will be forgotten. This breakdown of usefully inter-
related thought, (not encountered in small problems) suggests that some other way of find-
ing the component parts of the environment may be useful, and preferably parts that are de-
pendent on as many of the physical properties of the environment as are necessary.
Except in very rare circumstances we do not design a new object to satisfy environmental
needs from scratch. In the case of a house, library, town or piece of furniture , for example
we have the knowledge of what is happening in the use of these objects or complexes at the
moment. The concept of the failure of a specific piece of the environment to work with the
rest of the environment is well known. A simple case involves doors with pull handles which
can only be opened by pushing. A more serious example is when a window which must be
opened to achieve adequate room ventilation overlooks a noisy street. Both of these exam-
ples illustrate functional connections between different parts of the environment, in the first
case between door handles and door hinges or stops and the second between ventilation
and noise sources. Both are situations which are outside the range of normal human adapta-
tion, but in the second case there is no simple way at all for both parts to be compatible. In
the example of ventilation and noise it is perfectly possible to introduce a long acoustically
absorbent ventilation duct, but clearly the problem is one of separating rooms that need
quiet and heavily trafficked roads. Buildings close to noisy streets cannot be ventilated by
opening windows without also letting in disturbing noise. The way in which the physical en-
vironment fails at the moment is taken as the pointer to a basic requirement.
A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human or social
need would go unsatisfied. Most requirements are dependent in th~ir solutions on other re-
quirements. Any two requirements that would either help or hinder one another in solution
therefore interact and need to be thought of together if a satisfactory solution is to be found
for both. For example the requirements that visitors need to be able to park near their.desti-
nation and residents need to be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling will not
both be fulfilled by simple organization of thought of in isolation, as in the suburban street,
where next door's visitors awaken a neighbor by car doors or engine noise outside a
bedroom wall.
A collection of requirements and interactions {or links) in pairs of this form have inherent in
them a structure, which if understood makes it very much more probable that a solution will
be found. The problem of finding this inherent structure in a set of pair-linked requirements
is purely mathematical once it is accepted that any requirement is a requirement and that any
link is a link. That is, there either is a requirement or there is not, and similarly for links {either
it would be useful to think of the two requirements together or it will not) . This seems to be a
concept that is hard to accept, but after spending a large amount of time trying to find what
is act ually a requirement, it is pointless then to go on and say it is less important or more im-
portant than others, and again similarly with links.
227
Requirements are thought of as points and links as lines between them. Once these groups
of heavily interlink requirements have been found we have the necessary size of problem,
without it being limited to a single recognizable conceptual classification. It should be possi·
ble therefore to design a schematic solution to this group of requirements. A diagram is the
most useful description of the solution and memory aid at this stage.
When all groups of requiremenrs have been solved conceptually they can then be combined
together, according to the g~oups that are most interlinked and a new higher, set of schema-
tic diagrams formed, involving the principles of the groups that have already been resolved.
And so on until either one final organizational diagram is produced or a small set of com-
pletely disjoint diagrams. This diagram or these diagrams are then used as the basic organi-
zation of a concrete scheme.
The method involves f inding a set of requirements and their natural links, which toge-
ther define an abstract structure, analyzing the set, that is finding the abstract structure, and
synthesizing diagrams, which is to build on the abstract structure.
LIST OF REQUIREMENTS
1. People should be able to dispose of refuse without having to store it in their dwell-
ing and without having to leave their dwelling.
2. Refuse which is capable of being disposed directly into a soil system should not
have to be collected.
3. All stored refuse should have barriers to prevent germs and smells polluting the sur-
rounding air.
4. Refuse for collection should be stored in such a way as to facilitate ease of transfer
to a disposal unit.
5. For a heating system to be efficient there should be minimum heat loss from the
dwelling.
6. For a ventilation system to be efficient there should be provision for a through flow
of air in the dwelling.
7. All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas.
8. The people in each dwelling should have access to a sunlit space which is visually
private.
9. People should be able to leave a baby in a pram in the open air where they know it
will be safe.
10. Delivery men need well defined routes for delivery which do not involve unnecessa-
ry retracing of steps.
11 . Delivery men should be able to leave their deliveries in a secure place, those in
receipt of goods should feel that their goods are secure.
12. People should be able to collect deliveries {milk, bread, etc.) protected f rom the
weather.
13. Visitors should be able to park their cars near their destination.
14. Visitors should be able to find an address they want easily.
15. A parked car should be able to move off the site without the necessity of moving
other vehicles or interfering with the flow of traffic.
228
16. Pedestrians should feel that they are entirely safe from traffic.
17. People should feel that their car is part of their possessions and that their parking
space is their own.
18. Each person should be able to maintain (e.g. wash his car without causing annoy-
ance to other people.
19. Children need supervision when away. from the dwelling.
20. Children should be discouraged from playing in places where they might come to
harm (near refuse, etc.}.
21. Children should be discouraged from playing in places where they might cause a
nuisance (access ways, etc.J.
22. People should feel secure against intruders into their dwellings.
23. People should not be able to see directly into any other dwellings.
24. People need and arrival point to their dwelling which is protected from the weather.
25. People should have off site noise reduced to a minimum level below that of discom -
fort.
26. People should be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling.
27. People should be able to control the noise between spaces within their dwelling.
28. People should be able to stop too much dirt coming into their dwelling.
29. Peope should be able to get large objects (pianos, prams, etc. I in and out of their
dwelling easily.
30. People should feel that their dwelling is not forcing them into a state of loneliness or
isolation .
31. People need the opportunity to meet their neighbours without feeling committed to
their company.
32. People should feel that their dwelling is uniquely identifiable as their own.
33. People should be able to get to the shops and the city centre easily.
34. People should be able to get to a point of safety from any part of the site without
having to go through any part which might be on fire.
35. There should be a control on the spread of fire should it arise on any part of the
site.
36. Water for fire fighting should be available so that a hose can reach any part of the
site should a fire break out there.
37. People should not have to climb more than three flights of stairs to reach their
dwelling.
38. People of any one social group should not feel that they are m any way differen-
tiated from any other social group (e.g. research students).
39. Children and animals should be prevented from interfering with or scattering
refuse .
40. Each family needs a storage space related to its dWelling for bicycles, .canoes. etc.
41 . .People should not be inconvenienced by the noise and dirt of subsequent building
operations after they have taken up residence in their dwelling.
42. Invalids should be able to reach their dwelling without physical help from anyone
else.
43. People should be able to bring large objects (prams, pianos. etc.} to their dwelling.
44. Service maintenance men should not have to enter dwelling to carry out their work
unless absolutely necessary (i.e., to read meters, etc.).
229
2
3
4
9
10
II
12
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
INTERACTION MATRI X
39
40
41
42
43
44
230
The requirements abov~ are only numbered for later reference; they are in no particular
order. Some are straight-forward physical failures like visual privacy in outdoor spaces,
some are physical failures that lead to communal breakdown and some are physical failures
to give the right feelings within the community, and all are concerned with site organization
(except 27 which was subsequently omitted) and all pointed to some specific kind of organi-
zation that must be present. Requirement writing took about 3 weeks once we had decided
what kind we wanted.
It was often possible to find a distant isolated case where the possible solution to two
requirements might conceivably affect one another. The diagram shows pairs of require-
ments considered interacted. The numbers refer to the requirement numbers and a blob on
the matrix to an interaction. So, 14, visitors should be able to find an address they want easi-
ly interacts with '32, people should feel that their dwelling is uniquely identifiable as their
own' since both deal with the distinction between dwellings, the size of groupings of dwell-
ings and how far apart they are; and does not interact at all with '9, people should be able to
leave a baby in a pram in the open air where they know it will be safe' which needs a small
private space adjacent to an overlooked by each dwelling.
The first problem is to find a measure of just how "good" any particular groupings of re-
quirements are in terms of most links inside groups and least links between groups. This
measure can then be used to compare any divisions of the whole set until the best one is
found. The mathematics to drive such a measure is complex and demands that all require-
ments have an equal probability of finding a total solution whether links are positive !i.e. the
two requirements help one another in solution) or negative (i.e. they hinder one another).
In this particular case the procedure used was to compare all possible groupings of just
a single requirements together with all the rest left as groups of just a single requirement.
When the best pair had been found it was called a single unit and then the best pair again
found of this new set. And so on until no further combination of a pair of units (i.e. either a
group of requirements or a single requirement) produces a better division into groups. In this
way the groups of heavily interlinked requirements were 'built up' from the set of single re-
quirements.
In the real life hill-climbing programmed it is necessary to repeat the procedure a number of
times with, say, the requirements in a different order since in the initial stages of the process
any pair is as good as any other. The more sophisticated programmes have in practice, how-
ever, been found to give essentially similar results for even low number of tries.
So there was no reason why the small groups should not be dealt with in the best way that
we could think of at the time, but now with a great deal more knowledge about which part of
the problem they were most likely to fit with. These changes, with one requirement rejected,
brought the number of groups down to eight, most of which were dealing with a· recogniz-
able scale of problem. The final groups are shown in the diagram.
A schematic diagram for each of the groups was then produced as the result of further dis-
cussion of what we originally intended by the requirements. It was also possible to state the
basic idea behind each diagram, which necessarily left out the details.
231
1. THE CONCEPT OF SPACE
A. The System of Spacas
Man orients to 'Objects' that is, he adapts physiologically and Technologically to physical
things, he interacts with otl"ter people, and he grasps tbe abstract realities, or 'Meaning'
which are transmitted through the various languages created for the purpose of commu-
nication .
• Spatial of Most of man's actions comprise a spatial aspect, in the sense that the
a certain objects of orientation are distributed according to such relations as inside
dimension and outside, far away and close by; separated and united; and con-
tinuous and discontinuous space therefore is not a particular category of
orientation, but an aspect of any orientation. Man, therefore has to understand spatial
relations and unify them in a 'Space Concept'.
Man has created space to express the structure of his world. We may call this creation,
Expressive or Artistic Space, and finds its place next to the top, together with cogni-
tive space. Expressive space needs a space concept which systematizes its possible pro-
perties. We may call this Aesthetic Spece.
The creation of expressive space has always been.the task of specialized persons, that is,
builders, architects, planners , while aesthetic space has been studied by architectural
theorists and philosphers.
Architectural Space is defined as a concretization of man's existential space. It has to
adopt itself to the needs of organic action as well as facilitating orientation through per-
ception. It could also illustrate 'certain cognitive theories of space as when building a
cartesian co-ordinate system with concrete materials. But above a11 it is related to the
space schemata of man's individual and public world-which is created through interac-
tion with existing Architectual spaces.
I ..
I •\i '.
·V ,
I ·.~
jl-
.
·I
I ·~ t
~ 'f,
It \
If' i
I
I ·.
I ...
. /
Interior Dividers
235
2. Those which try to develop a Theory of a Space on the basis of perception pyschology.
( Q)J g'\:
,
/' ----... -......
' , I
, .... -----......... '-
\
\
\,
' f
/ I
:
'
'' ----/. \ '
\
'...... _....... ~ /
I
VIBES
q. -- - ...
I
; ~
~
~ .... - -./
Fig. c
.BOD'i EI.U PSE. Fig. B
Figure A (left) . Illustration of Fruin's "touch zone" based on a "body ellipse' · buffer zone
with a minor axis related to body depth and a major axis related to shoulder breadth, allow-
ing a queuing area of 3 sq. ft. or 0.29 sq. m . per person. Below this boundary the frequency
of body contact between pedestrians is increased. Rgure B adapted from Fruin, Pe-
destrian Planning and Design, 1971 . Figura C :{right). Illustration of Fruin's "no touch
zone," based on an expanded interperson spacing of 36 in ., 91.4 em. and 7 sq. ft. or 0.65 a
SQ. m. area per person. Fruin contends that body contact can be avoided between 3 and 7
sq. ft. or 0.29 to 0.65 sq. m. per person.
236
Fig.E
Fig.D
· Ftgure 0 {lett). Illustration of Fruin's " personal comfort zone, " expanding the body buffer
to
zone a 42 in. or 106.7 em. diameter and a 10 sq. ft. or 0.93 sq. m. area. A full body depth
separates standees, allowing for limited lateral circulation by moving sideways. Figure E
{right). Illustration for Fruin's '"circulation zone, " expanding the body buffer zone to a 48 in .
or 121.9 em. diameter and 13 sq. ft. or in 1.21 sq. m. area. Fruin contends that 10 to 13 sq.
ft., or 0.93 to 1.21 sq. m. per person would allow circulation wit hout disturbing others.
SPACE
SPACE , in every sense of the word, is one of the most infl uential aspect of the "analysis"
stage in design problem solving. Before you actually design a space for people to behave in,
it makes a great deal of sense for you to be aware of how they behave to begin with. Know-
ing what activities, conditions, and people you are planning for, you should be able to use
your time and pffort constructively and in a worthwhile fashion.
PHYSICAL SPACE
It is easier to design for people's physical needs than to provide for their social and psycholo-
gical needs. Because physical characteristics are a measurable commodity. You can
measure, for example, how high storage can be placed in a kitchen by finding out how high
a person of average height can comfortably reach. You can measure the furnishings that are
being put in a space, add in the area needed for easy human movement, and learn the ap-
propriate size for that space. Everything is concrete: You don't have to analyze people's feel-
ings about the proper kitchen counter top height, for example. Most of these standards for
building are already determined for you.
Objects are designed for people's convenience and comfort. We Iake into consideration the
manner in which that object will be_ used. Then we obtain the appropriate average
measurements for reference.
237
Specific human measurements
are important in the production
of objects for them.
As an example, consider a chair.
What measurement do you think
determines the height of the-
seat? What about the backrest?
What about the width of the
seat?
The basic answers for all of these
questions involve measurements.
But in design we talk about "AN-
THROPOMETRICS" or the mea-
I '
surement of the size and propor-
{ L~~:·
.., ~~
tions of the human body. (See
-~---" Chapter 3)
~w:?
Anthropometries is a pure discipline. Measurements are objectively and scientifically obtain-
ed. Applying these measurements to produce a desired effect we call " ERGONOMICS or the
measurements of man implemented to accomodate him to machines. Anthropometries is
the tangible basis for producing optimum man-machine relationships. Clothing, furniture,
accessories: all are designed specificallv for people as the users. The physical space needs of
people are most critical in the drawing of floor plans. These needs are measurable, and so,
Aoor plans show physical spatial relationships.
There are other forms of physical space
too . In addition to the need of a certain
amount of area around each person,
everyone requires "VIS UAL SPACE": a
place to rest the ~y es. People prefer to
rest their eyes away from other people.
Indeed , it is a form of obtaining privacy
for which you do not need to be alone.
Just as you would not want a stranger to
I stare at you , neither would you want to
I
/
/
stare at him for any length of time. For
/ ' both people, the feelings this activity can
create may be undesirable, for reasons we
are not always aware.
We must consider another form of per-
ceptual space here. Even if the space an
individual has is physically large enough
and visually accomodating, noise can dis-
turb people·and give them a feeling of ina-
dequate space. Excessive noise is a com-
mon occurence. It can cause extreme psy-
chological illness, insomn ia, ulcers, heart
..,,... trouble and sundry other disorders. In
D
addition, it dimishes the auditory sense it-
self. At a less severe level, it can provoke
anxiety and feelings of insecurity in peo-
ple who are continually subjected, to this
uncontrollable aspect of the environment.
238
SENSORY PERCEPTIONS
* SEALED BUILDINGS
are used to control thermal environmental. Certain types of noise are all right. People
can habituate themselves to sounds that
2. EAR- "HEAR,. are regular and of low intensity. For ex-
(Noise, sonic boom) ample, the indistinguishable background
+ Acoustical Refinement. noise, called 'White sound" that we so
often hear in stores and large gathering of
3. EYE- "SEE"
people, usually causes no problems and,
* Judicious proper colors of light.
in fact, is necessary. But exposure to in-
termittent, high-intensity sounds, such as
police and ambulance sirens and screams,
sonic boom from runways, for a long
period of time may cause either physical
or psychological damage.
-- --
.76
239
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LIVING AREA
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240
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In the past, the designers began and ended with a study of the external style, columns.
doors, windows. It proceeded from the particular to the general and not as first discussed in
Chapter 1, from the general to the particular, thus reversing the process of design. Today,
training in design begins with a study of the fundamental principles of planning based upon
the needs of people and the resultant architectural forms. Such training is possible because
architecture is no longer bound to tradition or style.
tf\ /I 1/
s tatic simple plaHning
Past Architecture-is static, heavy, inflexible, unreal
242
In developing a set of basic principles for the production of a living architecture, the .architec-
tural designer should think of "space within a space", and not of solids in space.
Formerly we regarded buildings as piles of masonry for the purpose of separating man from
space. Now, architecture is space, conditioned to suit human needs. It is enc:osed with opa-
que, translucent and transparent materials in such a manner that man may exist comfortably
in it but may be spared the oppressiveness of heavy, confining walls.
The principles of space organization for architectural purposes are concerned with:
1. The use of space (utility, function) service to occupants.
2. The collaboration of materials (strength) permanence and security.
3. The contributions of aesthetics !beauty) architecture as distinguished from the first
two mere buildings.
The decision as to what type of organization to use in a specific situation will depend on.
1. The demands of the building program such as:
Functional proximities
Hierarchical classification of the spaces
Requirements for access, light or view.
2. Exterior Conditions of the site that might limit the organization's form or growth, or
that might encourage the organization to address certain features of its site and turn
away from others.
After knowing the 3 principles of space organization utility, strength and beauty. The archi-
tectural designer is ready to proceed with the organization and conditioning process. The
trained designer can think directly in terms of spatial relationships and can arrange in his
mind. The various three-dimensional volumes which produce architecture.
Those who possess the ability may go directly from a statement of the requirements of a
client to a picture of the various spaces or volumes combined in such a way that the needs of
the occupants will be served. This may be called " Design from Spatial Composition " in-
volving planning directly with three-dimensional volumes and the ability to comprehend
cubic contents anj proportions.
SPATIAL QUALITIES
y for fux::tion5,
[II. If c;:Joqed
D[jlJ
cowt p;;rtrne11tal ized
243
l11tegrated
MultipiB ceiling
Multiple floor
"WARM" - " BRIGHT" - " MECHANICAL" - "COOL" - "DARK"
"INTIMATE" - "ORGAN IC" - "INVITING" - " ELEGANT"
(See, Scale Chapter 3) - "HOME-LIKE"
--- ...-:
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245
The contained space should not be
too large as there will be no differ-
entiation in size and the original no-
t ion would be destroyed.
too cot11pressed
better u11im~rta11t area
The contained space may have a
higher attention-value by:
a. Taking the form of the envelop-
ing shape, but be oriented in a
different manner. This would
create a secondary grid and a set
of dynamic, residual spaces
<>
within the larger space .
b. T he contained space may also
differ in form from the envelop-
ing space, and strengthen its im-
age as a freestanding object.
This contrast in form may indi- 0
cate a func tional difference bet-
ween the two spaces, or the
symbolic importance of the con-
tained space.
r--- t
• • .-----7'·:1
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-
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~! Moore House
Ori11da. Cal if0rt1 ia. 1961
246
2. INTERLOCKING SPACE
In interlocking spatial relationships
consists of two spaces whose fields
overlap to form a zone of shared
space . When two spaces interlock
their volumes in this manner, each
retains its identity and definition as
a space . But the resulting configu-
ration of the two interlocking
spaces will be subject to a number
of interpretations .
Moore House
v '\ Orit1do. California . 196t
""--/
Three possibilites of the Interlock-
ing portion .
a. The interlocking portion of the
two volumes can be shared by
each space.
247
c. The interlocking portion can de-
velop its own integrity as a space
that serves to link the two origin-
al spaces.
3. ADJACENT SPACES
This allow each space to be clearly
defined and to respond, each its
own way, to its functional or sym-
bolic requirements.
248
Four possibilities of Separating
Plane
a. Limit visual and physical access
between two adjacent spaces
reinforce the individuality of
each space. and accomodate
their differences.
Mait1 Level: Three- .spa:es- tke livi11g, fireplace aKd di11i11g areas
are detaiHed by dfa11ges it1 floor level, ceitif1g
height, and q..mlity of light a11d view, ratker tha11
by wall planes.
249
4. SPACES LINKED BY A
COMMON SPACE
Two spaces that are separated by
distance can be linked, or related to
each other, by a third, intermediate
space. The relationship between
the two spaces will depend on the
nature of the third space to which
they share a common relationship.
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c. The intermediate.space can itself
become linear in form to link two
spaces that are distant (far)
from each other, or join a whole
series of spaces that have no
direct reJationship to one ano-
ther.
250
e. The form of the intermediate
space may be determined solely
by the forms and orientations of
the two spaces being linked or
related.
<t- --»
.., ~ .
( n
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( n )
~ ~
SPATIAl ORGANIZATIONS
A building's spaces can be arranged and organized in Five ways. However there are usually
requ irements for various kinds of spaces, such as:
1. Specific Functions, or requirement for specific
forms.
251
2. Spaces that are flexible in use and can be freely
manipulated.
3. Spaces that are singular and unique in their
function or significance to the building organi-
zation.
4. Spaces that have similar functions and can be
grouped into a functional cluster or repeated in
a linear sequence.
5. Spaces that require exterior exposure for light,
ventilation, view or access to outdoor spaces.
6. Spaces that must be segregated for privacy.
7. Spaces that must be easily accessible.
The manner in which these spaces are ananged can clarify their relative importance and
functional or symbolic role in a building's organization. The decision as to what type of or-
ganization to use in a specific situation will depend on:
1. Demands of the building program. such as:
Functions proximities, dimensional require-
ments, hierarchical classification of spaces, re-
quirements for access , light or view:·
2. Exterior conditions of the site that might limit
the organization's form or growth, or that
might encourage the organization to address
certain features of its site and turn away from
others.
252
FIVE WAYS TO ARRANGE AND ORGANIZE SPACE
1. CENTRALIZED
A central. dominant space about which a number of second -
ary spaces are grouped .
2. LINEAR
A linear sequence of repititive spaces.
DDODDDDO
3. RADIAL
A central space f rom which linear organizations of space ex -
4. CLUSTERED
ODD DO 5. GRID
ODD DO Spaces organized within the field of a structural or other three-
00000 dimensional grid.
00000
00000
253
CENTRALIZED ORGANIZATIONS
254
DODD ODD Their significance can also be empha-
sized by their location: at the end of the
[I] t 2r
Linear seq uence, offset from the linear
organization, or at the pivotal points of
a segmented linear form.
~oooooooo ~
0000000~
Or by merging with another building
form or the topography of its site.
DODD
256
~~ Ir ~~
The form of a linear organization can
@ II ~
I
D I 1<8> relate to other forms in its context by:
Linking and organizing them along its
length.
11
. ....
·'' Surrounding and enclosing them
·.·.... · .· within a field of space.
.. :. ~ ·:
,
..
·.. . ·. .:.·..
.. ·.. ; ' ' .. :'· ·~ ·. .;''
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RADIAL ORGANIZATION
257
The Central space of a radial organiza-
tion is generally regular in form. The
Linear arms, for which the Central
space is the hub, may be similar to one
another in form and length and main-
tain the regularity of the organization·s
overall form.
258
~.,. .....
.~-
-- ·-··---
.. .... --..
, ~ ·-~
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259
EXAMPLE OF A RADIAL.
··· .. ORGANIZATION PLAN
~ -. q: ..~~~~~
.~AUFMANN (DESERT HOUSE) ~hn ~ngco.
CALIFORNIA . I~ Rictlartf Neutra
CLUSTERED ORGANIZATION
260
Or along the path of movement through it.
0 volume of space.
ooo
Do~
D
A clustered pattern lacks the compactness and geometric regu-
larity.
The spaces of a clustered organization can also be contained
within a defined field or volume of space.
Symmetry or an axial condition can be used to strengthen and
unify portions of a clustered organization and help articulate the
importance of a space or group of space within the organization .
DOD
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261
GRID ORGANIZATIONS
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r--- - ~ -t - ... ., - - .... - - 1
t , ' l A grid is established in architecture most often by a
.. I _...J _ _ j
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skeletal structural system of columns and beams.
t----t--+----1 - - - .,...._: W ithin the field of this grid , spaces can occur as
isolated events or as repit itions of the grid module .
262
r-··r-·-- -r--r-·
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r ·r - ~1-:-L:-1 ,. _j
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ments of its spaces , or to articulate zones of space
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gular in one or two directions . This would create a
~ - ~ L ~ ~ - ~
I hierarchical-set of modules differentiated by size,
l - ~· .. -• .. - I '
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-·' proportion anet toc-crtion.
Layera:t
.263
The grid can transform its visual image across its
field from a pattern of points-to lines, to planes,
and finally, to volumes.
~---------·---------------------------------------------------------
ERK:; BOISSONAS HOUSE 1: New catfaal1, COtfttecticut I 19SG . Pkllip Jokl1sot1
A series of finite changes and permutations, the original design concept can be clarified,
strengthened and built upon, rather than destroyed.
- --r --r---, r-- r- - 1 - - -l
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ROTATED GRIDS
264
'\
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SPACE ARTICULATIONS
l
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-=------- 1. The articulation of the surface of the
ground or floor plane is often used in
architecture to define a zone of space
within a larger spatial 'context'.
.
:··· •• •: •: ••
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••o f C I I I (
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.266
.. :::.:·:·.~ ...~..........::"::':::
4. Within t he interior
spaces of a building, an
elevated floor plane can
define a space that
serves as a retreat from
the activity· around it. It
can be a platform for
viewing the surrounding
space. It can be used to
articulate a sacred or sin-
gular space within a
room.
Pre- ~I ·. New '1'ork 1970 Hamlt1el,
271
15. A row of columns or colonnades can define
the edges of a volume of space while permit-
ting visual and spatial continuity to exist bet-
ween the space and its surroundings. It can
also be attached to or support a wall plane
and articulate its surface form, rhythm, and
proportion.
• 0 D
0
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MILLOWNERS': Ahmedatad ,
lt1dia , 1954 Le Cor~ier
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272
The Base Plane Elevated
A horizontal plane elevated above the ground plane establishes vertical surfaces along its
edges that reinforces the visual separation between its field and the surrounding ground.
A horizontal plane depressed into the ground plane utilizes the vertical surfaces of the de·
pression to define a volume of space.
.·
273
The two faces of a plane can be equivalent
and front similar spaces.
Or they can be differentiated in form, color, or
texture, to respond to, or articulate, different
spatial conditions. A plane, therefore, can
have two "fronts", or a " Fronts" and a
''back".
. .. .. ... .. .. . . . .
When it approaches our eye-level in height it
begins to divide one space from another.
274
19. Various elements in architecture can be seen
as parallel planes that define a field of space.
They can be interior walls of a building , the
exterior walls or facades of two adjacent
buildings, a colonnade of columns, two rows
of trees or hedges, or a natural topographical
form in the landscape.
Walking down these halls the guest is almost compelled to run his
fin gers along the grooves. The brick is so rough that to obey this impulse
,.~
would be to risk mangling a finger. With this device Wright enhances the
experience of space by personally involving people with the surfaces of
the building.
The early designers of the Japanese Garden apparently understood something of the interre-
lationship between the Kinesthetic experience of space and the visual experience. Lacking
wide-open spaces, and living close together as they do, the Japanese learned to make the
most of small spaces. They were particularly ingenious in stretching visual space by exagge-
rating kinesthetic involvement. Not only are their gardens designed to be viewed with the
eyes but more than the usual number of muscular sensations are built into the experience of
walking through a Japanese garden.
Z75
The visitor periodically forced to watch his step as he picks his way
along irregularly spaced stepstones set in a po.ol. At each roc~, he must
pause and look down to see where to step next. Even the neck muscles
are deliberately brought into play. Looking up, he is arrested for a mo-
ment by a view that is broken as soon as he moves his foot to take up a
new perch. In the use of interior space, the Japanese keep the edges of
their rooms clear because everything takes place in the m1ddle.
Q
D
.o 0
.Japattese rcom
Europeans tend to fill up the edges by placing furniture near or against walls . As a conse-
quence, Western rooms often look less cluttered to the Japanese than they do to us. In
America, the conventional idea of the space needed by office employees is restricted to the
actual space required to do the job. Anything beyond the minimum requirement is usually
regarded as a "Frill".
The concept that there may be additional requirements is resisted at least in part because of
the American's mistrust of subjective feelings as a source of data . We can measure with a
tape whether or not a man can reach something, but we must apP,IY an entirely different set
of standards to judge the validity of an individual's feeling of being cramped.
HIDDEN ZONES IN
AMERICAN OFFICES
People's reaction to office space reveals that the single most important criterion is what peo·
pie can do in the course of their work without bumping into something. Offices provides dif-
ferent spatial experiences. One office would be adequate, another would not.
One example is an employee who had a habit of pushing herself away from her desk and
leaning back in her chair to stretch her arms, legs, and spine .
If the employee touched the wall when she learned back, the office struck her as too small. If
she didn't touch the wall, she considered it ample.
276
There are 3 HIDDEN ZONES in American Offices:
An eclosure that permits only movement within the first area is experienced as " cramped".
An office the size of the second is considered " small". An office with zone 3 space is consi-
dered "adequate" and in some cases "ample".
Kinesthetic Space is an important factor in day-to-day living in the buildings that architects
and designers create. Hotel rooms are too small when a person cannot move around them
without bumping into things. Comparing two rooms, identical in shape and area, the one
that permits the greater variety of free movement will usually be experienced as larger. Interi-
or spaces should be improved in the layout, so that people are not always bumping into each
other.
277
Given the fact that there are great individual and cultural differences in spatial needs, there
are still certain generalizations which can be made about what it is that differentiates one
space from another. Briefly what you can do in it determines how you experience a given
space.
A room that can be traversed in one or two steps gives an entirely different experience from
a room requiring fifteen or twenty steps. A small restaurant with say twenty five small tables
for four people, when filled up will always look crowded and will give a person an experience
he is eating in a popular restaurant. While a spacious restaurant with say eighty tables for
four, when occupied only by the same number of people as the small restaurant or 100 cus-
tomers will still look empty and gives an impression of not fully occupied.
took~ empty
A room with a ceiling you can touch is quite different from one with a ceiling that is high.
In an Ex hibition room, as shown p . 279 the viewer is given the kinesthetic experience by
making the display pictures in a variety of levels, contrast of verticals and horizontals, large
anrl small panels, which are all done to m ove the viewer's eye. Some picture frames are at
c:e1ling heights, some are hanging and some are at near the floor level. others are just at eye
level.
278
Rudolph, which is a crucial step in determining the overall arrangement of pictures.
To give the show pace and rhythm, Steichen and Rudolph wanted to be sure that peo-
ple saw the pictures in a certain order-large Keynot pictures alternating with contemplative
images, sorrowful subjects interspersed with lighthearted ones, The existing wall space is
used as well as for the construction of supplementary panel-which not only increased the
available display area but also functioned as conduits for the flow of traffic. Further, .after the
plans were moade, a reduced scale model was made so that the planners could see a small
but full version of the show.
11 1
Do
0 ~- 0
LAR6E AND 5MALL. PANELS ARE OONE TO MOVE THE VJEWER5 EYI:
279
APPEARANCE OF
THE STRUCTURE
The principles related to appearance was discussed in Chapter 3 wherein composition of
mass, volume, areas and details were organized according to contrast, scale, balance, pro-
portion, rhythm, unity and character. Architecture does not necessarily result from the deve-
lopment of a functional building that is based only upon the importance of use and materials.
The various units of the structure may be correctly related to each other. but the proportions
of the different volumes could be so inharmonious that only ugliness and confusion would
exist.
It is necessary that a building be organized for appearance. The plan and the resultant
masses, volumes, surfaces and details-should be developed according to the ru les of compo-
sition. The principles of composition may be applied alike to the two-dimensional plans and
surfaces or to the three dimensional volumes.
II Ui_ ~Q
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lr
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282
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283
FORMS AND IMAGES
DOD
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ODD
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1
DDOoooo Ollll
noo
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DOD
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By 5i'l~
Old
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DIAGONAL
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NE"CK L lt-.IK
284
SPACE TO CIRCULATION LINKAGES
ENVELOPe-D
BUILDING IMAGE
285
CHECKLIST OF CATEGORIES OF CONCERN
FOR A DESIGNER
1. FUNCTION {activity grouping and zoning), p. :llo
2. SPACE (Volume required by activities), p. 234
3. GEOMETRY (circulation, form and image), p. 282
4. CONTEXT (site and climate), p. 328
5. ENCLOSUR E (structure, enclosing planes and openings), p. 372
6. SYSTEMS (Mechanical, electrical, etc.), p. 388
7. ECONOMIC (first, costs maintenance costs), p. 436
8. HUMAN FACTORS (perception, behavior), p. 458
a. Where the designer should concentrate his design efforts on his perceptions of the
problems essence and its unique characteristics.
b. What the physical elements to be manipulated are within each of the issue cate·
gories.
Examp1es:
1. FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING
( HYGIE:Nr:.) (RECREATION )
(FOOD)
HOUSE
Under this category we study the need for adjacency, similarity in general role, relatedness
to Departments. goals and systems, sequence in time, required environments, relative proxi·
mity to building, volume of people involved, extent of man or machine involvement. degree
of emergency or critical situations, frequency of activity occurence, etc .
CIRCULATION
CIRCULATION ELEMENTS
1. THE BUILDING APPROACH
286 The distant View
Prior to actually entering a building's interior, we approach its entrance along a path. This
is the first phase of the circulation system, during which use are prepared to see, experi-
ence, and use the building's spaces.
The approach to a building and its entrance may vary in duration. from a few paces
through a compressed space to a lengthy and circuitous route. It can be either.
a. Frontal
• A frontal approach leads directly
to a building's entrance along a
straight, axial path.
b. Oblique
• An oblique,approach enhances the
effect of perspective on a build-
ing's front facade and form.
287
• If a building is approached at an
extreme angle, its entrance can
If~
· ·'·
project beyond its facade to be
more clearly visible.
c. Spiral
• A spiral path prolongs the se-
quence of the approach, and em-
phasizes the three-dimensional
form of a building as it moves
around the building's perimeter.
·~
'·. ·
-. '1
.. ... -··'?
.'·.,v..~:-"::~:7
.~
:."
/"
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LD
; : ; : A .: ;-.:
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5TRE!ET Regardless of the form of the space being entered, or the
form of its enclosure, the entrance into the space is best
signified by establishing a real or implied plane perpendicu-
lar to the path of the approach.
- sTReET
289
Entrance may be grouped formally into the following categories.
a. Flush -entrances maintain the continuity of a walls' surface,
and can be, if desired, deliberately obscured.
In each of the categories above, the form of the entrance can be simi-
lar to, and serve as a preview of, the form of the space being entered.
Or it can contrast with the form of the space to reinforce its bound-
aries and emphasize its character as a plane .
.290
In terms of LOCATION, an entrance can be centered with
the frontal plane of a building .
I
Or it can be placed off-center and create its own symmetri-
cal condition about its opening.
-¢==:::::11
• or Circuitous;
(Ramps, Stairs)
lll J
It
291
• Articulating the openinj:l with ornamentation or decorative
embellishment (climbing plants, sculpture, columns, statues,
glass mosaic, etc.).
292
3. CONFIGURATION OF THE PATH
l
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D----
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Cotitihui-t;' ,
The Intersection or crossing of paths is always a
~oint of decision making for the person approach-
1ng.
293
J~ ~~~7.-"I. _
--- - ----
The continuity and scale of its path can help us
distinguish between major routes leading to major
spaces and secondary paths leading to lesser
spaces.
Iii
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When the paths at a crossing are equivalent to
intersectoo
loop
~--
294
b. Radial-A radial configuration has
paths extending from, or termi-
nating at, a central, common point.
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295
e. Network-A network configura-
tion consists of random paths that
connect established points in
space.
f. Composite-A building normally
employs a combination of the five
patterns above. To avoid the crea-
tion of a distorting maze. a hierar-
chical order among the paths can be
achieved by differentiating their
scale, form and length.
4. PATH-SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
Edges, nodes, & terminations of the Psth.
Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the following ways. Paths may:
a. Pass by Spaces
<i [ D A ~ 0>
• The Configuration of the
path is flexible.
0 0 0 -;
• Mediating spaces can be us-
ed to link the path with the
axially ~ spaces.
·~ ll 0 0
it.
D 0
0
c. Terminate in a Space
• The location of the space
establishes the path.
• This path-space relationship
is used to approach and
enter functionally or sym-
bolically important spaces.
296
•
BOISSONA5 HOUSE II
·. Philip Jo~I1SOI1
.,::;J Frat1ce, 19~
ut1der a water-fall
over a pool
promenade - a suitable place for walking for plea- The form and scale of a circula-
sure, as a mall. tion space, however, must acco-
modate the movement of people
as they promenade, pause, rest,
or take in a view, along its path.
Mall - a public plza, or system of walks set with trees The form of a circulation space
and designed for pedestrian use. . can vary according to how:
297
• entrances open onto it;
• it handles changes in level with
stairs and ramps.
298
STAIRS-
In accomodating a change in level, can rein-
force the path of movement.
corridor ~ - --... -
--...-
........
lAa.?
. --
-• ~
~
-
r-·
1 "-
r-
interrupt it.
:
corridor
or terminate it.
IE! I accomodate a change in its course.
l up
1 <A
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A
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up ~
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PLAN
1
Bot~ arrive 011 top
300
This figure is often interpreted by different people as a Female torso
below is an example of a picture with manifold meanings. It shows a beautiful young girl
but as you look at her ears, it becomes the eve of an old woman. The face of the young girl
becomes the nose of the old woman and the neck becomes the mouth and chin of the old
woman.
SYMBOLIC SIGN
301
up from them such as vernacular, or industrial building, a building of cliches which
does not, particularly, refer to metaphors, symbols or aesthetic ideas apart from
itself.
The perceiver sees these forms as a matter of fact and generally there -has been no
intention to communicate on the part of the designer. Indexical signs are learned by
the perceiver over time and in this sense really are disguised symbolic signs which
have a peculiar quality. The Indexical sign is important for architecture in as much
as many new forms are introduced for pragmatic or functional reasons which then
become continuously re-used in this context until they become symbol ic signs. An
index therefore is a sign, or representation which refers to its object not so much
because of any similarity of, or analogy with it, nor because it is associated with
general characters which that object happens to possess, and because it is in
dynamical {including spatial) connection, both with the individual object on the one
hand and with the senses or memory of the person for whom it acts as a sign.
2. The Iconic Signs-
Concern a different set of relations between signifier and signified although, of
course, there is always present an existential and therefore indexical relation as well.
Most 'functional' architecture is of this sort: pie-shaped or wedge-shaped auditoria,
tube-shaped circulation corridors, structurally-shaped bridges, hot-dog stands in the
shape of liot dogs, folkhouse with a facade that looks like a real fireplace. And the
use of forms and materials according to their inherent emotional overtones
gressive; passionate etc.). · · · · · ·
'red
as ag-
__?!!1£'
.-._':-.:~'t" ....... :.,:_
302
~ ··~·
.l!l··· -··
•
An ICON therefore is a sign which refers to the object ·that it denotes by virtue of cer-
tain characters of its own and which it possesses just the same, whether any such
object actually exist or not.
Cheese-grater precast unit a sign of 'parking garage'.
3. Symbolic Sign -
Where conventional usage sets the arbitrary relation between signifier and signified
samples of this are the conventional use of three orders of classical architecture
(Doric for banks etc., masculine).
The classical style used f or tow nhouses, old English for country retreats; The
emblems on pubs, and the great menagerie of animals and amazons which decorate
and hold up buildings.
A symbol is a sign w hich refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of law, usually
any association of general ideas, which operates to cause that symbol to be inter-
preted as referring to-1hat object.
305
2. SYMBOLS
For a human being, the meaning of an object in addition, appear instead of another mean-
ing. as a symbol of the latter. The simplest way of understanding what this means is possibly
to imagine that one is making a symbolical representation of a mechanical, electrical, circuit
plan or plumbing device of a building. Every detail in this plan takes the place of the real
detail. Fuse, range, refrigerator, water closet, lavatories, etc. are all symbols for the real
things.
Earth
w W.C. Water
Closet
...-
sc..--- Switch
Ceiling Light
~
Concrete
.. .
·' .
.
4
·- ....
: . '0' ........... .. ·.
. ..
t . ~ . ~
~. . .
... :
. . "
[Q) Lav. Lavatory
t( Wall light
.•<J
..... 4 .
.,.
......... .
4 II>···.
.......... .
C.O Wall
Convenience
C.L. Castiron Pipe
Outlet
I•
G.l. Galvanized
Iron Pipe
Steel
insulation
--0--
window
mn6 ifw
SYMBOLISM
Symbolism -assumes primary importance as the basic strategy of perception whereby
learning and perhaps heredity establish what symbols define the important features of the
sensory milieu. This facility has survival value since the rapid recognition of a mismatch in
the world of the senses can mean the difference between life and death. The use of symbols
is therefore something which is deeply imbedded in the central nervous system, and which is
by no means confined to man.
306
Reduced to its simplest, a symbol is a phenornenon (Object, sound, smell or tactile sensa-
tion) which has a meaning additional to that which is communicated by its superficial con-
figuration or stimulus profile. It stands for a ' Landscape' of meaning without a precise hori-
zon because of the contrast between the relative simplicity of the object and the potential
complexity of the meaning, towards which it points, the experience of symbols evokes an
emotional reaction . Most of these reactions remain out of reach of consciousness , but can
nevertheless have a decisive influence upon mood and demeanour.
LEARNED SYMBOLS
In architecture a number of stock images have come to associated with certain buildings.
Law courts favour a stern classicism, suggestive of the logic of Greece and Firmness of
Rome.
Town halls in Britain tended to favour the gothic in the last century. No doubt the architec-
ture was meant to symbolize Christian integrity and compassion, virtues attributable to the
city fathers.
307
Finally, if something which appears to be a representation -for example, a naturalistic pic-
ture-is not a representation of some object which can be pen::eived, but only exist in the
imagination of the artist who created it, we do not speak of a representation but of a picture.
(anything closely resembling or strikingly typifying something else. perfect likeness or im-
age} It is however, evident that a representation a copy. a replica and a picture have one cha-
racteristic feature in common. They are all used instead of a perception or an imagination, a
characteristic which is also found with respect to a symbol. A symbol is, however, a wider
concept. since it comprises such meanings as are used instead of the non -perceivable. (For
example, words for abstract concepts).
3. EXPRESSION
Both signals and· symbols mu~t be distinguished from a third kind of meaning, namely ex-
pression . If a face has an angry expression, this does not imply that a person entertains an
emotional complex for which he exhibits a symbol. The angry facial expression forms a part
of the physical and mental totality which the angry person represents.
In a similar manner the ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION forms a part. as the semantic ac-
; tive component in the mental totality, which the experience of a consummate piece of archi-
tecture involves . Architectural expression, however is not the same as the expression of an
emotion.
308
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2. Typologie Design- in which the members of a particular culture share a fixed 'mental im-
age' of what the design of the building form should be 'like using the materials which
happen to be available, at a particular place with a particular climate, to house an
established life-style. Often encouraged in primitive cultures by legend, traditions, work
songs which describe the design process, by the mutual adaptation which has taken
place between way of life and building form.
309
The Lever House in New York
1952 became the Fixed Mental
image for a generation of ar-
chitects and clients as to what of-
fice buildings should be like.
3. Analogical Design - the drawing of analogies (usually visual) into the solution of one's
design problems with existing buildings , with forms from nature, from painting and so
on. Structural analogies with the feeling of tension and compression in the designer's
own body; philosophical analogies with principl~s from physics, biology (general systems
theory)
lei
I
CE
A rnOttdrian de stiJI as a t;lear Reltveld5
p3111tiftg aHalogy to ~kro.sder Heme
at utmcltt 311
The CHAPEL Of NOTRE DAME. Roncttamp , Haute 5a&1e (19'50·5)
Fc~~.._:arr. . :9:9
. ..
E:·;,, :,le-t'i;;~~.J.;r1
. ......- ·--·-
·A
312
4. Canonic (Geometric) desi~n; in which the form is generated by some two or three dimen-
sional geometric system, originated by the Egyptians given extensive philosophical stif-
fening by the Greeks (plato, Aristotle) and utilized in the design of the Gothic catnedrals,
renaissance palaces and so on. Current manifestations include le corbusier's modular,
dimensional co-ordination and prefabricated building systems .
. / / / / -: ~ ·./ .
:~ -~ --~;;
;. .. - ;.
-~::. ~
.
~<~·,
··" ,
/ .
,•
The Parque los Caobos in Caracas - uses same geometric system in planning of the park,
including paths, avenues, paving and tree planting and for the educational systems of the
building, including the board marks on the concrete and the openings for ventilation.
313
VISUAL EXPRESSION OF FUNCTION
When we look at an object, we connect meaning with it depending on private associations.
What is of interest is to see whether there are any meanings spontaneously connected with
the perceptions. The first of such meanings will be found in the fact that the spontaneous
perception of an object indicates something about its function. This is a most interesting fact
from an architectural point of view. The following description of the expressions of functions
construction, or (production) and material refers to facts about semantic experience which
can be verified by any experienced architect.
On or about the 1930's, a new style of architecture appeared in Europe called "function-
alism". From the beginning, many young architects, thought perhaps that archt. Louis
Sullivan's well known dictum "form follows function" could be interpreted in such a way
that if buildings were only made to function well from a practical point of view. all would be
well. It was very soon discovered that no architect could do a good piece of work if he did
not, at the same time, give a good visual expression to the function of the building.
It should be said that a true expression of a function can only be given to an object which
functions well technically. Consequently, a designer cannot give an aesthetically satisfying
form to an object if he does not know its Technical function. He must either find out what this
function is; or the technical engineer must study the laws of architects. This is a matter of in-
terest and concern not only to the specialist in aesthetics, but for everyday life as well. Our
culture is decidely influenced by the way in which its milieu is shaped.
As has already been pointed out, a common 'understanding' of a piece of art depends on
whether the meanings connected to the perception are based on private associations only,
or given spontaneously to the perception in accordance with some elementary structure of
the human mind.
The problem of making 'push-pull' handle so as to give a clear expression to their tunc·
tions is a problem of practical signals as well as of aesthetic expression, and one in which
modern architects are very interested. Some architects have co-operated with sculptors
in this work.
314
a kaHdle to push a nar~dle to pull
The illustrations give an idea how the visual perception of the form is changed into a hap-
tic (relating to touch) image . The basis ·of for the expressions 'push' and 'pull'. This plea-
sant haptic expression is based here on smoothly rounded forms without sharp edges or
straight lines.
Tactile sensation also play their part since a smooth surface is more preferable to handle
than a rough one. Expression, in this case is based on the transportation tendency from
visual perceptions (glossiness) to haptic and tactile images (conceptions) of smoothness .
In the chairs shown in the followin g illustrations. There is a difference between the older
cha ir. covered with decorative ornaments and the modern chair, where ornaments are
avoided and replaced by a thoroughly sculptured form intended to express the idea of
comfort.
The basis f or this expression is the transformation tendency from visual form perception
to Kinesthetic image or conception, plus the tactile sensations of softness and warmth
.....-~-""""'- adding their contributions.
At1 aHciel1t ex~io;nsts 'culpture
3. To contain or Support Something Of flfe iHvitatiott ~ SIT DOWN Pl-EASE'
The expression of containing or supporting something other than a human body, an ob-
ject, fluid, or gas, cannot be described or explained by a transformation tendency as in
the last two cases. What the designer has to do is to create such a form -a container for
example-which will be an expression of the forces which must function within its walls
and make it capable of resisting pressure from its contents.
The illustration herein shows that the form stresses the fact that it contains and supports
its contents. The buoyant contour seems to react against the heaviness of its contents
and strives energetically and successfully to withstand pressure from within. The handles
do not hang limply without expression but are worn and inviting to grasp. The cover
forms a vaulted and protecting the contents. The total form makes a closed and expres-
sive figure, and its expression can be described as containing and protecting, in combina-
tion with easy handling.
316
Other expressions which have a
definite expression of containing
or w ea ring something are found
in the water tower .
317
.:~f:.:
·{Jr\~
.. :.~ ·.
The expression of a function must be combined with or based on a good practical func-
tion. A pot which creates the impression that it can pour well when in fact it cannot is a
bad object. The practical as well as the psychological evaluation must be satisfying. It is
precisely this combination between practical, formal aesthetical and semantic evaluation
which is decisive for the value of an object. While containers for shapeless materials such
as fluids and gases have been described. The function of simply giving support can be ex-
pressed by a Table, with a top and four legs.
318
Forms like these give a fair expression to the function of simple wearing but it is some-
times necessary to create a structure which not only wears but bends like a bow, as
shown in the bridge below, the classical example of such a fusion of expressions. The
supporting or tension stay, the vault, the arch-buttress and the beam also belong to this
group of expressions.
5ALGINA1VI3EL BRIDGE'
~itzer1zs11d 1929·30
Rot?ert Maillart
fl
Heavy eave3 compe~ S1To11g expr~5iol1
tl1e imp~ion of protectiot1
319
Wit~out eavef., t?UildiHg
~1'11 u11protected
The expression of protection can become so strong that it develops into an expression ot
closeness or stuffiness. lr:~ such a case, it may become necessary to insert doors and win-
dows in the wall. These elements will visually connect the closed room with adjacent
spaces.
Prottcted outlook of a wiKdow1
D
Stuffine5~ Visual Cot1t1ectio11
The perception of a door - even when closed -is transformed into an image ot un,mpern -
ded motion. whilst a window which does not reach the floor is connected with the idea of
a protected outlook.
If the window does not reach the floor, it is likely to combine with an image of unimpeded
motion as well. Such an image can become very unpleasant it the window is many
storeys above the street. In well-designed houses, it can sometimes be seen that the ar-
chitect has been aware of this, and has therefore placed the windows higher up in the
wall on these storeys furthest from the ground.
320
The PH ~Lamp is a classic example of a quite convincing expression of distribution. The
light fitting itself is about fifty years otd , but is still looked upon as modern design.
Other perceptions, for example visually glossy and tactily smooth surface can also con-
tribute to the expression of speed .
321
Usually needed in connection with buildings and especially monuments, is the static ex-
pression of stability. This static expression is usually achieved by using edged forms. but
can also be achieved by rounded forms .
9. Tool Expression
Tools which are meant for 'dressing' or manufacturing have a special kind of semantic in-
terest. They very often give spontaneously created and spontaneously perceived expres-
sion of their function. An example is an axe which immediately expresses its fun ction.
1. Cutting-off-Material
The visual expressions for sawing .- planing, dressing and twining on a lathe, boring
milling, cutting and so on.
322
I- Beam- ~ult of l'ffoderH
il1dustrialired, ~.rolling
giv~ a definite .f t?ea'utiful
expr~iot1
Plaiting and weaving are indeed venerable techniques which have been used all over
the world. Baskets demonstrate the way in which the appreciation of the expression
of the technique is closely combined with a formal aesthetic evaluation of the pattern
created by the technique.
y ; . --·-.."'-
4. Fitting Together
The putting together of objects by means of fitting different details closely is a tech-
nique, which is, from the point of view of expression, often highly appreciated.
ki4;l"A .._, ·.
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,
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,~ ~". . '
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323
5. Joining Elements
It is sometimes necessary to assemble parts of a building by specially made framing ele-
ments for this purpose. The professional Engineer or architect can obviously better ap-
preciate this kind of expression than the layman especially a proper technical under-
standing of the structure highlights the expression.
A hattgar roHt cf
differelrt detail~
6. Frameworks
The construction of a Framework in which the openings between the frames can be
filled in with sheets of wood, glass, iron plates and so on is also a very old method of
construction which gives a most highly appreciated expression.
324
This Method of construction is used today on a much greater scale w ith frames of
concrete and fillings of other materials.
7. Fusion
The use of intimate fusion between different elements of the same or different mate-
rials is a relatively new technique based on a certain modern inventions such as rein -
forced concrete, plastic laminated plywood and welded iron structures.
.. ....
325
D?RSAL VIEW
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THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
The envelope of a building is not merely a set of two-dimensionai exterior surfaces, it is a tran-
sition space-a theatre where the interaction between outdoor forces and indoor conditions
can be watched. Some of these interactions include the ways in which sun and daylight are
admitt ed or redirected to the interior, the channeling of breezes and sounds, and the deflec-
tion of rain. This transition spaces, which forms the envelope, is a place where people in-
doors experience something of what the outdoors is like at the moment, and w here people
outside get a glimpse of the functions within .
At entries, where there is a space crea ted in the transition from one environment to another,
a person will be most aware of the difference ~tween outdoors and indoors. Below is an il-
lustration or an example of entry as space, not just surface.
This South-facing entry to an architect's office in Oregon becomes a microclimate that buf-
fers the transition between the indoors and outdoors.
328
The change of seasons brings deep shade to th is entry in summer .
The envelope also has a fourth dimension; it changes with time. The seasons have a marked
effect on the illustration above, and a more subtle effect"on the east-facing balconies of the
apartments shown below. The year round usable volume of thP-se apartments is increased by
making the balcony into a sun porch.
b) Dec. 21, 8:30 A.M. the suD is low and c) On August morning several year later,
shining from the southeast shading occurs showing the conversion of balconies by
hot from balcony. Overhangs but from ver- many of the occupants.
tical balcQny-divider walls.
The wim.lows can include !tkylights, clerestories, screens, shutters, drapes, blinds, diffusing
glass, and reflecting glass-an array of components that determined more exactly how the
envelope does its job of making the transition between inside and outside. A component
also should be thought of by its function in the exchange of energies: as a filter, connector,
barrier, or switch.
An opaque wall thus serves as a filter to heat and cold, and as a barrier to light. Doors and
windows have the character of switches, because they can stop or connect at will.
329
Two different concepts of Envelo pe Design
1. The Closed Shell-in harsh climates (or when unwanted external influences such as
noise or intruding activities abound), the designer frequently conceives of a building's en-
velope as a closed shell and proceeds to selectively punch holes in it to make limited and
special Contacts with outdoors.
2. The Open Frame -in the hot-humid regions (or where external conditions are verv
close to the desired internal" ones). Th e envelopes begins as an open structural frame,
with pieces of building skin selectively adderl to morlity only a few outdoor forces.
The open-frame and closed-shell approach to envelope design, when combined with materi·
al availability and influence of local culturP., can produce a distinc t regional architecture.
OPEN FRAME:
Hot Humid Climate: A barrier root of local plant materials is
added to reject rain and sun. A ra1sed floor
avoids damp earth and its creatures and
allows breezes to pass over anrl under its
users.
TENT
CLOSED SHELL :
Arid Climate: The closed shell of mud block is a barrier to
wind and sunlight, it filters heat by both de-
laying and reducing its impact on the interi-
or. Some light and heat are admitted directly
by small connectors; the door and window
typically so south-facing. By early morning
330
the cold, interiors are abandoned in favor of
rapidly-warming south terraces.
...~
PUEBLO
.-..-..... .
lGLOO
With a wide range of energy sources, bu•lrling materials and mechanical equipment avail-
able, it is possible to design buildings anywhere that are connector dominated, despite the
climate . The consequences from the resulting energy consumption can be severe. By con -
trast , of defending against outdoor conditions becomes an overriding consideration, then
barrier-dominated envelopes can occur in any climate. The resulting fitness for human
usage - and the potential of using solar heat directly - can be reduced. The designer's com-
binations of connectors, filters and barriers (and the switches that allow those elements to
respond to changing conditions) are basic to the design of building exteriors and can give
them the liveliness that makes a building an attractive addition to its neighborhood .
331
2. FllTERS wprest!ll l deCISions about
how much or wha t l<.~nrl o l outdoor condi -
tion IS to he adrmtted . fhey are fou nd 111
some form in all building envelopes and 1n
all climates, an<i they inclu<ie a V\'lde
variety ot types. Because they adm1t de-
Sired amounts or qual1ties of light. air.
and sound they offer an opportunity for
an enhanced awareness of selected out·
s1cie conditions from 1nsidc the building.
For example. the stainerl glass of a
church selects the blue ot a north sky. or
the warm reds anrl oranges of a sunset ;
the 'texture' of the sky's cloud patterns •s
not admitted to the interior - only its col-
or comes through. Often the filter is one
of the positions ot a swttch. as in the case
of the wil"rlows of bwldings which have
venetian bl1nrls or Jalousies.
Alters i11 va,rious p05itio11s of a switcff. 3. BARRIERS ··are more drastic in the1r
Le Corbusie~ PAVILliON 5UI5SE, 1930· 1932. complete severance of the outrloor-m-
at tl1e UNIVERSITY OF PARIS door relationship. They are charactenstic
of regional architecture in harsh clima tes.
but are also common to spaces needing a
tightly controlled environmen t (such as
auditorium). Barriers to rain are an almost
· un1versal building features; barriers to
w1nd are at least seasonally common in all
cl1mates. except hot-hum1rJ ones. Bar-
ners to sun are more likely to be one posa-
tlon of a switch , unless a bUJirl111g IS suf-
fused w ith electric light or other plentiful
sources o f 1nternal heal that m <:1ke solar
hea t permanently unwelcome. In prtlc-
tJCe, cultural Influences oft en ovemrle
those of chmate, harners 10 sun are
4. SWITCHES AND USER'S CHOICE erected even in cold, damp-environ·
ments.
.
.,...,,;, ... - · -
333
side. The warm color of daylight; their ra-
diant heat can be welcome on cold dark
days, and they can be switched off in the
warmer, brigther days of summer.
Another way of combining general daylight
and specific electric light. Alvar Aafto's
library at Mount angel Abbey (Oregon} uti-
lizes a central north-facing skylight to pro-
vide daylight on two levels of the interior.
yvindows are also subject to glare from
direct or reflected sunlight-a problem that
can conflict with the desire for heat gain or
daylighting. Th is can be especially trouble-
some when the sun is low in the sky, appear-
ing near eye level. rooms open to the sun for
heat-gain purposes are not alone in this pro-
blem, as shown in this figure.
334
Heat heatoutsi
~····
INSIDE
glare. / I;)
outsicle
...: glare
.../·
heat~,;;;
Vet1etiBI1 blitfd5
i11side cat1 be ttaHipulated
INSIDE
OUTSIDE
IN SlOE.
335
ENERGY AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Heat, light, sound and water are important elements in the design of spaces, along with col·
or, texture, materials and form. A fountain without water w ith its usual coolness, sparkle
and splash, and a fireplace without firelight, heat, crackling sounds and a smoking aroma is
not a functional design. All the elements mentioned can be blended to give each place its
distinctive character. The users of spaces have five measurable senses of perception; utilizing
all of them when designing for people can result in particularly successful architecture.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
IN BUILDINGS
The energy consumed by a building is the result of the energy needs of the structure and the
efficiency with which those needs are satisfied. Energy ~onservation aims at both reducing
basic demand by cutting a buildings energy appetite and improving the efficiency of the
energy supply system by eliminating waste.
The energy demands ot a structure are a function of:
1) its design
2 ) tl':te environment in which it is located
31 the way in which it is operated
A Homeowner is primarily concerned with replacing the heat which escapes in winter
through the building envelope, or in counteracting the heat which penetrates the envelope in
summer. In complex buildings, the lights or computers man office may throw off so much
heat that the building may have to be cooled even though outside temperatures are below
freezing.
In effect there are no simplistic solutions which apply to all situations. Before one can deter-
mine what steps can be taken to conserve energy it is necessary to predict how energy will
be consumed in a new structure or to document how it is being consumed in an existing
one.
PRIORITIES
Nationwide the systems which consume the most energy in order of magnitude, are heating
and ventilating, lighting, air conditioning (cooling) and ventilating, equipment and pro-
cesses, and domestic hot-water.
However, the relative order of magnitude of energy use among the first three systems will
change, depending on the climate; the building constru ction, use and mode of operation,
and type, control and efficiency of the mechanical and electrical equipment.
Example:
a. The amount of energy required for domestic hot water is significant in hospitals,
housing , and athletic or cooking facilities in schools and colleges. In Baguio hous-
ing, for instance, the amount of energy needed to heat water is second only to space
heating, and to air conditioning in Metro Manila. In hospitals the amount of energy
required to heat hot water may exceed the amount of energy needed for lighting.
b. Religious buildings anq public halls, which frequently include meeting rooms, offices
and school facilities are most likeliky to conserve energy in the same pattern as office
buildings in the same geographic location - but in smaller quantities per square
meter of floor area .
c. In those retail stores with high levels of general illumination and display lightning,
and/or a large number of commercial refrigeration units, electricity consumes the
greatest amount of energy.
336
d. Wh~re the designer should concentrate his design effort on his perceptions of the
problems essence and its unique characteristics.
e. What the physical elements to be manipulated one with in each of the issue catego-
ries.
Example:
1. FUNCTIONAL Grouping and Zoning:
HOUSE
Under this category we study the need for adjacency, similarity in general role, re-
latednesss to Departments, Goals & Systems, sequence in time, required environ-
ments, relative proximity to building, volume of people involved, extend of man or
machine involvement, Degree of emergency or critical situations, frequency of acti-
vity occurrence, etc.
BUILDING PROCESS
Successful! Conservation techniques have three aims:
1. To make the client both aware of conservation as one of many needs and willing to
provide the money to satisfy it.
2. To create a similar awareness in tr.e designer to include conservation as a design
consideration.
3. To ensure that the builder capably incorporates these determinations into the final
structure.
The process starts well before a designer enters the picture; it begins with a client in need. A
client stating needs establishes a scope of work which sets the outside limits of energy con-
sumption when a selection is made of a geographic region or a particular site on which to
build. It not only determines the climatic environment, but also subjects the client to the
availability of local fuels and the rate schedule to be followed in paying for energy purchased
from local utility companies.
DESIGN TEAM:
The energy core of the design team consist of ·the:
a. Architect- chief of the design team. The Aryhitect's design concept has basic
energy consequences and establishes the limits within which all subsequent
energy decisions are made.
b. Mechanical Engineer-has responsiqility for plumbing. heating, ventilating. air con-
ditioning, electrical, and other mechanical systems required by the building or
its occupants. The actions of the client and architect create the energy
demands which the mechanical engineer satisfies.
c. Energy Consultant-An emerging specialist created by the energy crisis. The job is
similar to a construction manager but limited to energy considerations. Func-
tions include programming. planning, technology, construction supervision, fi -
nancing, and operations.
337
The mechanical engineer is usually hired by the Architect as part of the design team, while
the energy consultant, some clients prefer to hire the Energy Consultant directly.
DESIGN SEQUENCE:
1. SCHEMATIC DESIGN: Schematic is a time for becoming acquainted, for examining re-
quirements, for exploring assets, for investigating controls, and setting timetables . In
short, for charting course and setting sail. Energy conservation in the finished structure
will benefit greatly if at the kick-off meeting the client makes a simple statement to the ef-
fect that energy conservation is a matter of concern and asks the team members for their
off-the-cuff thoughts on the subject .
Clients should also be prepared to state their position with respect to life cycle costing (as
will be discussed in the next few pages) and the extent to which they are prepared to
make a higher initial investment in order to gain future saving . Clarity in presenting this at·
titude will facilitate the consideration of financially realistic options in energy design.
Finally, the Kick-off meeting should designate responsibility for the monitoring of energy
decisions throughout the development of the. job. Normally this will be the function of the
energy consultant, but should there be none on the team , the responsibility will fall to
either the Architect or the mechanical engineer.
Once the energy lead has been designated, the following information should be gathered
and made available for discussion:
1. Current and projected availability of energy fuels (oil, gas, electricity) and similar data
with respect to energy prices or rate schedules.
2. Current energy consumption by buildings similar in scope. These data will provide
energy budgets that can be valuable points of reference as the design process moves
along.
3. Current energy conservation techniques being employed in similar structures. In a
fast-changing field like energy, constant updating is critical; and the latest input from
professional, government, trade, and academic sources should be sought.
4. Recent changes in design criteria. Codes and criteria which affect energy are undergo-
ing substantial revision in the wake of the energy crisis. These constraints set most of
the standards under which mechanical equipment is currently designed. They involve
both specifications and performance.
5. Implications of alternate energy sources (solar, wind) with respect to the proposed
structure. If any feasibility is indicated, then space. structural, and cost parameters
should be prepared. Once these data have been discussed, their implications for the
design of the structure should be analyzed and assessed. The architect, whose res-
ponsibility extends to all aspects of the building design and not just its ~nergy aspect,
may not be able to accept all energy- related recommendations; but the options
should be made available.
To the architect, these energy implications are but one of a host of considerations that
enter into the design process as the first-concept sketches are prepared. Until the past
century, when the introduction of electricity and fossil fuels gave us the energy to
power new mechanical equipme':lt, architects tradionally planned buildings to mini-
mize the impact of the environment and designed their structures to be responsive to
it.
The characteristics of regional architecture throughout the world reflect these climatic
considerations, characterized as " PASSIVE DESIGN", and were long a part of archi-
tectural education and practice. Passive design considerations include:
1. Siting and orientation- The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the
wind.
338
2. Building shape -the less skin, the less exposure.
3. Nature of the envelope- Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass, wall shading, col -
or and reflectiv ity, openings and penetrations.
Just as the introduction of energy fuels gave us the ability to
ignore many of the constraints of passive design and devote
attention to other considerations, so the energy crisis is forc-
ing us to return to our traditions. The concept produced by
the end of the schematic phase should, therefore, re flect the
principles of passive design together with implications of the
MECHANICAL.~
ElECTRICAt-- I energy update data provided by the energ y leader of the
design team.
I E'GUIPMENTS
l CHEAP FUEL
l COST
NEW MODERN
DE516NS vertical i511d horim1tat
fbi~ ~ide sotarsl1ading
piUS Wit1dbfl!aki119 ef~t
r 1- No wittdaw ~hadi11g
LanJe area of glazittg
mall wall 1tta~
BACK lU PASSIVE
DE5IGN
[I ~I t¥1/
Glazed
~ ortl1
Wall
3. CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS ... during this phase, every element of the struc-
ture is committed to paper. This activity is carried out by large numbers of staff, many of
whom may not have participated in the broad exploratory investigations of the earlier de-
cision·making phase. (Thus a mechanical drafter may place an out moded duct and tan
sizes in the plan or an architectural detailer will place the insulation in the interior as is
340
always done instead of a new method decided by the previous top-level discussions).
4. BIDDING OR NEGOTIATIONS
Contractors call to clarify certain aspects of the construction documents. Since energy
technology is in a continuing state of flux, its equipment and procedures are constantly
changing, and questions relati ng to this work will be particularly numerous during this
period. Moreover, since the traditional bidding process emphasizes lower initial costs
rather than lower life-cycle costs, the calls may be greater than usual.
Since budgets are always tight, a list of alternatives which has been well throught out
should be included as part of the bid package. This is much preferred to the receipt of
suggested cuts from contractors who, new to the job, cannot be expected to be aware of
its long-range aims.
5. CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION
Mechanical equipment is often late in arriving at the job. Many energy-related install-
ations rely on the efficient operation of groups of equipment, and not only on isolated
pieces. It is essential that the desired potential be achieved by adequate adjustment and
tuning up of the entire installation ; one should not fall victim to the last minute rush to
move in.
It is advisable for the staff who will operate the finished structure to be on hand while the
final tuning up is being accomplished. They should be given the appropriate equipment
manuals and operating instructions, and they should be acquainted by the design team
with the thinking that went into the design of the structure and the way in which it is to
be operated.
ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
This is the whole essence of architecture. We plan people's indoor environment. A person's
relationship to the site is also necessarily the subject of planning. Neighbors are important.
Much consideration is due to other people ano to the buildings that adjoin any project. Final-
ly, nature has long since given us an environment. We shall now study the inter relationship
of nature and the interior environment.
Historic Architectural design reacted to its environment without reliance on mechanical
assistance which, in those early times, was not available. These design considerations in-
cluded:
• Siting and orientation: The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the wind.
• Building Shape: The less skin, the less exposure.
• Nature of the Envelope: Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass. wall shading, color
and reflectivity, openings and penetrations.
341
THE SITE .....
• SITE SELECTION
Selection options, if there are any at all are usually limited to a few sites within a communi-
ty. Most commonly, the client has already selected the site before coming to the architect
to discuss the proposed building; and the design consideration becomes one of developing
the site and the building as harmoniously as possible to minimize ultimate energy con-
sumption.
t- ------------------ ------_::::.::..?<>
I /
I _,_...
I /-
11 /// --
II .,......_.../ -
I ...--'/
I /
I /- Buildit1g OH 6r0011d
!.-"_,.. eou11dery Geott~et~y as a
Gel1erator of b.Jildlrtg tont1
at base
UHderstope
it1 valley
\ ... ,
Bridgi11g valley
over valley
342
Build arourd
natural rocks
aoo trees
\ ~\\'\\t'
~~,..,....,,.J.......
mimic slope Relate buiJdi11g proftfe Cmrtrast profile
witn profile to 1a11d w·Jtrt Jcnt:l
~/ 1-~·..:- .S\
'~
:'\
'
• SITE DEVELOPMENT
The two primary energy considerations in the siting of a building are orientation to the sun
and orientation to the wind. Landscaping can also improve performance; shade trees can
seasonally control direct radiation from the sun; ground surfaces can control reflected
radiation , planted ground cover can moderate air temperature and wind breaks can dimi-
nish the force of the wind.
343
The overhzt~g taKe~ care The 011 ~·foratai ea~t wall
of t~e rtear11ooYJ Hours i11terr.eptG early ma-t1h1] ~ut1
duriHg the hotte,t day5 of by ~t1 ry whose- -tt1er111a1 ltla$$
-6Utf1 ttter: 't:Jy ma~y ~ou~ 1~- rate
trat1~tnJ9'JOt1 to !ttd~
345
The solution was to install exterior, automatically controlled, power-operated sun
louvers on the east and south walls. (The north and west walls are solid brick). One
of the two cooling units kept indoor climate cool when outside temperatures were in
the 90s. Employees near windows were perfectly comfortable. Much light but little
heat was reflected illto the building . As the sketch shows, the louvers are not fully
closed, even when the sun's rays are in a plane perpendicular to the glass. Without
attendance, the louvers turn to exclude the sun as its relative position changes
through the day. They open fully when the sun no longer shines on the controlled
facade, or when cloudy conditions prevail. (Louvers manufactured by Lemlar Mfg.
Co. Gardena, Calif.)
2. WHITE ROOFS AND DESERT COOLING
a. Evaporative Cooling -In hot arid regions. a method of cooling simpler than that of
the compressive evaporate refrigeration cycle can be very effective. Employing one
electric motor instead of three, if saves a great deal of energy, though it use a little of
water.
Evaporative cooling is an ancient method of lowering air temperature. As water is eva·
porated to vapor, heat is drawn from the air, reducing its temperature; A blower
draws outdoor air in though grills, passing it through pads kept moists by recircu-
lated water.
The cooled air is then delivered directly to the indoor space. The effect of the gently
moving cool air is to cool the body and, additionally, produce further cooling by eva-
poration of body moisture. The thermal-evaporative cycle of the cooler is shown
thus:
/
/
/
/
/
Outdoor air at 105"F and 10% relative humidity can be considered as too unbalanced
a condition to provide comfort for humans. When outdoor air is as dry as this, the
adiabatic process of the air cooler results in air for indoors that is quite the same as
that provided by refrigerated cooling. The indoor condition of 7B"F and 50% relative
humidity thus produced are the same as those usually chosen as design standards for
refrigerated cooling.
346
DeSert Coolirtg . llle i<ryi;zm Residettce.
Palttf 5fX'I"gs, Ccllifi'Jnfia . View lod<iMg
di~Jy west. 5kadOW of i1te fn:Mt-ligfft-
~8 i~ tk6 titne to~ IFWAM.
Er~tire em ( frottt) facade 1~ fully
~from ttw morrting !50t1 uy
ttatural plattting. Roof overhaHg 011 fife
~ put5 the few(higk) WiKOOW~
lamely In ~de. ~11ry wall~
delay tkenttal tralfsmisstcm by matfY
hour::; . The far {wer;t) el*:1 of 'fke hou$e
~ awt1i11gG. and ~ ~et18fitted by
additiattal ~ later as "tke ~
~ OOhitt:l 1ke mo<mtain~ . Tile whi're
roof, 1fpical of hat clima~~. r~ heat-
~~t, and -me livi11g ltVtt1 arcd
~rmms are at t11e cmt. ttartl1 ~ide.
Tke -~t CAJ!er"Ot1 the roof (left)
serv~ 1ke cen1Tal ~ of fke house.
TWo "fkrotlg~ • wau u•nt~ , ()ie l»f tke
e.a.st wall and one 0)1' tne we6t wau,
cOtHptete ttli~ il1ree- unit svap1rotive
caJii~ ~~tem.
bol~
AIR COOLER
347
b. White Roofs. In reflecting heat away instead of absorbing it, which increases the
temperature of rooms below, white roofs are effective.
\~~
4
/1\v
Roam air 189tt~tu~
·i
Rexlfff air w~ratum
zs•c (sr•F) 5t•&( tJ<fF)
G
The room Temperature 4"C (8"F) cooler under the white is shown in above figure.
Also the interior is 12HC lower than the outside temperature.
348
The size of the rooms, especially Offices
shoold be determined by the available natural
light.
A-- -- ENTRY
UP
STUDY
349
3. Features - The building should be designed to
allow the free flow of the breeze to all work
spaces. Windows for instance, are low, wide
and structured in such a way that the prevailing
wind increases its speed as it enters the build·
ing .
1V2- 2'/r H
HEAT STORAGE
By avoiding transport systems of ducts, pipes, fans and pumps as well as heat exchangers
and complicated controls, significant amounts of money are saved , the operation and main-
tenance are simplif ied and reduced in cost, and in comfort and efficiency can actually be in-
creased.
NORTH e:LEVATIOH
The two north classrooms benefit from clerestory natural lighting, which supplements
that from the first-storey glass panels.
The east wall is largely blank against low summer sun, as is the west wall.
G
~~~:~
$0UTH
1F1F=---
0
Summer shading for the f our south classrooms is accompanied by a conventional over-
hang.
351
Multi-Zone System like this facilitate energy saving by the operation of one or several
zones only as needed . Room registers from and to the unit appear below.
5. WINDOWLESS BUILDINGS
It is quite evident that glass is frequently a problem sometimes it can be omitted. Build·
ings or large sections thereof can be enclosed by opaque walls. An example of a depart·
ment's store designed in this way is shown in this figure. The problem is a complex one
and should have careful study in each instance by engineering consultants.
I ;
L.. ··~ ~-·-·-- - -· ·~ - · . _l
Alexatt~ &eparhttttft 5m at Roolevett Field ~"9 CsHtBr;
Gard8t1 City. New York.
352
Department stores are often best designed this way. Schools sometime~ are , Parame-
ters including function, esthetics and thermal interchange must be examined . During
daylight hours they are densely occupied and well lighted (though, admittedly, lighting
levels are becoming more conservative). The space gains of people-load and lighting-
load are usually sufficient to heat the building by day in winter (December-February cold
months). Often they exceed this state and must be cooled. Hopefully this is done by the
low-energy method of circulating cool outdoor air. Glass, no matter how well hand led in
summer, would add additional and instantaneous heat t hat is not needed. Quite dif-
ferently, the transmission of heat in through heavy masonry walls is minimal by com-
parison and usually delayed by 8 or 10 hours. Merchants do not need to have shoppers
distracted by views of the exterior . In schools, children at study can wait for r~iaxation,
to be enjoyed later in w indowed recreational area .
353
Trees reduce window heat gain not only by blocking direct sunlight penetration but
also by lowering the ground surface temperature, as for example, when they shade
an adjacent parking lot. Placement of the trees should permit winter, {Cold months)
penetration while blocking summer heat.
solar altitude
leafles5 troes
do t10t ob.5truct
~ola i gcill1
Summer 9.m
l!lllllllll!llll1
""""' "," , 1J """ """"
SOLAR ALTITUDE IN SUMMER
r
354
b. Deciduous Ivy can also shade a building facade in summer and allow the sun to shine
through to warm it during the cold December months (winter).
355
7. EQUIPMENT ON THE ROOF
Services that connect to an active large building are numerous.
a. Entering Services-can comprise Electricity, oil, gas, and water.
b. Luving the building- ISewage and storm water, obviously relate to lower levels
of the structure.
On the roofs of smaller, low-rise buildings rooftop facilities can include chimneys, fan ex-
hausts, plumbing vents, security lights, and roof-access stairs.
The use of outdoor equipment is increasing, such equipment is necessarily weather-
resistant, locations can b~ selected. They can include space adjacent to the building or on
a roof. Often such locations are preferred to the use of indoor space, which is costly to
build and can be used for more suitable or productive purposes.
In the preceding figure, zonal installations for heating-cooling-ventilation are shown in
roottop locations. Each of these units includes compressor, condenser, and evaporator
coil. The latter is in a duct, which also houses a filter, blower, electric heating coil, and pro-
vides an adjustable fresh air intake on the suction side of the blower.
356
In this one storey motel, five or more self-contained weather resistant units can be used.
Each unit delivers warm or cool air to the space below through short duct-runs in furred
ceilings. The air is delivered through ceiling registers. Each unit thus constitutes a decen-
tralized zones.
Unlike some central-station installations, the zones can operate separate and turn-off
when not in demand. Hence energy is saved. Units are identified as white in color and
space-exhaust fans as silver-domed elements on black bases. Appearance of the equip-
ment is not unpleasaf"lt and no surrounding parapet is needed to mask them.
Opsrstion:
Each heating-cooling-vent~ation recirculates air to the
space below. The suction side of the blower draws air
from the space and admits fresh air from the downtown
gooseneck inlet at the left unit. By the action of the
blower, the air to be conditioned in the unit passes
through a filter, an evaporated cooling coil or, in
cold months (winter) an electric-resistance heating
coil. It is then delivered to the ducts below. The hot air
from this cooling process is discharged through the side
grills. Thus constitute the so-called heat rejection pro-
cess common to all refrigerant cycle cooling systems
the exhaust fan is used at areas of "people concentra-
tion" such as dining rooms, conference rooms, lounges
and bars used air is drawn away to prevent odors and
stagnation from building up.
----...
;:....- ~i.l&e
357
~ airdfmibutsd itlmu;~~t
~s~~~
6ttlok8 gcw
out 10 ckilffl18)'
wanttatr.
0 0 0 0 0 • ·0
~
r
-
----
.--
..--
-::::· A 190- galloH cylit1ders
A backup gzrs heater
tokes 1tte dtill ofcold
tte0rt1i"gs atrd a wm
bUrning s~ or: .
- -
l101d water ftlat a~
~time heat and t11er1
·ares it il1to 11te house
at t1ignt
,.-
fi~~3Ce I~ 'Hfe 11VIt19
trott J:WVldeS
additional wamrf'h
In the case of the "air medium" the storage is often a pile of rocks, or some other heat-
holding material; This also requires duct works and larger installation space; Heat-trans-
fer coefficient is less than that of the water requiring farger collector surfaces; Panel
construction is simpler and not subject to problems of freezing, leakage, and corrosion.
358
In the case of LIQUID MEDIUM or water, the storage is usually a large, well-insulated
tank of water, which has considerable heat capacity. This requires piping for circulation
and distribution; It usually contains an anti-freeze solution and corrosion-retarding ad-
ditive is required for aluminum piping.
Heat is also stored in containers of chemicals called eutectic or phase-changing salts.
These salts which store large quantities of heat in a relatively small volume, melt when
they are heated and release heat later as they cool and crystallize. When the building
needs heat, the air or water f rom its heating system passes through the storage, is
warmed, and is then fed through the conventional heaters to warm the space.
In its " Energy Conservation Design Guidelines for New Office Buildings" GSA adds the
following observations with respect to building configuration;
1. Tall Buildings: A tall building has a proportionately smaller roof and is less af-
fected by solar gains on that surface. On the other hand, tall buildings generally are
subjected to greater wind velocities, which increase infiltration and heat losses. Tall
buildings are less likely to be shaded or protected from winds by surrounding build-
ings and trees. They require more mechanical support systems, including elevators
and longer exhaust duct systems. The stack induction action in tall buildings in-
creases infiltration, thus requ iring special measures to reduce its influence on heat
gain and heat loss.
2. Floor-to-Ceiling Height: Greater ceiling heights improve environmental condi-
tions in the summertime by permitting warm air to rise. However, greater ceiling
heights increase the perimeter areas. thus increasing heat transmission through the
walls.
Reduced ceiling height reduce the exposed exterior wall surface area and the
enclosed volume. A reduced ceiling height can also increase illumination effective-
ness.
Floor-to-ceiling height is determined by physiological comfort, height of light
fixtures for proper light distribution, and height of w indows necessary for good natu-
ral lighting.
In general, increases in ceiling height need increase only the exposed wall sur-
face (not window surface). The effet of greater heights on energy consumption may
be rather small, depending on the thermal characteristics of the wall.
3. Ceiling Plenum Height: Deep ceiling plenums allow the use of lar~er duct sizes
with low pressure drop and reduced heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
IHVAC) air handler and fan reQuirements. Ducts can be larger, allowing greater
359
volumes and air to be moved with smaller pressure drops, permitting reduced fan
horsepower.
4. Roofs: Very low buildings may have greater roof area in proportion to wall area,
and the heating and cooling leads which they generate may, in turn, influence the
selection of the mechanical equipment. In tall buildings, the roof is a lesser influence
on the total heat loss and gain, and will rarely influence the selection of the total
heating and cooling systems.
5. 'Exposed Floors: Buildings that are elevated on columns or with first -floor areas
and large overhanging upper floors increase heat loss and heat gain because of the
extra exposed floor surfaces. While this may be of slight advantage all year in south-
ern regions, or anywhere in the summertime, it presents a serious increased heat loss
in colder climates. Locating parking garages on intermediate levels similarly in-
creases energy consumption from additional exposed surfaces.
6. Building Forms: A dome roof can permit warm air to rise and collect at the top,
leaving the floor area cooler. Pyramids, zigzag exterior walls, rhomboid-shaped
buildings, and other forms can all be used to control the influence of climate on con-
sumption.
7. Zigzag Walls: Zigzag configuration of east and west walls provides self-shading to
reduce summer solar loads, provides natural windbreaks, and can permit low rays to
penetrate the building in the winter to supplement the heating system, if the wind-
ows in the zigzag are facing south. By facing the windows north in the z.igzag in a
southern location, heat gain is reduced year-round; but, in both summer and winter,
natural lighting and views can be available at both east and west facades without the
penalty of increasing summer heat gains. However, the energy requirements result-
ing from the additional wall surface for the zigzag form must be weighed against the
other energy benefits.
'11. GROUND SURFACES (PAVED AND PLANTED)
This option involves the use of light-colored ground surfaces to reflect sunlight onto a
building, dark-colored surfaces to absorb sunlight and lower outside temperatures.
Light reflected from the ground represents 10 to 15 percent of the total daylight trans-
mitted by a first-floor window on the sunl.i t side of a building.
Percentages of Incident Light Reflected
by Some Ground Surfaces
Percentage
Material
Reflected
Ground reflected light transmitted through windows strikes the ceiling. This is beneficial
for dayiighting in two respects. First, the light is projected deeper into the room than
direct sunlight. Second, ceilings are usually light-colored and thus reflect light better
than darker floors.
360
Plant cover absorbs sunlight, yet has a lower temperature than paving because of eva-
porative cooling which occurs during the transportation of plants. The net heat ~ain
from the sun is rapidly dissipated by the enormous surface area of the leaves. Very little
heat is stored in vegetation because of its minimal mass.
Night air temperatures over grass, for example are therefore cooler than over pavemen_t.
The lower day temperatures and lower night temperatures of planted surfaces result m
less window heat gain and a reduced air-conditioning burden compared to the situation
of haying paved surfaces adjacent to the building .
itt~atiatr
1. Gentle South slopes are ideal for underground structures. They are easily built into
the hill and have south sunlight and positive drainage.
2. Avoid tow-lying depressions. Heavy cold air drains into them; Frost and dampness
are more likely in these areas.
3. Make sure that surrounding construction (parking lots, septic systems, etc.) do not
drain into the site.
4. Identify ground levels before making decisions on placement and depth.
5. Adequate soil percolation is essential, particularly for sunken courtyards and
atriums. If there are problems, consider the installation of overflow drains.
6. Any structural system can be used, provided it is designed to applicable loading
conditions. General rules are 150 lb/sq. ft. for roofs with grass cover and 400 lb/ft.2
for roofs when the earth cover is to support small trees. Add water, (snow) and
pedestrian loads.
7. Wall design is generally the same as conventional basement wall or other below-
grade construction.
8. Place insulation outside the below-ground building structure; this allows the struc-
ture to serve as a heat storage mass. Insulation can be reduced in thickness as the
depth below grade increases.
361
9. Butyl sheets provide both waterproofing and a vapor barrier.
10. For earth berming against existing exterior walls, a cement plaster finish applied to
metal lath (hyrib) and a vapor barrier on the existing wall are advisable. This detail
discourages roots, insects, and rodents from getting into the wall.
Berm -a ledge or shoulder, as along the edge of a paved road.
11 . Avoid curbs or parapets to retain earth covering. Freezing and thawing action w ill
tend to crack these elements.
12. To control interior dampness, dry the air through circulation and/or dehumidica-
tion.
13. Earth pipes can be used to provide natu!al coolin.g. Air taken from the outside dur-
ing warm weather can be cooled by being passed through long pipes buried in the
berm or below grade. The same piping can provide some degree of pre-heating of
fresh outside air during cold weather.
14. Examine local codes, especially in relation to fire exits and ventilation.
15. Lighting usage should be thought out carefully. It will affect both comfort and
energy use more critically in an underground structure.
~~~
TurbuleHce 42•fa A
good overall 41""~
circulatio11
It will be seen that if the wind encounters an inlet and an outlet in alignment with its out-
side direction, it will pass through the intervening space in a narrowly defined, high-
velocity stream. Very little ventilation will occur beyond that narrowly defined, stream.
However, if the wind is forced to change direction in transit between inlet and outlet, a
Turbulence within the room will develop. A circular current will encompass the sides
and comers of the room. The maximum airspeed is reduced compared to windows in
direct alignment with the wind, but the average velocity of air movement within the en-
tire space will be greater.
363
Overall ventilation is consequently better, where the building interior is subdivided into a
series of interconnecting spaces, placement of interior partitions can provide the disrup-
tion of the otherwise straight path of airflow between upwind and downwind windows.
wiHdow
Turt1 build~1195
Protect Slffail buildittgs
bacl< ro w1na witff tall tJteS
364
2. ORIENTATION TO THE SUN
The general strategy for the placement of wind-
ows calls for the largest window area on the side
where the sun exposure minim.izes combined
heating and cooling needs sunflght transmission
will be a net benefit on an annual basis if the
winter (cold months) solar heat gain exceeds
~~
(winter) cold months heat loss and summer solar
- heat gain. The percentage of the incident solar
-
energy that a window transmits for any given day
---- ------
(ideally with a projecting horizontal shading device
1 I
1 I over south-facing w indows) to minimize the air-
I I conditioning burden. To obtain the greatest
I I
L... _J benefit from the sun as a cold month (winter) heat
source, buildings located in northern latitudes (like
in Baguio) should have window areas concen-
trated on the south (with minimal window areas to
the north) .
cir&Uar
I
//j
I / /
/ / /
/ / / I
/ / /
/ / 1/
I / 1 COf1tif1UOUS
I
I
/
I Fitf and Ramada
" /
I
~ oper.ol>le FIN
eyebrow eavs
erleH~OH
366
i I
, !I
III , I
.I
II (
wittdow
em¢.oyittg.a
Vertical fn1
etn~i~ a PRE-CAST
Screetf wall
367
pivot wittdow
RAINFALL
368
Bui\dit19 . [or'!' ~at permits 5Utf acc.eG~
at ~Al: tute
3. TO OFFSET RAINFALL
#~
c-arry r:vof prorection it1SU~ drahfaQe
iv grOOt1d ~way from building
~-----'I
_ __ __ ___ _ _ _ _ J
1. -
II
rece9.Sefftry
step up stope balcot1ies
for protectiOtf to etfter for drah1age
369
4. TO OFFSET TEMPERATURE
370
~
-f-1
~UTI~~(Q)S)(W~
A-
a
~
u
ENCLOSURE
QUALITI-ES OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
PROPERTIES OF ENCLOSURE
1. DIMENSION • Proportion
• Scale
2. SHAPE • Definition
ODD
3. CONFIGURATION • Fo rm
4. SURFACE • Colo r
c----_ ·----'--'--- -
·--·---~--·
• Texture
• Pattern
372
5. EDGES
6. OPENINGS • Enclosure
• Light
• View
OPENINGS IN SPACE
DEFINING ElEMENTS
DOORS -Offer entry into a room, and determine the patterns of movement and use within
it.
WINDOWS -Allow light to penetrate the space and illuminate the surface of a room , offer
views from the room to the exterior, establish visual relationships between the room and ad-
jacent spaces, and provide ventilation for the space of the room.
The quality of a room's degree of enclosure. Light and View is affected by the size, shape,
and location of openings or voids within the enclosing forms of a space.
373
aoo 0
Openings lying wholly within the enclosing
planes of a space do not weaken the edge
definition nor the sense of enclosure of the
space. The form of the space remains intact
and perceptible .
~ ·, !
·,;· ij l
374
2. LIGHT . ... The illumination of its sur-
faces and forms.
The sun is a rich source of light for the illu-
mination of forms and spaces in architec-
ture. The quality of its light changes with the
t ime of day, and from season to season.
And it transmits the changing colors, and
moods of the sky and the weather to the
surfaces and forms it muminates.
Entering a room through windows in the
wall plane or through skylights in the roof
plane overhead, the sun's light falls on sur-
faces within the room, enlivens their colors,
and articulates their textures. With the
changing patterns of light and shade that it
creates, the sun animates the space of the
room, and articulates the forms within it.
375
The location and orientation of a window or An opening can be oriented to receive direct
skylight, therefore, can be more important sunlight during certain portions of the day.
than its size in determining the quality of Direct sunlight provides a high degree of illu-
daylight a room receives. mination that is especially intense during
midday hours. It creates sharp patterns of
tight and dark on the surface of a room, and
crisply articulates the forms within the
space.
cat1opy- soli4 or
settfl-opet1
376
An opening can also be oriented away from direct sunlight and receive instead the dif-
fuse, ambient light from the "sky-vault" overhead. The sky-vault is a beneficial source of
daylight since it remains fairly constant, even on cloudy days, and can help to soften the
harshness of direct sunlight and balance the light level within a space.
Lat1d 6/ar~
377
Example of natural lighting:
\ ~L
se-CTIONS
PLANS
378
3. VIEW
Another quality of space that must be considered in establishing openings in the en-
closure of a room is its focus and orientation. While some rooms have an internal focus,
such as a fireplace, others have an outward orientation given to them by a view to the
outdoors or adjacent space. Window and skylights openings provide this view and estab-
lish a visual relationship between a room and its surroundings. The size and location of
these openings, of course, will determine the nature of the view seen through them.
379
PROBLEM: A large opening opens a room up to a bfoad
vista. The large scene can dominate a space or
serve as a backdrop for the activities within it.
view A large bay window can project a person into a
it
scene.
Lor
~ limited view
RM
SOLUTIONS:
RM
1. WITHIN PLANES
'• ...,
ffj
';
-= -~' :ro~··I·.
•• , H
=
o·;
'
r·
•-..0 L ,·.!.' :.....-.:!.
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)_ ..... . ._t
... , ,i i.. ............. ..l •·····
~~]
··· ;:;~
:
'
l
, .·!,
.. I
.~
[
T" '''''f~iii.!Mi~l
!
~--~J
1~~r-
I ..·.
~---:
:i
i
./ ------·-- ,,
l.. .. ...............,_; L .. _............. ... .J k':._ ......._,,,,_ , -· .
alottg one side along two edgeS turnittg a corner grouped skyligl1t
3. BETWEEN PLANES
;· - ···-· -----
f '
- -··i .... -·
-··· ...... .._ .. •-...(
. r-· J
'---{
382
emphasis or
ittdividual ity
DO
DO
muti'iple openin~ may ~ ~Ju5t9t"~
+o fOht1 a ut1ifJBd ~~H"k7t1 w1t111n
a pk:sne.
1! ;
1 ,
: ~.-
I .
.~ (· i• •.
be a figure with in a enclos-
f" ld
:, •- ---- --~ , f ! mg 1e , and become a po-
_. ____,_lL l , .. . . .. .,-.J ~ sitive element in itself, a
· - _ ___ ..J .. · -~ '~- .....--~ ) transparent plane bounded
a figuro with.ll1 1Ta115paret1-t by a heavy frame.
a" encla>ing field (Fitive)
( l'iegative) j
383
wall catrtirtuous
witk floor
ll _11
STAIRS
384
SKYLI GHTS
DOORS
WINDOWS
• Wall Concept s
a. Mechanical-structural integration
As the complexity and size of the mechanical distribution systems was increasing
with technological development {typically, more air is required to cool a space than
would be required for simply heating it} increased strength of materials was reducing
the size of the structural system. The "uncluttered" Floor areas between the more
widely spaced columns became desirable for flexibility in spatial layout. Keeping the
mechanical systems at or within those columns allowed these floor areas to remain
clear, so mechanical-structural integration was given further impetus. With the new
expectations for cooling, the refrigeration cycle's cooling tower often moved to the
roof, taking the air-handling machinery with it. This further encouraged the merg-
ing of systems, for one system was growing wider as the other diminished.
mcrea$i~
cumulative
structure
i11creasi119 curnulatiye
supply ana returH a1r
VOIUtrl~
. I
Recommet1ded
exposed ~de
390
The incandescent spot
li_ghts send sharp patterns
across the otherwise plain
walls of the corridor.
Flexibility is usually encouraged by exposure; changes can be easily made when not
accompanied by a need fOf neatly cut holes in concealing surfaces. However, Flexi-
bility from movable partitions requires constant ceiling heights, which is a feature of
the suspended ceiling approach.
One of the more spectacular examples of exposed mechanical (and structural sys-
tems is the centre Georges Pompidou, Paris- The result of a design competition for
a museum of modern art, reference library, center for industrial design center for
music and acoustic research, and supporting devices.
391
When users are invited to play an active role in adjusting conditions inside, exp~sure
of the switches they manipulate is helpful. Not only are users reminded of their op-
portunities by seeing these mechanisms, but user interaction is encouraged; adjust-
ments are sometimes discovered that the designer had not anticipated.
USER REQUIREMENTS
ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEM
As tor Architectural systems, it is important to start with the USER. This is called the "USER-
ORIENTED CONCEPTUAL PLANNING" the designer shall recognize his or her characteris-
tics and constraints. Determine the user's needs, create a place for the user to perform
whatever tasks he or she expects to do. The following steps are suggested in conceptualiz-
ing an architectural system.
Step 1: Define and examine the needs of the total user population, for example in design-
ing an office building, do not concentrate only on the primary resident, but look at
the needs of his or her visitors or clients and the people who will serve the primary
resident in the proposed facility.
~imilar U5e~
Differettt u~ Multi u~ of ~re ~ildi11g
:--------------------------------4
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l
I
I
I
- ---- - ---.....1
Multi use of exteri~-;~- - - - -
393
'II
'/
/
.....
)I'
Frne use
D
0
D lat1e f£A HVAC (heati119, vetttilatitfB.
Zone for $ee0rity
a1 rcottd it io H it1g)
Step 2: Examine and define the various tasks that each of the above users has to perform.
Determine what these tasks imply in terms of space, environmental control, sup-
porting furnishings, and utilities. (Heating, ventilating, Airconditioning , lighting,
electrical, acoustics, communications, elevators and escalators, plumbing and
sanitary pipings, waste disposal, insect cont rol etc.)
Step 3: Explore the interactive as well as the isolative needs of the various users and their
furnishings and equipment. Examine alternative arrangements to determine the
most convenient organization of people, furnishings, spaces, buildings, etc.
Step 4: Create an enclosure for the most effective alternative defined in Step 3 and add ap-
propriate partitioning to provide desired environmental control. privacy and security.
5egregateti lt1tegrated
394
OIV1510~ OF oG'PACE
pool .f .
fDUt1t23lt1 pia~
Rail
L__J
0 c[
8 Ill
~
Batkra>m
395
DIVISION OF SPACE
Step 5: Select an appropriate site that will accomodate the building defined in Step 4 and
locate, position , and arrange the buildings with respect to appropriate site and
building access.
After these 5 steps have been completed, you are now ready to examine the concept in terms
of aethetic features, including architectural style, special material effec~ and landscaping.
Because people are different, it is a mistake to assume that a system can be designed for the
so-called average person. Understanding these differences and accomodating the proposed
concept to them are vital to the eventual operation of the system.
396
pact on architectural space, including clearances and
reach distances.
4. STRENGTH Very young and very old people have considerably less
strength than those in the middle range, women are ge-
nerally weaker than men, and handicapped persons may
have virtually no strength. Architectural features that re-
quire lifting, pushing, pulling, or twisting must be tailored
to the weakest member of the expected user population.
Parameter Variables
397
torted by lack of contrast, parallax, exaggerated em-
bellishment, or illusory geometries?
3. Conspicuousness - Are features that are important to
detecting, recognizing and understanding lost in the
background.
4. Recognizability - Are features natural, familiar and or
similar to the observer's expectations, or are they dis-
torted or purposely made to look like what they are
not?
2. HEARING What people hear not only affects their ability to commu-
nicate but may also affect their general capacity to per-
form other tasks.
The critical variables include:
1. Audibility: If certain sounds must be heard, the
acoustic environment must be designed to carry the
sounds and not block them.
2. Intelligibility: The acoustic environment must be
designed so that it will not distort the sounds intended
for the listener.
3. Signal-To Noise Ratio: The combined communica-
tions and acoustic system must be designed to maxi-
mize the probability that extraneous noises will not
obscure the desired sound signal.
4. Noise Annoyance: Adequate noise attenuation must
be provided to minimize the possible deleterious ef-
fects that an annoying noise can have on individual
task performance.
too narroN ~~
"~"'"''llT be gra~ptrl
398
4. MOBILITY How well people perform dynamic tasks tasks in which
they must move their bodies and limbs depends both on
the clearances provided around their task envelope and
on the supporting area provided to maintain stability.
5. CONVENI ENCE How well people perform various tasks depends to a
great extent on how conveniently they can move from
one place to another. This requires careful consideration
of functional relationships.
The sequence of events, time constraints, and emer-
gency demands in order to create a logical and energy·
saving arrangement of spaces and activities within
spaces, lack of convenience not only reduces immedi-
ate user efficiencies but also may add to fatigue and
possible operator failures.
HANDICAPPED USERS
Special consideration should be given to the needs of the handicapped when it is obvious
that they too can be expected to utilize a proposed architectural system, this shall include
the elderly persons .
399
3. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ORTHOPEDICALLY HANDICAPPED
Architectural mobility for the orthopedically handicapped can be increased by the follow-
ing;
a. AdeQuate clearance, smooth ground and floor surfaces, especially at thresholds of
doorways, curbings and ramps for change of elevation, and reachable heights for
such items as drinking fountains, telephones, and built-in workable tops and shelves.
b. Limited force application reQuirements for opening doors.
c. Door handles and cabinet handles that can be pushed rather than grasped or. squeez-
ed and turned.
d. Stairs that are notsteep and railings that can be grasped and held firmly in the arthritic
hand.
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR PEOPLE WITH DIFFERENT HANDICAPS
Extreme care should be exercised in developing mobility aids, or con-
cepts for people with one specific handicap, since the same facility may
have to be used by people with other handicaps (ex: a smooth, ramped
intersection comer designed to aid the wtleelchair user may remove the
very tactile cues that tell the blind person where the street begins).
In addition, care should be exercised in terms of how some aids to the
handicapped may affect the use of the facility or devise by nonhandicap-
ped persons. In many cases, however, the aid may help both the han-
dicapped and the nonhandicapped person. For example, larger clearer
street signs are needed in most cities today for the normally sighted
motorist and for the partially sighted person, who might be able to use
these signs if they were not so small.
400
wholes, to a logical el.aboration of this basic understanding. The basic understanding focus-
ses on consideration of major structural subsystems and discrimination of key elements,
whereas, the act of elaboration involves attention to the details required to realize the whole.
The good sense of such an overall approach to education can be vividly characterized by
considering what we often termed the nonstructural space enclosure and subdivision as-
pects of architectural design. The spatial organization and articulation of the various proper-
ties of activity spaces calls for control of the external and internal adjacency and interface
potentials. Horizontal and vertical surfaces in the form of floors, walls, roots, and penetra-
tions through these surfaces must be provided to establish varying degrees of spatial diffe-
rentiation, enclosur~. access, and geometric definition.
Imagine that the physical components of a spatial organization scheme were designed with
no thought for their structural implications. The probability for major revision of early con-
cepts due to structural requirements will be high . Now, in contrast, imagine that these com-
ponents of spatial organization were organized from the beginning with overall structural im-
plications of the schematic space-form system in mind. The probability for major revision
would be minimized, and the symbolic and physical integration of the structure with the
overall architectural scheme would be insured.
It became apparent that an ability for overall thinking can make it possible to apply structural
knowledge to the total architectural design effort from the very beginning and with a mini-
mum of distraction by lower..jevel details. It alone can enable the architect to think of the
physical issues of a space-structure in a context that is inherently compatible with his mode
of dealing with the many organizational and symbolic issues of space-forming. Thus it can
assure that the emphasis on components conceived as acting together as total systems
rather than separately, an independent parts. It is also apparent that much can be gained
from applying this overall-to-specific model of educational management to a reconsideration
of teaching and writing strategies in many specialized field of design-related knowledge.
401
Vertical movement of objects through a building requires rather large shafts, and overall
thinking can result in the use of these service components as major structural subsystems.
The requirements for provisions of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, power, water, and
waste services can be visualized in the form of a Tree diagram. These services usually origin-
ate at a centralized location and must trace their way horizontally and vertically throughout
the structure in order to serve the activity spaces. Large trunk-chase spaces may be re-
quired, and their structural implications should be considered early in the design process.
USE V.SOC USE VSS" USt:: USt:. (}.s5 u$"
In terms of acoustics·, it is clear that the structural shape of a spatial organization can directly
iofluence acoustical prQperties. In addition, if a spatial organization calls for heavy equip-
ment to be located such that it impinges on a flexible structure vibration and acoustical dis-
turbances can be transmitted throughout the space because of an incompatible interface
between machines and structure.
SOJND DISTRIBUTION
lS INFLUENCED B'l'
1'HE C1JERALL SHAPE
OF SPACE
The requirement for artificial and natural light brings up other considerations. Artificial light-
ing often calls for integrating consideration of structural subsystems with considerations of
the spatial qualities of light and of the spatial requirements f or housing and the lighting fix-
tures. The structural implications of natural ligthing are even more obvious.
402
minimum
lightiHg
t1
For example, consider a fully enclosed space-form with all lighting provided artificially. Then
consider an open-top Spatial organization with a heavy reliance on natural lighting through-
out the space.
NATURAL LIGHT AND STRUCTURE
INTERACT AT OVERALL LEVEL
403
c) Bearing and shear wall design with few wind-
ows is simple but admits little light.
404
TUBE ACTION CAN BE ACHIEVED FOR A VARIETY OF SECTIONAL SHAPES AND BY
MEANS OF STRUCTURAL CORE DESIGNS
-T-·
'
:
"Tt -·
I
t
'
I
-,·I
1
I
I
-·-T--·-r-}
I
I
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1
I
t f
I
I
I I 1 I
I I 1 1 1 I
- - + --- --+ - -- - .,- - - - -r- ---,- I
1 I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I 1
- J_ ·
I 1
o
- ·- ·-'-
I
I
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A._ l
I I I I I I I I
Otre COtmectio11
405
use more tkalf OHe c.ainectlQrf
The overal Stiffness and Efficiency of a Basic Frame is improved by a combination
of more columns and Connector.
ld ~h
~ w n-
A 8 C ComPirt~tia1 is efficiel1t
jt1heret1tly eff)Ciet1t
Vertical and Horizontal Subsystems may be combined in many ways to provide
overall structural integrity.
Core Tube
406
Tul?e m Tul;)e
Braced Tut>e
407
At conceptual stages, the designer need only keep in mind the four basic structural sub-
system interactions that must be provided in order to achieve overall integrity in the struc-
tu ral action of a building form:
_JJU- ~
.. 1. Horizontal subsystems must pick up and transfer vertical
~
loads in the vertical subsystems,
--7
,- - - - - -- --,
I
I
I
1
I
~1:1¥1""'
~.
. .
wit1d Co11t1eetion 1<- braci11g K- brOciHg
ut;taggerBCJ Tnm
Shear Connecti~ rteo~tumt tamectiot1
~\\.\\.
'"1'\ /AWYJI
'\ /
I'\ v
\ v
f\ v
f\ v
1'\ v
1'\v
..... f--L- 1\ v
Circular
framing
V\
v~
L ~
~ '\
v
~
v
/
1/
""
I/ :'\.
~
[\,
1\.
1\
~quare
0 caumn
pattern
Tru~ Framing
409
l~otated
Footit1g
GHear l.edg81
Hole C.Ontit1UOUG
410
CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND
STRUCTURES AS EXPRESSION
OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
BUILDING
The purpose of a building is to provide a shelter for the performance of human activities.
from the time of the cave dwellers to the present, one of the first needs of man has been a
shelter from the elements. In a more general sense, the art of building encompasses all of
man's efforts to control his environment and direct natural forces to his own needs. This art
includes, in addition to buildings all the civil engineering structures such as dams, canals,
tunnels, aqueducts and bridges.
The f orm of a building is an outgrowth of its function, its environment and various socio-
economic factors. An apartment building, an office building, and a school differ in term be-
cause of the difference in function they fulfill. In an apartment building every habitable space
such as living rooms and bedrooms, must have natural light f rom windows while bathrooms
and kitchens can have artificial light ana therefore can be in the interior of the building.
In office buildings, on the other hand, artificial light is accepted for more uniform illumina-
tion, and therefore the depth of such buildings is not limited by need for natural light.
FORM, SHAPE AND APPEARANCE~
Environment may affect both the shape and appearance of the building. An urban school
may create its own environment by using blank walls to seal out the city completely, and a
country school may develop as an integral part of the land scape even though both schools
fulfill the same function.
The form of a building is affected by a variety of socio-economic factors, including land,
costs, tenancy building budget, and zoning restrictions. High land costs in urban areas result
in high buildings. A housing project for the rich will take a different form than a low cost
housing project. A prestige office building will be more generously budgeted for than other
office buildings. Buildings with similar functions -therefore take on different forms.
STRUCTURAL FORMS:
The beam or arch have developed through the ages in relation to the availability of materials
and the technology of the time. The arch developed on a result of the availability of the
brick . In the Technology of buildings, every structure must work against the gravity, which
tends to pull everything down to the ground.
A balance therefore must be attained between the force of gravity, the shape of the struc-
ture, and the strength of material used. To provide a cover over a sheltered space and l)ermit
openings in the walls that surround it. Builders have developed four techniques consistent
with these balance between gravity, form and material.
=~~--~
Jf" . ... =r__,= 1
- .
a horizontal
==- bEam between
;s..:: :::::.--
-II
- . tM:> vertical
~pr;om
4 11
b. Arch Construction
voussoirs
c. Corbel or Cantilever
d. Truss Construction
412
CONCRETE
Concrete is 8 conglomerate artificial stone. It is made by mixing 8 paste of cement and water
with sand and crushed stone, gravel, or other inert material. The chemically active sub-
stance in the mixture is the cement that unites physically and chemically with the water and,
upon hardening, binds the aggregates tOgether to form a solid mass resembling stone.
A particular inherent property is that concrete may be made in any desired shape. The wet
mixture is placed in wood, plastic, cardboard or metal forms in which it hardens or sets . Pro-
perly proportioned concrete is hard and durable materials. It is strong in compression but
brittle and .almost useless in resisting tensile stresses.
MASS or PLAIN concrete is used in members in which the stresses are almost entirely com-
pressive such as dams, piers, and certain types of footing.
r.-- ~
WI1Siot1 at cewter
ttmtces. ~e ~
~r at1d -rears
b -+he bwer CGH'fei
G
In order to avoid compression and tension, reinforcement made of billet steel and rail steel,
usually intermediate grade is introduced . This is called REINFORCED CONCRETE.
L/4
------~ .....
' __..,_ .._,_-- - - -c.;
:::::.=-- - - - - - - - -
"
-.SA:=====_...... ________< ., --'-- .........- -
L/5 L../5
413
REINFORCED CONCRETE is produced in different ways:
1. CAST IN PLACE -when a concrete is
Slav ~-) poured at the jobsite whose beams. slabs
--___,.---1"-----4"'------:-----:.r- and columns are set in form s on scaffold-
ings and later on rernoved after the concrete
is hard. Usually the minimum length of time
for walls is 12 days and for beams and col-
umns, 7 to 11 days. A rule of thumb is tore-
tain the bottom forms 2 days for each inch
of thickness of concrete.
For a 3.000 lb . concrete a ratio of 6 gallons
of WATER per sack of cement will produce
the fOrm of a watertight concrete. 6 1/2 gallons should
the SIDES of be the maximum .
beamS caM be
removed earlier-
SLUMP TEST
n
C=)
1 1
I .2()
f- - --·-·---- --4
!_
With an truncated cone made of sheet metal . with dimensions shown as above,leave the
top and bottom open. Freshly mixed concrete is placed in the mold in three layers, each
being rodded separately 25 times with a 5/8" (16mm) diameter rod. When the mold is fill-
ed and rodded the top is levelled off, and the mold is lifted at once. Immediately the
slumping action of the concrete is measured by taking the difference in height between
the top of the mold and t he top of the slumped mass of concrete.
414
RECOMMENDED SLUMPS
SLUMP METRIC
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MAX. MIN.
COMPRESSION TEST
This is the test given to concrete for strength. The specimens to
be tested are cylindrical in shape and have a length twice the
diameter. The standard is 6 inch (0.15) in diameter and 12 inch
(0.30 in height.
Freshly made concrete is then placed into the mold in these se-
parate layers, each about one-third the volume of the mold.
Rodded with a 16 mm, bullet-pointed rod. After the top layer
has been rodded, the surfaces is leveled with a Trowel and
covered with glass or planed metal. After 2 to 4 hours, .when the
concrete has ceased settling , the specimens are capped with a
thin layer of neat cement paste and covered with glass or metal.
It is customary to keep the specimens at the site of 24 hours.
After which they are taken to the laboratory and cured in a moist
atmosphere at 70°F. Tests are usually made at 7 and 28-day
periods.
(plait1
In making specimens, extreme care should be taken to see that
the ends are plane-parallel surfaces. After the specimen is
placed in the testing machine, a compressive load is applied until
the specimen fails. The load causing the failure is recorded, and
this load divided by the cross-sectional area of the cylinder gives
the ultimate compressive unit; stress usually in psi.
2. PRECAST CONCRETE
Prefabricated reinforced concrete which have been cast and cured in a factory rather
than in place on the site. Then delivered by long trailer trucks and installed by welding to-
gether all the components. These include floor and roof slabs, columns, girders, beams
and joists, wall panels and stairs. Whole wall sections are precast and later raised to po-
sition in what to be called TILT-UP Construction.
415
Advantages:
1. Casting and curing conditions, as well as concrete design, can be rigidly controlled re-
sulting in consistently high quality concrete.
2. The cost of forms and scaffolding is reduced since they can be placed on ground rather
than having to be suspended or supported in position.
3. Where mass production of a unit is possible, forms can be made precisely of steel en-
suring long use and very smooth surfaces.
4. Structural members can be mass-produced in a plant while excavations and founda-
tion work are taking place at the site.
5. Pre-cast concrete members are then delivered as called for in work schedules and in
most cases erected directly from truck bed to the structure without rehandling at the
site.
6. Close supervision and control of materials and a specialized work force in a centralized
plant result in a high-quality product.
7. Finishing work on concrete surfaces can be done more easily in the plant than in posi-
tion on the site.
8. Because of superior reinforcing techniques the dead load of the structural members
themselves can be reduced.
9. Plant production is not normally subject to delays due to adverse weather conditions
as so often happens to jobsite operations.
t---ftOM17-al - - -:}
l I
I
t
U11Joaded
416
Load
loaded
T T
Loaded
POST TENSIONING involves placing and curing a precast member which contains. nor-
mal reinforcing and in addition, a number of channels through which poststressing cables
or rods (tendons) may be passed. Sometimes the tendons are wrapped in oiled paper for
easy sliding. One side is anchored securely at the end and one side is held by a cone.
After concrete has hardened tothe desired strength : The cone is fitted to a hydraulic jack
and is pulled to the allowable strength then a small steel plate is wedge so as the tendons
will not go back to its normal position. Post tensioning is usually carried out when the
member is very large or when only one or a very few of one particular kind of unit are to
be made. In general, post-tensioning will be used if the unit is over 45 feet (14 ml tong or
over 7 tons is weight.
&:!m
-t11is ~ is itt~erted
whett pulled 10 n:quired
s1Te11gth or P5l. 5o -Hat
the tet1dot15 1~ permanently
G1mc~ed -
.
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b) SLABS ARE CAST ONE ATOP THE OTHER.
After the first slab is laid out, it serves as a template for subsequent slabs. This elimi-
nates layout on all but the initial slab, and cuts mistakes to a minimum. Electrical,
plumbing, and mechanical work is fast and accurate; craftsmen are able to work more
efficiently.
418
fu3t ten~ioning TENDONS
Here Post-Tensioning Tendons, mild steel reinforcement rods and forms to block out
openings in the slab are all in place, ready for next slab to be poured.
There is no wait for erectfon of complex elevated formwork. This shortens the time interval
between pouring one slab and the next. The bottom of each slab is exceptionally smooth
(just like the top); it is ready for finish paint or spraying without additional preparation.
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419
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421
CASTING ON LIFTED SLAB·s- Four slabs are cast at ground level (see 1). The roof slab
~ ttlen raised to a temporary position 2) The remaining three slabs are raised . with slabs for
floors two and three secured in position 3) and 4) Two slabs {three and four sandwiched
together) serve as the base form for two new slabs that are cast in the air at roughly the
third floor level. An unusual flying form and work platform around the edges may be
secured to the two cured base form slabs and to the roof slab one floor higher. The two
base form slabs are next positioned and secured as floors four and five. The roof slab is
moved up 5} The new slabs serve as the form for two more slabs ... and the process is
repeated as many times as necessary.
This method is used for structural frame Lift Slab Building Systems over twelve floors
and bearing wall Uft Slab Building Systems over four floors. Use of this method means
that the lower floors are ready for finishing more quickly. The result is earlier completion
of the project.
Hydraulic jack
422
4. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
" Prestressing is a basic principle of design in which stresses are buift into a structural ele-
ment, such as a beam, in order to offset load-carrying stresses. The stresses directly op-
pose the stresses created when a load is applied to the beam , and, in effect, tend to "can-
cel out" the load stre_sses. In the case of prestressed concrete, high tensile strength strand
is used in either of two prestressing techniques-pretensioning .o r post-tensioning .
This is a construction method also known as an Integrated Building System .
HOW IT WORKS:
1. The Foundation site is excavated and pre·
pared while the structural components
are fabricated at the plant.
2. As soon as the foundation is ready, the
structural components are delivered to
the construction site.
3. Erection immediately follows using heavy
lifting equipment. Completed portions of
the building are immediately ready for fi -
Fco1irtg nishing .
4.23
U-BEAMS are used as floor and roof units. Length up to 6.00 m (20 feet) Depth from .10 to
.15m (4 to 6 inchesL
DOUBLE TEES - are used as floor and roof SINGLE TEES - are used as floor units.
units or as wall panels. They are capable of spans of up to 28
meters (90 feet) Flange - from 1.20 to
Length - up to 15 meters (50 feet) 2.40 or (4 to 8 feet).
depth - from .25 to .45 (10 to 18
inches.
Concrete BEAMS, Concrete STAIRS, WALL PANELS are all precasted in the Factory.
424
.. .
. . .
..
. .
425
U· Beams are set Atop the
prestressed Beam/ Girder then
a con crete toppi11g ~ placed iu
the de,ired thickness arrd level
426
5. SPANSTRESS
This method speeds up construction, and saves on expensive equipment, since it takes
cranes out of the way. Span-stress prestressed Concrete T Joist Floor and roof system is
4
f?.C. ~m
R.C. ~eam @
427
428
6. PRECAST WAFFLE SLAB SYSTEM
This modular precast posttensioned waffle SLAB SYSTEM is the first application of two-
way post-tensioning in a precast concrete floor system. This is a new system of con-
structing floor slabs that consist of singular square precast concrete modular elements
laid out in checkerboard pattern and integrated together into the structural flooring
system of a building by means of post-tensioning in two perpendicular directions.
+----~=~t~r1-· - -+
This precast concrete modular elements are mass-produced and stocked in the ,.;,anufac-
turing plant. Columns can be precast/prestressed or cast-in-place concrete or even steel,
depending on the requirements .
CEILING VIEW
During the construction stage, the elements are set, four units at a time, on steel scaf-
fold s pre-arranged to support the elements in a checker-board pattern.
429
Initial concrete grouting is then applied to the gap between elements and contoured to
follow the strand cable profile. After the grout has set, the cables are laid on and final
concrete grouting is poured up to the level of the precast concrete elements.
Curing time is thr~ days and the strands are then stressed . When all the strands have
been stressed, the steel scaffolds can then be removed, and the whole operation is com-
pleted.
6routing O~iot1 .
.i11itlaJ groutitt;3 1$ fWrW IHID
tke gap Mwe811 t11e WGtffls
BI6Hf8Hf1r imd c.oti'll:XJra:i 10
follow tke catilfe profils
430
7. SUP FORM METHOD
This method has been utilized extensively in agricultural and industrial com-
plexes. In particular the silos, either cylindrical or straight-sided have found
the most practical applications.
Lately, however, this has been applied to elevator core constructions and
even multi-storey hotel buildings. It can be applied to any construction in-
cluding multi-storey buildings.
Advantages:
a) short construction time
b) low labor cost
c) small timber requirement
d) smooth concrete surface
e) minimum of construction joints
The conventional conrete construction which was earlier discussed utilize a
lot of bracings and scaffoldings for the forms, are fixed and after pouring
concrete cannot be removed until after 15 days.
SLIPFORM modifies the method of forming in the conventional concrete
construction. It utilizes very much less framework, no scaffolding at all and
some braces. The whole form system is distributed over several hydraulic
jacks. The hydraulic jack system is the heart of the slipform method of con-
struction.
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431
The complete wall system of the structure is formed
about a meter and a half in height . When everything
is f ixed to the jacks and the hydraulic syst em tested
to good working condition, concrete is poured into
the forms and as all the forms are filled and the con-
crete starts to set, the forms are jacked up systema-
tically until the whole structure is completely con-
creted at which point the jacking operation stops and
the lost segment allowed to cure in the time periods,
required.
With slipform method t his last segment is stripped
within a week from the time the last concrete was
poured . A well-experienced slipform group should be
able to finish concreting a structure at the rate of
twelve inches (0.30 m) per hours .
432
Butts, Magwood & Hall Ltd., also consulting engineers in Ottawa, originated the concept
as a cost-control building system in 1967. To bring the invention to the marketing stage,
the aid of local builders was enlisted and Hambro Structural Systems ltd. was formed.
In 1970, Minto Construction Ltd., Canada, used the system for an eight-storey apartment
building, and had since used it in four other buildings.
Minto's architect, John Russell, likes the system because of its flexibility and cost
savings. These result from dispensing with propping f or short to medium spans. It also
enables subcontractors to move in quickly after the floor has been poured.
In one of Minto's recent projects, in which concrete had been poured the day before for
the eighth floor, plumbing and electrical wiring had started on the seventh , wiring was
complete and plumbing was complete at the sixth floor, and the ceiling on the fifth floor.
In contrast, for conventional poured-in-place conrete construction the building has to ad-
vane& through six floors before the subcontractors can even get started.
Such acceleration of other subcontractors leads to obvious savings in time. In addition to
the capital cost savings arising from the use of the Hambro 0 -500 floor, it has been estab-
lished by Hambro that there are significant savings in electrical subcontractors alone over
the conventional concrete construction.
' "':~-
433
9. FLOOR DECKING - made of high strength zinc-coated steel decking which acts as both
permanent formWork and positive tensile reinforcing steel in one-way reinforced ooncr~te slab
construction for second level to high floordecking.lt mechanically and chemically bond on concrete
slab to form a solid flooring panel. Steel Decking provides permanent formwof1(, and acts as a
ceiling that looks pleasant to the viewer in the lower floor.
.. .'-~~LEAH
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• POURED CONCREt E
" .. . . ca">
. . .. ~ . ··. ·
THIM REIHFORCENEMT
NO.IO
DECK ON IEAM
length up to 13.7 m
11
CONCRETE (11 )
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NO.(IO
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STRUCTURAL - DECK
434
ECONOMIC
FIRST COST
The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in
final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a
constraint to creati~ design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relation-
ship between structural and e:onstructive design options and they cost of implementation, it
is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced.
The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construc-
tion on the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construc-
tion costs. This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural
and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that archi-
tectural costs have been take~ to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength
and physical integrity of a building design.
"Essential Services" forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of
~nical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the .average, these ser-
vice costs account for some 15 to.30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on
the type of building. Mechanical aRd electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-condi-
tioning equipment and the means of air distribution as well as other services, such as plumb-
ing, communication, and electrical light and power.
The salient point is that this breakdown of cost suggests that, up to now, an average of
about 46 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be
considered as architectural. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups
are demanding leaner designs.Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches
the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.
The FIRST APPROACH to cost efficiency is to consider whenever architectural and struc-
tural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident.
This is what is meant by:
"Form and Function are one" - Frank Llyod Wright
"Less is more" - Mies Van der Rohe
"Maximize the number of - Alvar Aalto and
Jobs done by each design component. Louis Kahn
the final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes ~ different form.
The costs are broken down into 1) Cost of matert&r. brought to the site, ~~ Cost of Labor in-
volved tn every phaae of th4t construction process, 3) Cost of equipment purchased or rente<t
far the project, 4) eo.t of management and overhead and 5) profit.
436
Rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system is done by either the "per-
centage estimate", the "square meter" costs, or "volume-based estimates like per cu.m.
per truckload , per kilo, per bag etc .
ARCHITECTURAL SAFETY:
An objective conceptual planning should be to create an environment in which the user can
be as safe as possible. Although this is a tall order, many of the accidents that frequently oc-
cur in homes, offices, schools, factories, and elsewhere are due as much to the facility de-
sign as they are to user errors. The following typical safety considerations are applicable to
all architectural systems:
437
4. Do not use large ceiling-to-floor glass windows or doors
without appropriate barriers .t o prevent people from walk-
ing through them when they are closed.
BUILDING MATERIALS AS
EXPRESSION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
HONESTY OF EXPRESSION
This is a principle to be observed in connection with the use of materials. The materials of ar-
chitecture have the primary function of enclosing space for the protection of man's interest
and activities, an achievement which can be attained more satisfactorily by paying the pro-
per attention to the qualities of these materials.
438
Wood, stone, brick and glass have their own physical characteristics and are best suited to
various specific situations. Rough field stone would be inappropriate where the smooth sur-
face of polished marble is desired. Materials should also be used in a truthful manner and not
to hide or imitate. Concrete need not be painted to resemble wood or bricks, and terra cotta
is interesting enough to eliminate the necessity of treating it like stone.
Materials and construction should express in addition, the function of the building. Humble
materials should be used with simple structure, and the more ornate reserved for ambitious
buildings. Dishonesty should be avoided at all times. False fronts, useless columns inappro-
priate parapets, and spectacular roofs and domes usually detract from the functional and
aesthetic qualities· of architecture and should have no place in good design.
"Fals~ Front" -is a front wall which extends beyond the side wall of a building or above the
roof.
False
Front '111
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SECTlOt-..1
ECONOMY OF MATERIALS
Correct specifications of materials for the type of structure is important. For instance, a
cheaper cost of material for a low cost house and a more expensive material for a luxurious
type of house.
SUGGESTED MATERIALS
For Simple Structure For Ambitious Buildings
1. Galvanized iron sheets. 1. Long span colored roof tiles.
2. Wood sidings concrete hollow block 2. Reinforced concrete wall brick walls.
walling.
3. Wood Flooring or cement tiles. 3. Concrete slab with vinyl tile floor, gra-
nulithic or marble flooring.
4. Plywood Ceiling. 4. Spraytex and acoustical boards.
5. Plywood Partitions. 5. Narra or pine board panelings .
6. Wood or steel windows. 6. Aluminum Frame Windows.
7. Flush doors. 7. Panel doors.
8. White tiles. 8. Colored tiles.
9. White toilet fixtures. 9. Colored fixtures.
10. Ordinary paint. 10. Expensive paints including textured
fini~hes or wall paper.
MATERIALS:
Building materials have certain physical properties to be structurally useful. Primarily, they
439
must be able to carry a load, or weight without changing shape permanently. When a load is
applied to a structural member, it wil deform; that is, a wire wiU stretch or a beam will bend.
However, when a load is removed, the wire and beam will come back to their original posi-
tions. This material property ie called ELASTICITY. If a material were not elastic and defor-
mation were present in the structure after the removal of the load, repeated loading and un-
loading eventually would increase the deformation to a point where the structure will
become useless.
All materials used in architectural structures, such as stone, brick, wood, steel, aluminum
reinforced concrete and plastics have become elastically within a certain defined range of
loading. If the loading is increased above that range, two types of behaviour can occur;
BRITTLE and PLASTIC : Brittleness win make a material br.,ak suddenly. While plasticity will
make the material flow at a certain load ultimately leading to fracture. The ultimate yield
strength of a material is measured by the stress at which failure occurs. As an example, steel
exhibits plastic behavior, while stone is brittle.
A second property of a building material is its STIFFNESS. This property is defined by the
elastic modulus, which is the ratio of the stress (force·per unit area) to the strain (deforma-
tion per unit length). The elastic modulus therefore is a measure of the resistance of material
to deformation under load. For two materials equal area under the same load, the one with
the higher elastic modulus has the smaller deformation. Structural steel which has an elastic
modulus of. 30 million pounds per square inch (psi) or 2, 100,00 kilograms per square cen-
timeter,'is 3 times stiffer as aluminum, 10 times as stiff as concrete and 15 times as stiff as
wood.
1. Wood
For building purposes and for furniture, wood can be used .in its natural state. Many
different kinds of tools can, however be used for cutting and sawing. Wood, can be
b'>wed and, with modern techniques, bent into complicated curved surfaces. Such
production methods permit a good materiai elCpression of the wood .
bent Wood
440
Wood is not so permanent as masonry but with proper care has been known to last
for centuries. Wood i$ used for structural purposes like framings, posts, roof trusses,
girders, etc. carved wood for interior decorations, and other uses like sidings, panel-
ings, floorings.
Wood may be used in its rough state surface, or planed and smoothed.
2. Stone
The great building material of nature, one of the oldest and perhaps the most perma-
nent.
a. Gnmlte - is a coarse-grained stone and should be.used for large, bold forms with
little carving. It Is the hardest and perhaps the most durable of the building
stones. It is often applied to base courses where protection is desired. In a polished
form it frequently employed as shafts of columns with limestone or terra-cotta
capitals and bases. The nature of the material makes it very adaptable to monu -
mental work. ·
b. Slfndstone- The various sandstone range in color from white to different tints of
red and brown or blue and gray. This material is popular for use in buildings whose
characters lean more to informality than to formality. They give variety and inte-
rest, and the textures of their walls have found favor in different structures.
c. Marble - is a limestone which is sufficiently close in texture to admit of being
polished. It may be divided into two classes, 1) Brecciated marble is composed of
angular fragments, 2) the serpentine marbles are prized for variegated patterns
and often used in large. Flat planes.
d . Limestone-has a fine, even texture, and its colors range from a light cream to a
buff and from a light gray to a darker, bluish gray. It is an excellent wall or exterior
stone and leads itself very well to carving.
441
3. Leather
Characterized by its high degree of plastic malleability which it requires through the
soaking process it undergoes during manufacture. After drying it is no longer mallea-
ble but keeps its form unless a special process enables it to keep its flexibility.
4. Ceramic Materials
Can be manufactured in many different ways. Clay can be used to make bricks, roof-
ing tiles, or toilet tiles, clay pot. Thus the form of a ceramic object does not always tell
us as much about the material as to the colour and texture.
5. Metal
At an early stage, objects of iron and other metals were cast in forms. Today, rolling
and pressing are perhaps the most important manufacturing method.
Steel has qualities of strength but light. It requires less area than solid masonry. Its
structural design may be computed accurately, a saving in space and cost. lt permits
prefabrication in the shop so that less labor is required upon a crowded site. Slabs
and thin sheets of it and other metals can have been developed for surface cover-
ings.
a. BronzB - is one of oldest of alloys composing chiefly of copper and tin. It is cast
into shape and lends itself to the tr-eatment of many architectural features. Its per-
manency and beauty have stood the test of time. Banking screens and shop
fronts, doors and grilles, hardware and lighting fixtures, are constructed of th is
material. It is capable of receiving numerous textures and colors. THe splendor
and polish of bronze require fine marbles and formal architectllre as a setting.
442
b. Wrought Iron -The delicacy and spon-
taniety of wrought iron harmonize with
rougher surfaces and INFORMALITY.
W.l. is distinguished from other metals
by the manner in which it is produced
and by the final effect obtained. Instead
of being cast it is worked upon the anvil
while it is hot or cooling. Iron bars, rods,
and plates are heated and then ham-
mered and twisted into the attenuated
forms so characteristic of wrought iron.
The heavy effects of cast iron should not
be interpreted with wrought, nor should
the drawn character or wrought iron be
interpreted in cast. Wrought iron is elas-
tic and fibrous; Cast iron is brittle.
6. Glass
the art of glass blowing is a very old technique but is stilt included as a rational
method of production today. Glass like metal can be cast and rolled a manufactured
in some other way. The artist of glass strives to express the material he is using. The
most important sensations are volume colour, (Transparency) a stiff haptic form,
tactile hardness, smoothness and coldness.
Nature
Glass is a hard, brittle, and usually transparent substance manufactured by fusing to-
gether some form of silica and a base of lime or lead oxide. It is another ceramic pro·
duct, made possible by the powerful element of fire. Glass has made possible the de·
velopment of cheerful interior. It has made possible the open, flexible plan and has
promoted the close relationship which exists in the present generation between the
interior of a building and nature out-of-doors. Glass admits light while, it keeps out
the rain and cold.
Use
The modern use of glass has assumed so many forms. Glass has been co-
lored and rolled into various shapes for many architectural uses in a build-
ing. Combined with metal, it is made into furniture and equipment. Where a
sense of cleanliness is desired; it is used for wall coverings and paneling.
Trat1spartmt Where a decorative note is needed upon the interior, its black, shining sur-
a
face may assist in producing a mantel,· fountain, or the trim of a door.
Upon the exterior, its shows promise of becoming one of the imporumt
building materials, in collaboration with steel. Its light Weight and its pro-
duction in large, thin sheets with permanent colors and textures recom-
mend it as an enclosing medium. It may be used in the form of glass blocks
opaque which admit light but retain privacy.
For a more romantic point of view, light is directed through colored glass.
The product is the stained-glass, which for centuries has been used in
mediaeval cathedrals. The glory of these cathedrals lies in its beautiful win-
dows with their scintillating beams of ruby and blue, which , by contrasting
with the dark piers relieve an otherwise, sombre interior.
Tinted ;~i:;. -~
·~"
. r.;·<· .~. .. ~.
~.
cut .-,..;;;:.
de5igvt
Thin·architectural
gla65 Placi<fdark
type (30X.30)
Glasc; blOCk~
Arry d~ig11 cutt1Mg;
will do, thi~ an::;hitedural
g IaG6 i6 gJua-::j iv a tf1ir1 ardli~rol
ptait1 mirror type(:!O~.?iO)
piam 9-Jrf.ace.
445
For modern designs, stained glass is being employed for character dining/ restauran ts. In
designing stained-glass windows, factors to be kept in mind are:
1. The character of the glass should be established by the nature of the surrounding archi-
tecture which may be Gothic, Renaissance or even modern .
2. The dominance of color or design will be subordinate to the color. Realism is not expres-
sive of the conventional combinations necessary with glass and lead
446
7. Textiles
The foremost characteristic of textiles is the intertwining of weft with the warp. If a
printed pattern is applied to a uniformly coloured piece of textile, a bad expression
will be given to the pro~uction technique as well as the material itself. The con-
noisseur therefore evaluates, the printed pattern much lower than the woven one. A
typical, often consciously used indication of the 'true' expression is to be found in a
slight, stiff angularity at the details of the pattern.
II . NEW MATERIALS
8. Concrete
A new material in use, concrete is becoming more and more dominant and which
has, in a certain sense, a relationship to other modern techniques. The Romans in-
vented concrete without reinforcement. In manufacturing concrete tod1:1y, mathema-
tical calculations are used which give the modern milieu an artificial touch in its ex-
pression of material and structure.
A unit, like a building or any other object, can be articulated in two different ways. lt
can either be composed of details themselves definite units, assembled to make a
larger unit. As for example, the Greek Temple , a vintage car or a tea pot . This is the
ARCHITECTONIC FORM. Or else the articulation can be made in such a way that
the details seem to have grown out of a single form rather like the limbs on the body
of a man or the branches on a tree with no clear boundaries between the main trunk
and the body. This is the 'ORGANIC' form.
If the form marks are too conspicuous or uneven, or coarse, the surface may be
ground or rubbed until the desired effect is obtained.
448
In many cases, it is necessary to apply a stucco or cement finish to the concrete
walls.
9. Plastics
Another new group of artificial materials more and more in use is that group known
as plastics. However the different types of plastics all show the same architectural
difficulty, that of giving objects created in this material a good expression of the ma-
terial. From the beginning, plastic objects have been imitations of other forms, but
are increasingly assuming a definite style of their own today.
Plastics may be used for many parts of a building , especially for the space-enclosing
surfaces-such as walls, windows, floors, and ceilings and for equipment-such as
furniture and accessories.
Plastics may be moulded, cast, extruded, and laminated, depending upon their com-
position and use.
The plastics that can be cast and extruded may take on various sizes and shapes.
They may come as sheets, rods, strips, cylinders, cones - in fact, in almost any con-
ceivable geometric form. Sheets of plastics in a variety of color and thickness and in
a degree of transparency and opaqueness can be used for walls, ceilings and doors;
while strips of the materials can be bent into table legs, chair backs, or light reflec-
tors.
The laminated plastics consist of thin sheets of synthetic materials veneered to a ply-
wood or fiberboard base. They may come in many colors and textures, either for de-
corative or functional purposes, and are capable of resisting water, acid, fire or wear.
This group may also include resin-bonded plywoods which are strong, light and
durable.
In general, plastic open up new sources of inspiration in the f ield of architectural
design. They remove many of the limitations of old materials and offer increased op-
portunities for the development of a new architecture. Plastics may be sawed, cut,
bent, drilled, and treaded. They are smooth , hard, permanent, light in weight, t rans-
parent or opaque, and durable in finish and color. They challenge the imagination of
the modern designers.
449
BIOTECTURE AND
THE NATURE
'
OF MATERIALS
.
1 word element meaning life, living things.
ake,tch or a plan presents an idea; but materials make it possible to construct the building
which represents the conception of the creative mind of the architect.
Two groups of building materials with reference to their source and their preparation for use.
FIRST GROUP:
Those which are the direct product of nature,
wood u5ed dire~ctly such as wood and stone. These come to the
for Ia] capi11 hands of man as a gift from the forests and the
quarries and require only shaping and minor con-
ditioning for the place they are to occupy in the
building. Often it may be possible to use these two
materials directly without preliminary work of any
kind, except that of transportation.
strne dr'rwtly
~
dreSiGBd sto~e
450
SECOND GROUP:
Constitu tes the majority of our building materials, and require manipulation by the hands of
man before they acquire their finished form .
Nature has given us clay and ore, but they are simply the raw products and must be manu-
fa ctured into usable commodities .
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS:
I. NATURE: (direct product of nature)
STON E - Limestone, granite, marble, sand- PR EPARATION
stone. by cutting and dressing.
WOOD - structural and decorative. Cutting and surface dressing.
452
3. Bagaase -(sugar cane wastes) and rice husks f:>r insulation or cement backing.
4. Abaca - a f ibre obtained from the leafstalk of a banana p lant native to the Philip-
pines.
5. Bamboo -commonly used throughout the humid tropics for house construction.
Main Characteristics
- low degree of elasticity.
- low concrete adhesion.
- limited range of practicable culm diameters and lengths.
- wide variability of moisture content.
Bamboo can also be used to reinforce concrete and can lead to substantial savings
and increased rural employment .
50ttfl11
max1 mum
6. Palm Frond Stems
These are used for non-structural panels, curtain walls, screens, and as a base for
plastering. To construct a house using this material, one first prepares a timber
framework of vertical posts and beams with pre-assembled parrels of palm frond
stems tied onto it to form walls. As they are both highly susceptible to termites, the
timber framework and the palm frond stems have usually to be replaced every 4 to 5
years. However, by using anti-termite shields and by raising the construction above
the ground , the life span of such a structure can be increased to 15 years.
453
7. Earth and Mud Bricks
The most common material of rural construction in the tropics is earth and mud. Mud
walls are often built straight on the bed level of excavations which may vary from 15
to 30 em. below ground level. Flat mud roofs are usually constructed by placing
wooden joists at suitable intervals, covered by planks or bamboos. Twigs and leaves
are then superimposed and topped off by mud which is tamped. screeded, and plas-
tered. Floors are generally made up by dressing and levelling the ground surface,
compacting, and then finishing with a wash of cow dung. As improved version of
this flooring techniques is to ram earth up to the plinth level and finish off with one inch
of clay mixed with river gravel.
Because mud has less strength than most other construction materials, mud walls
are built thicker. Partly due to the thickness of mud walls and partly due to its low
thermal conductivity, rooms built of mud are much cooler in hot climates than those
of any material. Heat builds up on the exterior of concrete walls and roofs due to
solar radiation and surface temperatures usually exceed air temperatures. Concrete
surface being thin and of low resistance conduct heat into the interiors. Mud walls
heat up to a lesser extent during the day and deter the flow of heat so that air temper-
atures in the interior are below those outside, while at night the temperatures are
above those prevailing outside. Thus mud bricks have a beneficial effect in hot, dry
climates which experience a wide fluctuation between day and night temperatures.
As mud bricks are small and can be easily cut and trimmed they allow great flexibility
so that adjustments can easily be made during process of construction. As they are
brittle, they do not stand up well to tension. For this reason, the vault and the dome
was evolved in the EAST. A cross-section of the vault, has a form very similar to an
inverted 'catenary' a catenary is the form that a chord as string will take when it is
hanging freely between two points of support and acted on by no force other than
gravity. However, an inverted catenary experiences only compressive forces with no
bending or tension. A vault appro~imating this shape is ideal for mud brick roofing
and will resemble a "shell structure".
As mud is used to make both mortar for the vault and the bricks for the walls; the
bonding will be better because the surfaces will dissolve and fuse together on drying.
454
Inside View of Hut using Local straw for material for roofing.
455
·sMART HOUSES' OF THE FUTURE
By: RAJ GOPAL VERMA
NEW DELHI-Early morning, a melodious voice wakes vou up: "Good morning. It's six a.m. big day ahead."
If you do not respond, the voice becomes more insistent nagging you till you are awake. Meanwhile, the curtains of
your bedroom windows would part automatically; the shower in the bathroom starts as soon as you are ready and
the coffee begins to brew.
This may sound like a fant8$'f. But wall, it is a moderate estimate of the "house of the future" which will respond to
your orders and no one else's, because security sensors recognize your voice. Already there are several hundred
such "smart houses" all over the world, designed around central compt~ters that control .utility and security
systems, appliances and even music and fountains.
While you are out, your house continues to perform programmed tasks: starting the dishwasher and watering the
garden, opening the gate to certain people and activating recordings of household noises to deter burglars. The
commands can be changed on telephone. If you are ahead of schedule, call home to adjust temperature and
humidity klvela, tum on the sauna and feed the cat. Video consoles provide security because an in-built computer
can distinguish vou from other persons.
The ''smart houses" in Japan and the US have security and decorative lights automatically switching on in se·
quence after dark. If motion detectors in any room sense on human presence after 30 minutes, the lights switch off.
Temperature and humidity are adjusted for night·time comfort. Should late night snackers head towards the kit·
chens, lights will come on, one at a time, to show the way.
Of late, a Japanese firm has launched a number of home appliances operable by means of telephone instructions.
Washer-driers, rice cookers, eletric irons, cleaning robots, refrigerators •.. all fully automated and test manufac·
tured, are being commercialized shortly.
The fully-automated rice cooker sucks up a programmed amount of rice from a storage chest and bran is whisked
away during cooking by an electronic brush. Cooking instructions may be set in advance by telephone so that the
boiled rice is ready whep the owner arrives home. The electric iron has no cord, but heats through induction. After
being placed on an ironing board, built-in-electro-magnetic coils heat the iron, which can be used for many hours.
The cleaning robot moves around the room, avoiding obstacles using an ultrasonic wave sensor. Whenever it en·
counters dust accumulation the robot's sucking force automatically increases. The refrigerator has a liQuid crystal
door, which turns transparent at the flick of a switch, enabling one to see what is inside.
If you are driving back from the city and are caught in a traffic snarl, you dial home on your earphone to report the
delay. The house computer then delays the normal sequence of operations, but activates the video recorder to
catch the tale-serial you might want to see had you been at home. It also adjusts cooking and heating settings to
coincide with vour delayed arrival.
Tomorrow's cars will be unlocked and started with plastic cards while drivers would have to check their routes on
computer. Standard equipment will include dashboard navigation systems akin to that on aircraft cockpits, speaker·
telephones, ergonomic seats and voice alerts to rouse drowsy drivers. Sensors detecting oncoming objects will trig·
ger the brakes, accelerator or the eteering wheel to avert danger. On electronically gridded super highways, drivers
can put their vehicles on automatic drive and snooze while zooming towards their destinations.
The technology to manufacture these gadgets already exists today. But #le danger of incompatible systems also ex·
ists. It is no good having a remote control video recorder or a burglar alarm if vour neighbor's dishwasher is ac-
tivated simultaneously.
In 1986, the European Commission had awarded a handsome sum of money to seven companies to design com·
inunication standards for electric devices in homes which could work on mains wiring, infra-red, radio waves and
various types of cable and ultimately optical iibres. Products so designed will be registered by a special logo.
In future homes, robots will provide much-needed relief to housekeepers. Today, furniture is unnecessary heavy,
because thick pieces of wood, metal and plastic are needed to withstand the stresses imposed by people and ob-
jects. Technologists are now developing new materials that are far stronger than anything we are used to and yet,
extremely lightweight.
A future housekeeper will be able to literally lift a sofa with a fing&f. And it may not even need to be lifted, if it has a
motor and is voice commendable. The robots that clean the floors and rugs may be able to order the sofa to move
out of the way while it does the cleaning. iPNA/PTII
456
HUMAN FACTORS
SOCIOCULTURAL VARIABLES
It is important to recognize that people with different cultural backgrounds view architectu-
ral features differently. Some of the more important differences to evaluate are:
2. FAMILY STRUCTURE
In certain cultural groups, several generations live together within a single dwelling
{grandparents with married child and grandchildren) In others, several families live in se-
parate but joined dwellings; and in still others, the family memb~rs function as individuals
partially separated within the single dwelling.
4. RECREATIONAL PATTERNS
Some families are oriented toward more formal and sedentary recreational pursuits;
others are more physically oriented, usually toward outdoor activities; and still others are
travel-oriented and treat facilities merely as a temporary base of operations.
5. SHOPPING HABITS
Some families shop on the basis of day-to-day replenishment, and others shop infrequent-
ly but store for the long run.
6. JOB PATTERNS
To some, the job is a means to an end, (in which case, ease of getting back home is ex-
tremely important) others are job-oriented and would just as soon the separation between
home and job remain clear and distinct; and still others prefet to work at home and thus
desire a single living and working setting .
7. TECHNOLOGICAL EXPERIENCE
Although technology continues to advance even to the most.primitive areas. care must
be exercised not to assume that all cultures either want or will appreciate many of the
amenities offered by the more technologically advanced societies, especially if these
destroy certain living patterns held sacred for ethnic or religio(Js reasons.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Architect is usually concerned about whether the user will be attracted by the design of
the community, home, building, or other structural edifice-not only when it is first ob-
served, but also is it is occupied over a long period of time. The adjustment between descrip-
tors will be different types of architectural systems. For example, the objectives for a
satisfactory home environment are not necessarily the same as those for a satisfactory office
458
or factory environment. By the same token, similar adjustment is required for subsystems
within the home, office, or factory; ex: the psychological needs in the bedroom are different
f rom those in the bathroom, and the needs of t he production department are different from
those of the company library.
SEMANTIC DESCRIPTORS FOR ASSESSING
OBSERVABLE PHYSICAL FEATURES
IN ARCHITECTURE ~16 .5p=tgOU5H6~
-o
·ra ad1f8Ve
ATTf?At:TIV~Na9.5
459
PERSONAL SPACE
Individuals perceive their relationships with others in term$ of the distance between them-
selves and the people they can see. At least four distinct territorial categories have been de-
fined by various researchers:
1. PUBLIC: Those areas where the individual has freedom of access, but not of action.
2. HOME: Those areas where the regular participants have regular freedom of behavior and
a sense of control over the area ..
3. INTERACTIONAL: Those areas where social gatherings may occur. An invisible bound-
ary and a territorial claim are implicit, though not officially promulgated by the people pre-
sent .
4. BODY: The area immediately surrounding the individual's body. This area is most private
and inviolate to the individual.
Many factors are relatea to the individual's need for personal space:
1. The desire to converse privately in a subdued voice.
2. The desire to interact intimately with a lovea one.
3. The desire to avoid physically contact with another person or the offensive odor of ano-
ther person.
4. The desire to see the eyes of another person clearly.
5. The desire to view another person completely at a single glance.
6. The desire to be an observer, but not an active participant.
461
.15
462
C. Social Distance- "limit of Domination" . Intimate visual detail in the face is not
perceived, and nobody touches or expects to touch another person ~:~nless there is
some special effort.
a. Class Phsss -(3.60 to 7.50 m) at 3.60 m, an alert subject can take evasive or de-
fe~~ve action if threatened.
The voice is loud but not full-volume. The fine details of the skin, and eyes are no
longer visible. Head size is perceived as considerably under life-size.
463
7.!i"D M.
25'0'' OR MORE 0
Kr+{.-\-~... Hr-!r---·-------.. . . . . . --·-D--------.. .~. . .--·-------·-,
/('~[-
·:;~-------------------]-
,__ _
J ---
...
I\ ~~~
... ._.
\
' ' ......
-.....
'~~
--
b. Fsr PhsH-{7.5() m and more) 9.00 meters is the distance that is automatically
set around important public figures.
The voice is amplified and exaggerated. Much of the nonverbal part of the com-
munication shifts to gestures and body stance. Words are enunciated more clear-
ly.
Inadequate personal space creates a sense of displacement and
can be psychologicallly devastating to a person. Any animal, in-
cluding man, must have some place or thing to call its own, no
matter how large or small. One of the "HUMAN NEEDS IN HOUS-
ING" is a need for a sense of place or "ROOTEDNESS". This pri-
marily involves the person's emotional need to belong somewhere
and to have come from somewhere and to have come from some-
where. People require emotional attachments to physical objects
and places if their future development is to be positive and progres-
?orne sive.
... ,. ---.. ......', On a small scale, personal space involves the irniT)ediate area sur-
rounding a person. Everyone has a "PERSONAL SPACE
/1r \
/,
/ '' BUBBlE", which we can define as the area around a person into
II \
which others are unwelcome unless invited. The size of this area
I I varies, depending upon the individual culture. Certain culture de-
l I
I I mand a large amoun~ of space around their in9ividuals, while
\ I
\ I others feel perfectly comfortable with comparatively little space
\
' , I
a
there you can experience, this in crowded lobby or a crowded
' ,...., ____ ,. ; "
' bus. Most people can usually tolerate another person close to them
so long as they are not face-to-face. Eye contact nonnally in-
creases the comfortable distance especially between strangers.
1. "TERRITORIALITY" - involves space that living beings declare their own. They indi-
cate this ownerst,lip through their willingness to defend verbally or physically. that which is
theirs.
A pet dog barks and growls when a stranger get near her doghouse or near her master.
A person who gives a hostile look to someone will indicate an uneasiness to that person
and wiH give him the feeling that he is intruding in the other person's territory. Territoriali-
ty provides the frame in which things are done, places to learn, places to play. Safe
464
places to hide, -basic to territoriality is a sharp sense of the limits that mark the distance
to be maintained between individuals.
Territory is something which is relevant to the individual, to the MICRO-group such as in-
habitants of the same floor of a block of flats, through various social groupings to the
MACRO-group of the town and City. In times of conflict, territorial instincts are inf1ated
to include whole groups of nations.
2. "DEFENSIBLE SPACE" - This is an architectural in-
terpretation of territoriality and personal space. People
identity to others what they perceive to their own
through the creation of a physical barrier. Physical bar-
riers can take many forms, but one we are used to see-
ing is a fence that surrounds someone's yard. Often this
barrier means that intruders are unwelcome. If some-
one trespasses, the owner will feel obliged to defend
the property in some way. Defensible space is a good
example of how human behavior shapes the environ-
ment.
465
HUMAN-ARCHITECTURAL INTERFACES
Although the specific human - architectural interfaces and the level of criticality of each in-
terface may vary from one system to another. the table below should be considered during
the conceptualization of any new system.
HUMAN NEEDS
The most important human needs that affect interior design and housing are:
1. BELONGING -knowing that you call a place yours and no one else's.
2. PERSONALIZATION - being able to demonstrate your creativity in identifying some
place as yours.
3. PRIVACY -having a place to go to or a method by which you can obtain time to your-
self;
4. CONTROL-a mastery over your life and environment.
BELONGING:
All living things have a need to feel that they belong, and the ways in which they satisfy this
need are diverse. Having possessions is an aspect of belonging. Having space for these ob-
jects is the other, integrally linked, aspect . You can have one without the other, but human
satisfaction is usually not complete under these circumstances. This feeling of not beloning
466
is felt by people who moves into an unfurnished apartment when they have no furniture of
their own. You need possessions and a place to put them where you know they will be
secure in order to feel secure yourse(f.
A man usually have a favorite chair where he relaxes, a den where he spends most of his idle
time, white a woman might have a special place in the kitchen where she always sit and do
her chores, or in a garden where she sits always at the same spot. If a home, a car, or a
favorite chair is suddenly unavailable, either because it has been destroyed or because ano-
ther person bought it, or used it, your reaction and feeling will be. very much affected as
when now you want to sit and relax at your favorite chair, but a visitor sat down ahead of
you , for sure you will feel disoriented, forgotten and unimportant since you might think that
no one really cared about your favorite place.
People always talk about a place where they use to stay, where they spend most of their
time. The places of previous human habitation have strong ·influences upon these indivi-
duals. The memories of these places tend to polarize.
PERSONALIZATION:
Through this important aspect of space, a person can create an awareness among others
That a certain area or object belongs to him, and therefore, it should be respected as such.
The tampering with or destruction of the area or object will be met with hostility by the
owner.
Usually, if you have an office or bedroom and have no one to clean it except yourself, all
sorts of things like paper, toys, junks, letters, pictures etc. are placed where you want it to
be, Whenever you look for anything, you know where to find it. However, when someone,
say your mother, secretary or your wife starts to re-arrange or clean the room and upon re-
turning to your room, you find it all changed from the way to kept it, you will feel angered.
Personalization also means imprinting personal values upon something, thus making it a part
of oneself. It allows the emergence of creative urges so often inhibited by society. People do
not personalize everything only those things that they feel are theirs. For examples, young
people living in a communal arran·gement will not personalize the living area that is used
commonly by all of the residents, but the will decorate their own spaces in a highly in-
dividualized manner, conspicously placing objects that reveal who they are.
From a look at such a room, a stranger co.uld probably tell quite a bit about its owner's per-
sonality or at least what that person would like to have the world to see. The Portrayal and
presentation of self are extraordinary important aspects of personal expression.
PRIVACY:
Everyone needs to spend time alone. The lack of this opportunity can have disastrous psy-
chological effects. Lack of it can contribute to delinquency, crime and passivity.
The opportunity for privacy allows you to discover yourself. It gives you time to think for
yourself and by yourself. May be it gives people a basis for being comfortable and satisfied
with their lives. Usually, unless you are secure within yourself you will have difficulty being
secure w ith other people or in outside situations. A basically secure, happy person has more
to offer others and the world than one who needs assurance and depends upon someone
else for happiness. Always taking and not being able to give much take their toll after a
while. Basically, privacy allow~J people. To find out about themselves, to develop and to be-
come individuals.
467
CONTROL:
Control over the environment is one aspect of survival that is absolutely necessary for a per-
son's self-concept and maturation. If people feel they are losing or have lost centrO! over
their lives or environment, psychologica lly their ability to function everyday can suffer. Irre-
parable harm may occur.
Just having a space, a personal space that you can influence and call your own seems to be
essential for human growth. People must be able to know they can influence {change,
adorn, personalize) something or some place so that they can have confidence in them-
selves. This is all part developing a good self-image. Loss of control over w hat happens to
and around you might cause you to slowly give up lifetime goals and ambitions for lack of
the necessary confidence to function effectively.
All of the CONCEPTS mentioned here are integral supportive aspects of human needs in the
spatial sense. But there are more alleys to investigate both from the direction of human
needs in housing and from the Behavioral basis for alt design.
Values do change, partiCtJiarly during different stages in the life cycle stages. Values are
long-lasting, and they are a necessary psyhoclogical crutch for all living things. Values give
us a framework within which we build our lives.
Basically, VALUES are of affective feelings that you, as an individual, have. Values can be
uniquely yours or they can be feelings characteristics of the society to which you belong.
They consist of attitudes that you have developed personally or inherited. Values are your
own thoughts and responses . You may not even know that you have them .
.. VALUE"- Defined
Webster defines value as "that which is desirable or w orthy of esteem for its own sake; thing
or quality having intrinsic worth". In the sociological context "acts, customs, institution,
etc. regarded in a particular especially favorable way by a people, ethnic group, etc."
Values affect all of our Decisions, including:
How we th ink - - - -- and don't think
Believe - -- -- and don't believe
Act - -- -- and react
Do - -- -- l}nd don't do
We develop general " MORAL" values (example good vs. evil, right vs wrong) and more spe-
cific ones !example it is wrong to kill, to steal, to tefl a lie, to cheat, etc.) " RELIGIOUS''
Values (ex: the teachings of our particular religion); " SOCIAL" and "CULTURAL" values
(Ex: respect for parents, charity toward the poor); ''Aesthetic" Values (Ex: what is beautiful,
artistic, pleasing to us); and " PRACTICAL" Values (Ex : thrift, cleanliness}.
468
Values are enduring, they take time to develop and nurtur:e, and like anything treated with
Tender Love and Care tTLC), they are not easily disposed of or change, usually, once you
developed , inherited, been handed a value on a silver platter, or had one smashed on top of
your head, you are stuck with it.
What makes Values so persistent? People psychologically need values as a basis for their ac-
tions. People like to share things, and they like to have a frame of reference when they are
making decisions. People need THINGS and ideas to relate to. These 'things' can be physi-
cal, as in the security of a living environment, or they can be psychological feelings. All of
these considerations contribute to a happier, better-functioning human being.
Simply stated, value are motivativ~ factors in human behavior. They provide a basis for
judgement, discrimination, and analysis, and it these qualities that make intelligent choices
possible between alternatives. Values grow out of human interests and desires. They are the
products of the interaction between an individual and some object or situation in his environ-
ment.
Why do you desire things? Is it because of your culture, your biological configuration, or just
your own personality? Human needs, whether they be physical, psychological, or sociolo-
gical in nature, play a part in the determination of values. In interior design ~nd housing, the
psychological and sociological needs are hardest to determine because they are so amor-
phous.
Why do some people demand to have a showplace for a home, a big mansion, etc., while
others are content with a home that reflects their own comfort? Some people love spending
time indoors, but others could'nt live without easy access to the outside: Some people want
a big living room or reception area while others like a small compact family room. Why?
Because people know what they are doing, whether, it is providing for sleep, eating or
another basic function.
Values are what goals are made for. To have a car, to have a house in the city or in the
suburbs, to have a far.m . AU people are individuals and VALUE different objects in life.
Something happens alor)Q the way to influence a person to value a certain idea. For exam-
ple, the remembrance of having little money as a child can provoke thriftiness in adulthood. A
person who never really had a room for himself or herself as a child may regard the bedroom
as a waste of space and prefer using it as an office or workroom instead. The absence of
childhood privacy which seems to be a CULTURAL NEED a need provoked by the
individual's culture, can have varying effects upon people. These individuals may become
obsessed with privacy or may lack a deep sense of the privacy desires of others.
While no two individuals have exactly the same set of values there are many values which
are common to particular groups, communities and larger societies .
Examples of Dishonesty
a. Building materials being overpriced by the Hardware stores to give commission to the
purchaser or representative of the owner.
" institutiona I b. A transaction where the supplier has to downgrate, dilute, or
language" reduce the quantity of quality of the goods sold in order to pro-
1. "Iagay" vide for a "commission" to the Owner's represen tative. The
2. "padulas" consequences are obvious. If the goods will be used to build
3. "areglo" roads, the roads will become dilapidated and impassable in a
4. "kickback" relatively shorter time than plained for.
5. "under the table"
6. "for the boys" The economic consequences; faster depreciation of transpor-
tation equipment; loss of productive man hours for people tra-
"more Euphemistic veling on the roads; added expenses and loss of income for
1. "commissions" business which use the roads to transfer their goods.
2. "fees"
3. "rebates" This example also apply to construction of buildings wherein
4. "discounts" inferior materials like wood, steel, incorrect mix of concrete,
5. "gifts" inferior paints are applied. ·
c. In a transaction where a developer or contractor is able to put up a big project which
are not really necessary such that a sizable.
Amount of investment made for the facilities cannot be utilized at all. In other words,
"WHITE ELEPHANT".
2. DISCIPLINE -As a value, discipline touches many aspects of everyday life, and ts
closely related to other desirable values. For example, the values of COURTESY and
FAIRNESS are invdlv.ed when we are called upon to practice discipline in situations when
we have to line up in public. Also. how many times has a t raffic jam been caused by
vehicles that are on the w_rong side of the road because their drivers cannot wait in line?
Contrary Practices Individual and national discipline is a multi-faceted value which is
1. "siksikan'' difficult to discuss exhaustively -but it is an essential eteroent in
2. "singitan" any society that intends to get anywhere.
3. "unahan"
For instance, the strong discipline of the Japanese people has played a key role in making
their country an economic world power. To the Japanese the good of the group evidently
comes foremost, and the good of the individual follows naturally.
470
In this regard, the Filipino value or attitude which would be counter productive to econo-
mic progress would be "kanya-kanya" (everyone for himself). This affects society in
many ways.
On the economic level, one glaring example is the widespread abuse of our natural re-
sources, such as the indiscriminate destruction of our forests, whether by cutting down
trees to clear land, and the pollution of our seas and rivers. This lack of discipline in our
use of these resources will tell on our economy in the long run. (In fact we are already suf-
fering the consequences) -in terms of environmental imbalance which leads to soil ero-
sion, droughts, f loods and the accompanying destruction of crops, useful wildlife and
aquatic life, public, infrastructures and private property.
3. HARDWORK -It is a fact that many Filipinos are hardworking. They are willing to labor
diligently and consiste~tly to earn a living and to improve their lot in life. However, the
traditional "WORK ETHIC" suffers from lapses as a value in our culture.
We still find great dependence on "SUWERTE" or luck in our daily pursuits and as a ma-
jor determinant of our success of failure. We still harbor hopes of "HITTING THE JACK-
POT" with one big deal which will not entail to much work on our part.
Attitudes We still have the negatiye aspect of the " bahala na" atti-
1. "suwerte-suwerte" tude, of letting tomorrow take care of itself without much ef-
2. "hitting the fort on our part, of leaving things to chance without minimiz-
jackpot" ing the odds against it.
3. "Bahala na"
4. "Puwede na yan" And quite a number of us still have the tendency to be con-
tent with "good enough" work, without making that extra
effort to achieve excellence. In the competition of the market place, this spells the differ-
ence between the mediocre, run-of-the mill product in great demand. "Puwede na yan"
~s the attitude of those of us for whom excellence, one of the rewards of hard work, is not
a value.
The economic implications if the lack of commitment to hard work as a value are many:
lower productivity; lost business opportunities; lower quality of products and services;
lack of market competitiveness; waste of available resources; lower general standard of
living; more uneven distribution of wealth; delayed economic development; a heavier
wetfare burden on the state; and many more.
4. JUSTICE -Synonyms are "fairness, objectivity, impartiality; is a value which is univer-
sally upheld. Nobody wants to be called unjust.
Terms But how much stock do we put in su ch terms as "nakaisa",
1. "nakaisa" "nakalamang", "nakalusot". (made one over somebody, and
2. "nakalamang" went set-free even an fault), of actions or practices which lack the
3. "malakas" element of fairness?
What underserved benefits to the "malakas" or (influenced ones) get that are not avail-
able to the ordinary citizen? Of the more priveleges enjoyed by "Haves" over the "have
nots"?
Suffice it to say that the less justice in a society, the more discontent, agitation and un-
rest in the various economic sectors, farmers, businessmen, laborers. And it can take
many forms-unwillingness of business to invest; labor strikes; lower agricultural
productivity. Lower construction activities, instability of the Financial system; and at the
extreme and, subversion, rebellion, sucession.
471
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS OF
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
HOW VALUES INFLUENCE THE ENVIRONMENT
The environment can have a profound effect upon a person, no matter what age. An ex-
treme case would be an urban living environment where such crowding exists that no family
member could carry out normal bodily functions alone. A person living in such circums-
tances is bound to acquire some type of value from this experience. Too often, crime results,
but feelings of orderliness and cleanliness can also occur later . You can never predict human
behavior. You can never tell howan event will influence someone.
An example of what values are is this example, question. What do you vyant to happen to
you when you die? Wouldn't it be convenient if we all just disappeared - no mess to clean
up, no major expense, and how ecological! But unfortunately this is ·not the case. You all
know what usually happens. Relatives buy the "best," which probably includes an expen-
sive, well-made coffin lined with satin and color-coordinated, with a soft mattress for maxi-
mum comfort. You would be dressed in their favorite clothes, fixed to look healthy, and ad-
mired by all in your "going-out" party. Finally, you would be placed to rest forever by a bab-
bling brook or, if less fortunate, by a freeway exit, depending upon how far the good inten·
tions (money?) of the family extend. Do you want this kind of send off? So values make you
do what you do. Think of a value you hold very dear. What is it?
As a future housing expert or interior designer, you Will be dealing with people on a daily
basis. Your belief is that the physical environm~nt, when developed properly according to
the situation at hand, can enhance peoples lives, fulfill them and make them happier and
healthier. Most times you do not know what your client's problem is, so you must deal with
that person on an interpersonal place; you have to find·out what he or she is willing to do to
improve the environmental situation. Probably for.emost, you have to be able to communi-
cate w ell enough to determine the real problem.
Your job often isn't that easy. However, when you try to improve a person 's living· or work-
ing environment, you are working with minds and values. You have to be able to find out
what people think and what they feel. This task poses. a special problem, because even
those most knowledgeable in the field do not know definitely which is more influential: the
environment as a determinant of human behaviour or people as determinants of the environ-
ment. In other words, a change in the environment might change a person's attitude, but
how do you know it will? You can never be sure. If people are abstract about what they feel
they want, your task of creating a physical space for them is complicated. How do you know
what to do?
Let's hypothesize that you have been called in by a couple who would like to spruce up their
house. They tel.l you that they would like a total change: Furnishings, wall finishes, floor
finishes, accessories, lighting, - the works. What do you think? Easy job, right? They have
even told you that you can do anything you like and it will be fine with them! Here's the
catch: They will spend only #20,000.00. What about their values? What would appear to be
an overriding value of theirs? Will you take the job? if so, will you set any spe-
cial conditions? _ __ __
In this profession, you are spending other people's money, and everyone gets very touchy
about that. Some people have ill-gotten wealth or instant money while some have toiled
hard and saved hard earned money for a new house. So you've got to be careful and be sure
of your client and the ultimate goal so that you will be able to follow the proper course of ac-
tion . So you see, human relationships are very important. If you can speak with people
and make them feel at ease, they will trust you more, you will feel better, and the chances
wilt be greater that the job you do will turn out well tor all concerned. Trust and little things
count, and they become important cues in human behaviour .
472
The living environment is deeply affected by human values. Often, construction of a house is
viewed :at just that: its construction. Nuts, colts, hammers, nails, 2 x 41umber, etc. But it is
much, much more. The housing environment rises, at least in part, upon human feelings:
values if you will. Just because something has not changed for an extended period of time
doesn't mean it is out of date.
Some designs are, indeed vernacular . This means that their seemingly primitive form is ac-
tually as highly evolved as the present people and environmental conditions permit and re-
quire. Vernacular living environments most often satisfy people quite confortably and com-
pletely. Their materials are indigenous to the area, and the physical arrangement of the living
spaces is uniquely and adequately planned for the life-style of the inhabitants. The residents
usual_!y are well adjusted and desire nothing different.
We get into trouble in more "advanced" societies, where the burden of building is plated
upon developers of large tracts of. lands. Individuals with good intentions usually are ex-
cluded from this profession today because of the extraordinary expense. A developer often
is a stranger to the area in Which the construction is taking place. Because of this cir-
cumstance and the pressure placed upon the builder to produce the quality of life in the ar-
chitectural products of the modem period, which codified most of the utilitarian / biological
standards during the last half century, has been less than satisfactory.
Traditional social networks are not accomodated; aggregations of dwellings rarely respond
to life-styles and cultural values and the solutions based on logistical packaging, construe·
tion determinism or sculptural compositions, as well as the crusade for salubriousness have
only offered emptiness, uniformity, boredom and misfit.
It takes.sensitivity, along with knowledge to realize what you can change and when. Recog-
nizing the values of an institution as large as a country or as small as the family can help
guide your selection of an appropriate c;lesjgn. Misinterpreting information can lead to disas-
trous effects, perhaps to the creation of a totally inappropriate environmental solution .
473
could do nothing to make it "yours. " You just had to live with concrete block w('llls painted
"institutional" blue, large windows with obviously work venetian blinds, and dark, marble-
lized vinyl flooring. All you could do was bring in your own bedspread and pillows. You
could do nothing to the floor or walls. and it is too expensive a proposition to buy a window
treatment for such a short period of time. How would you feel? Would you feel you belong-
ed there? Would you spend much time there?
The sterile environment described above can be likened to a prison . Prison life is said to con-
tribute to the individual's delinquency to a measurable extent . If a prison is stark and imper-
sonal, why do you think the inhabitant might degenerate during incarceration? Values ...
confined to an environment that they cannot influence (personalize) because of its "hard ar-
chitecture," people can react in different ways: by avoiding the place, it possible. or in ex-
treme cases. by destroying the objects within it just to prove that they do have some sort of
control over their lives. Remember, the values we are dealing with are combinations of psy-
chological feelings and the physical environment . We cannot easily separate them.
Lately, offices have been receiving some attention, too. Remember how frightening it was
to go Into the sterile, white dental office? This is one sight that has been known to provoke
hysterical behaviour in acjults. But what it the office resembled a home instead of a hospital?
True, you can't do anything about the medicinal smell, but what about tbe floors, walls and
furnishings? Carpeting, because of its psychological and actual warmth, can create relaxed
feelings among people, particularly if it is in ·a relatively cool or low -intensity color. Earth
tones are also appropriate. Carpeting will absorb and help diffuse sound waves so that you
won't hear the screams of terror that might actually be emanating from the work room . And
how about the furnishings? Can you think of any place more suitable to anthropometric
design (objects designed especially for people though the determination of the population's
average measurements)· than a dental chair? If there is anywhere on earth that you need
comfort, its the dentist's office. And how about music? Mus4c should be loud enough for
you to hear but not loud enough to distract the doctor. Wouldn't it be awful if he or she got
carried away with it and drilled your tongue?
You must recognize the implication here that the human values are evident in the physical
environment. As a future designer, you should discover what will please people enough to
draw them to a particular place and what witf make them stay there. In most cases, the suc-
cess of the venture will not depend upon that environment, no matter how special it is.
Think about a restaurant . It cannot survive on a lively, unique atmosphere unless the food is
good (in the first place). The point is, though, that the environment does have an effect
upon people, and provided all things are equal, it can improve the visitation or business of
the establishment. Values are just one aspect of design, but they are an essential considera-
tion. They must be taken into account in offices, restaurants, schools, and probably most
important, homes.
A civilized " ambience" of the household or a native ambiance. rural ambiance. Ambiance
means an environment or its distinct atmosphere or "milliau") Millieu means an environ·
ment, a social or cultural setting.
474
FOLK BELIEFS
IN CONSTRUCTION
ihese old beliefs mostly influence· the design of a house in filipino architecture.
SOME BELIEFS
1. Don't start the construction of a house at a period when the moon is waning, or entering
its last quarter. Pick .a time on or about a full moon.
2. Start a construction on a Monday; never on a Friday.
3. Avoid starting construction when the year is about to end. A better time is when the
year has just begun, January to June.
4. Never have a house built when your wife is pregnant, and is expected to give birth at
that very month .
5. Before giving the order to lay the foundation or put up the posts of your house. make
peace with all your enemies - especially those belonging to your own family or c:an.
6. In the North, they usually practice the flowing of blood from some animals or chicken
and all foundations or corners of the walt are spalttered with this blood in honor of the
spirits that might be living within the premises. Also a few drops of wine is offered with
some prayer dedication before any wine is partaken.
475
11. No part of the house should cover or overhang a site of a recently-cut tree; neither
should the new house overlap any portion of the old ho.use.
12. Never use materials that once belonged to a church.
13. As much as possible, avoid using materials that came from the owner's old house. The
bad luck of the old house will be transferred to the new house. the old people say.
14. All nails and screws that become bent in the process of building a house should be kept
in a box and not left lying around. Leaving them scattered will bring misfortune to these
involved in the construction.
up
correct
wrvn_g
18. The longer length of the roof must lie parallel to the road instead of perpendicular to it.
[I]
t+Jis
476
19. The number of steps in every flight of stairs must fall to the count of either oro (gold I or
plata (silver) never mata (death! since if the last counting is mata, bad luck or poverty is
to be expected.
plata
/or this
/this
wittdow
door
477
23. Main doorways should not face the west or
where the sun sets, it brings bad luck.
24. Main doors should always open towards the
inside to bring in good luck. Reverse opening
to the outside will bring out the good luck.
25. Do not occupy a new house until it is completely built and blessed. Before you will occu-
PY the new house, bring in first the common necessities in a house like sugar, rice, salt,
and also the statue of christ in a throne.
26. The arrangement of the bed should not directly be parallel and vertical to the girt or
rafter as the old folks say it will cut into half your good fortune.
u
ll
I I
n L I
II
II
II
tlII =~~= = ===-"":..--=~= ==--=-=
II II
II
II
II rcifiBr or girt f U
II
II
II
II
t~I
,; v ------------------
. ______ ----- -------
..
II 11
II
11
II
II
u
II
H bE\1
u
II
II
#:L;rafter or girt
It
478
FENG SHUI
Feng shui (pronounced "Fung soy") a term literally translated as wind-water, is the chinese
art of geomancy, the placement and location of buildings and manmade structures to har-
monise with, as well as benefit from, the surrounding physical environment.
It is believed that with proper orientation of one's house or business premises one is able to
harmonize with nature and relate to the physical surroundings favourably to attract desirable
cosmological influences. Having good Feng shui builds up one's confidence and energy to-
pursue success. It is believed that having bad feng shui may lead one to misfortune, failure in
business ventures or poor health.
It is the task of a Geomancer to determine the qi in order to site buildings in such a way as to
benefit from its vitalising power. With the help of the luopan or geomancer's compass, the
geomancer determines the best orientation of buildings, and assesses the good and bad
qualities of the dragon at the site. The luopan is a circular disc marked with concentric circles
of chinese characters. It gives series of direction and classifies a variety of geomantic factors
such as the type of water and the five orders of natures in relation to the time of birth of the
owner or prospective buyer.
Besides the luopan, the geomancer uses the geomancer's ruler to calculate the size and
overall dimensions of a building to ensure proportions favourable to good fortune. Apart
from the surrounding land and the bu~ding itself, each room is seen independently to
possess qi, and the geomancer's tasks is to locate its nucleus, the centre of vibrant energy, so
that its occupants may benefit from it, through the arrangement of furniture or the organiza-
tion of work .
Oi - cosmic breath of the chinese dragon or life for growth and vitality which causes moun-
tains to be formed and gives man spiritual energy.
In locating commercial and business centres it is important to find the dragon and qi areas.
Locate the most important buildings in the qi and prominent positions, like in the central
position and on the highest ground. If there are hills and sea in the location, place the com-
mercial buildings facing the sea with the hills in the rear. (or the building facing south so that
the rear faces north and preferably blocked to invite good luck).
Sha qi - literally translated, breath that hurts; travels in a straight line; ex: when a building
faces a T -junction, the qi is too vibrant and becomes sha qi.
An Example:
·-----
another example
one enters the room but in a straight line,
luck exits outside.
479
Examples of Bad Feng Shui Solutions in warding off bad feng shui
1.
D street street
II T-junctions
Perpendicular
II put a slight offset
2.
Doors
Provide mirrors facing each
Facing each other
on the doors. These are us-
ed to deflect negative "chi".
--.. . . t---
1
I
I
<)>
The corner of the block/
bldg. sculpture points at the
main entrance mostly bad
business.
Or place a wall to direct
customers in. Business will
improve (or remove the
sculpture).
480
4.
5.
D
kitchen
kltche n
481
6. Sometimes a business house may be well-designed with no feng shui defects. Yet the
business is poor and the company runs into debts. In such a case, the feng shui of the com-
pany manager's residence has to be assessed.
482
•
7, This night club has its qi disturbed and
blocked at the entrance by a large reinforced
concrete column.
r
e --
D
Avoid headboard aligned with. the door. stairs should not end· in a
toilet whether going up or
down .
483
Avoid more than three to four doors in a row
for a residence.
a business establishment
that is wide in front but
getting smaller resembles
a drain or funnel. This is
considered bad luck.
'
c
'c
I
c
Steep or pointed roof form
a triangular-shaped pond in
front of the entrance is bad
Feng shui.
''I I
'I
'I I
I
NOTE: It is not good practice to orient a building to face true north, east, south or west.
If it is auspicious to place it in the direction of Kun, then place it off north (between
1° and 5° off north).
484
In chinese, wooden steps are counted in the order of autumn, winter, spring· and summer or
1, 2, 3, 4. The last step should end only in either spring and summer.
The master's bed should always face North. For good health and a life of contentment.
Master of the house should never sleep facing south.
The family will have more than enough to eat if the stove switch points west and the cooking
is done while facing east .
The toilet is the treasure of the house and so the toilet floor should be lower than the main
floor by 1 to 2 inches to keep the money in
misfortunes like financial losses and accidents can be avoided by following these dont's.
6. Before moving in a new house, the master should wear a suit for good luck, carry with
him a blanket, pillow and bedsheet together with 48 pieces of coins in a little red box.
7. Cook something sweet, avoid eating sour foods.
485
YIN/YANG ELEMENTS AND FENG SHUI
In order to achieve good feng shui, there must be a good balance of yin and yang. In other
words, contrast should be present in order to achieve Balance . For example if the walls of an
office are painted a cool colour, the furnishing should be in warm colours.
EXAMPLES OF YIN/YANG
YIN YANG
Feminity, darkness, Cool colours, liQuidity MasculinitY, brightness, colou rs that are
and intrusion. warm, Solidity and protrusion.
SIGNBOARDS
The signboard is a very ·important element for a business establishment because it represents
the spirit and nature of business of the company. It must be legible and pleasing to the eye,
well balanced in shape and not blocking any openings.
The sizes of signboards are subject to yin and yang forces. For example, if the length is yin,
say 88 em (even in number) , then the breadth should be yang, say 81 em (odd number).
Signboards should have either three or five colours. Three symbolises growth and five, com-
pleteness. Those with two or four colours are not as ideal.
LOGOS
A logo or signage on a commercial building carries a denotative indication and gives a
message regarding its trade and sometimes, products. Good signage is not on ly an integral
part of the building design but also important in feng shui t erms. Besides the colour and size
of the signboards, the logos on them are juSt as important. Logos have to be identifiable, at-
tractive and appropriate.
486
This oval logo symbolises
conflict.
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
AND INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY
It is necessary for man to build. Even the simplest building involves a series of decisions. To
some extent decisions may be predetermined by TRADITION, by the builder's knowledge of
the right way to do things according to the custom of his people . On this basis a people
develops a characteristics architecture. We call things:
487
1. FOLK ARCHITECTURE
The buildings of men, being larger and more complex give rise to a greater number of
unique dedsions. Man is an unusually adaptable animal. He is capable of evolving
culturally, through cumulative experience of adaptation and successive creative deci-
sions . Decisions may be made collectively-by voting for example - but ideas occur in a
single mind which they may be communicated.
In the process of building a man make decisions which derive from his own ideas. His
ideas and therefore in a sense his self, seem to be embodied in the building-in the
design.
The architecture of a folk is evolved and modified by ideas and imitation. Folk architec-
ture is capable of diversity and differentiation. A hundred chalets may look alike and all be
different, just as a hundred people are superficially alike but all different. Architecture
begins with creative decisions by the builder and differentiations. which be associates
with himself.
Man discovered that over and above satisfying his functional needs the decisions he
made in designing a building created a relationship between him and the building, giving
it meaning, Architecture is building with which people have identified themselves, giving
it significance.
In folk archite.cture significance is given to the individual as a member of the communi-
ty- the f olk. Custom predominates design is within the context of custom; but folk archi-
tecture is design by people for people in the context of a community of people. It is intelli-
gible and congenial just as a dialect is.
In the older countries of the world it tan still be seen that Folk architecture is localized.
Often to a single valley or a few square miles of plain. The reasons for this are sometimes
apparent. They are often cultural and ethnic. Folk architecture is generally the architec-
ture of small communities.
FOLK ARCHITECTURE is then the natural domestic architecture of a people. If they mig-
rate they commonly take it with them, even in defiance of climate, but practicality ope-
rates over a period of time to adapt the original forms to new conditions, frequently pro-
ducing a new Folk style derived from the old. The characteristics of folk architecture ex-
tends to simple communal buildings such as churches, workshops, warehouses, and
barns. Origina1ity in the design of architectural form is minimal and differentiation is main-
ly a matter of building type, detail and craftmanship in decoration. Folk architecture is
concerned with the comfort and convenience of its inhabitants, congeniality being the
prerequisite of comfort.
The grouping of villages into large organizations, with the emergence of towns and cities,
creates new architectural needs which cannot be satisfied entirely by folk architecture. A
new kind of man is required, the architect.
It is apparent that different villages have different architecture and each is significant of
its own locality and people. The idea of significance becomes generalized; it is seen as a
property which architecture has. A process of synthesis then begins in the minds of ar-
chitects - They see Folk architecture as a way of designing and think of themselves as
designing in " The VERNACULAR " .
2. VERNACULAR is really a linguistic term, but it is transferred to architecture. An ar-
chitect designs in the built equivalent of the common way of speech, be it local, as in a
dialect, or national, as in the differences between the llocanos, Pangasinanese, pam-
pangos, tagalogs, cebuanos, muslims. Vernacular architecture uses the design skills of
architects to develop folk architecture.
From early times men have g~nerated natural objects such as trees, caves 1 standing
488
stones or conical hills . They have made mounds an set up stones and tree trunks, giving
them religious and magical significance. They have set up altars and made buildings to
house -the paraphernalia of sacrifice of worship. They have proceeded to build temples
signifying not only themselves and then non aspiration but also the power of attributes of
a spirit or deity. Much early religion was functional. :twas intended to achieve beneficial
results: fertility, rain, sunshine, the rotation of the seasons. Significance and function
were determined by priests who claimed to be expert in functionally correct and spiritual-
ly significant buildings. This architecture, concerned with man's relationship to spiritual
powers, was capable of development to high levels of sophistication.
Vernacular Architecture is a generalized way of design derived from Folk Architecture. It
may be seen as the development of the 'natural' architecture of a region which is de-
finable in terms of climate, culture and materials. Of its own nature, however vernacular
architecture as limited to that which can properly to expressed in the 'vernacular.' It can
be used for spiritual monumental and utility buildings but limits of properiety are set by
taste and judgement scale is a.crucial factor. Vernacular architecture is congenial to peo-
ple and symphathetic to environment. It is for loving rather than admiration.
4. MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE
"The phenomenon of death is awe - inspiring, its circumstances often pathetic, the belief
in a soul persistent and the desire for commemoration deeply rooted. The marking of a
grave is the beginning of monumental architecture. The purpose is to commemorate and
honour. The simplest, indeed the inevitable form is a mound which the emphasis appro-
priates to a mighty king, elevates into the pyramid and elaborates into the mausoleum.
Already in ancient Egypt, men are building tombs during their lifetimes to commemorate
them in death . The idea of monument is as dignification of the dead is extended into life.
Monuments are erected in honour of the living to outlasts their bodily existence. The in-
tention to remember, the complimentary status-symbol, gives monumental architecture
an honorific rote among the living, and the association with death is tactfully played down
until it is almost forgotten.
Monumental architecture is honorific in its significance and is extended from person to
institutions, to governments, corporations and banks. Death and religion being closely
associated in the minds of men, the distinction between monumental and spiritual archi-
tecture is often blurred . There is some merging of intention and significance but there is
an original difference. Spiritual architecture is related to noncorporat things monumental
architecture to people and it is important to keep this distinction in mind.
489
MONUMENTAL M ONUMENT is, by definition, committed to remembrance and so to the
appearance. The simple repose of massive earth-borne structures and trilithonic openings
are preferred to enigmatic balances and controlled thrusts. Symmetry of plan goes with
the stable symmetry of structure. Monumental architecture is concerned primarily with
the dead and may anticipated in life the honours to be paid to the departed.
5. UTILITARIAN building takes as many forms as there are purposes to be served, but .in
the past it has generally not been regarded as architecture, the reason being that it was
simply serving a purpose without having any other significance. Castles or
city walls
might be given monumental or spiritual additions, such as elaborated gateways intended
to impress the visitors and express the importance and pride of the inhabitants. Indeed
almost any building could be taken out of the utility class by giving it significance other
than its inherent function, but the design the lost its utilitarian character and assumed the
garb of another kind of architecture. Frequently this was monumental as in the great ther-
mae (bathhouse) of ancient Rome or the stables of a pretentious mansion.
UTILI TARIAN ARCHITECTURE is, by definition, dedicated to utility, and the expression
of function becomes architectural homage to a non-spiritual objective. Utilitarian archi-
tecture is materialistic. Materialism can recognize no values outside itself and the utili-
tarian is self-justifying in terms of its utility. Utilitarian architecture is the reflection of rna·
terial achievement seen as an end itself.
490
·~;.:.~ . . ....... . .
.,. ....: ·, ·-·~·-- ' , .. .
\•J' .
\'·
.;
Ea5t Indian
ar~ • goofad Hou~e
CHin~
491
Half- TimM- House
·111\1···
mmll
492
Mediev~l Ch~teau
493
LAPLANDERS HUT INDIAN AOOBE HOU56
IGLOO
PIONEER SCP HUT
NIPA HUT
AFRICAN HUT
494
USEFUL DATA
As per Filipirto- AGiaH Artthmpomerric~ ,
based 011 the M ODU LOR cf'' t.e Cor~u~ter'
Z'l1d ''FlJRNICUBE " of the Author
"
HEIGHT u JJ! I~ ~ nl c a Jl _I!
l.93(6'·<t) 0.16 0.27 0 .43 0.43 0.10
1.12(s·-a·) 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.40 0 .65
1.67(5~6) 0 . 15 0 .24 0 . 39 0.39 o. ~3
!or
I
!
I
I , .
'PERSONS ·
HEIGHT
~MENDED
KITCHE"J CABft-JET R A ILI NG SHOULDER REST ARMPIT REST CEILING HEIGHT
-~
495
BIBLIOGRAPHY
496
INDEX
497
Division of space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396, 396
Doors ·· ..... ........................ .... ...... ........ 373
G
Duality . . .. ... . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 143, 144 Generic scale .. .. .. .. ... ... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . . .... . 25
Geometric .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. •. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. 209
Gesta lt ... .. ... .. .. . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . 179, D
E Golden section .. ... .. ... ....... ,.. . .. .. ... ... .. .. .. .. 85
Economic .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. ... . . . .. 200, 436 Good taste ... ........ ..... .. ..... ... ................... 90
Economic condition ... .. ......... .. .... ........ ..... 15 Glass ... ..... ................ ... ....... ........ .. ... .. 445
Economy of materials . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Gradation .. ... .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 87
Eddy . .-:.-...... .. ... ...... .............................. 363 Gravitational or picturesque ....... .. ........... .... 136
Edge & comers .. .. .......... ....... . ,.. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 51 Grid ....... ...... ........ .. ...... .... ............. .... .... 253
Edge to edge contract .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 41 Grid forms ............................ . ,... ,... ,. .. . . . . 48
Edges ................ ....... ......... ......... ........ . 373 Grid organization ....... ,... ...... ....... .. .......... 268
Education ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. . ...... .. ... . .......... .... 15 Ground sur1aces .. .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. . 360
Effect of cotour on form .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. . n
Effects of the visible size on colour ... .. . . .. .. . .. . 76 H
Effect on architecture .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... .. . 5, 7
Elements of sJte control .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. . 343 Handicapped users ... ................... .. ·.·....... 399
Solar shading in summer .. .. .. ... .. . ... .. .. . 343 Haptic .. .......... ...... ..... .... ... .... .. ... .. ... ....... 308
White roofs & desert cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Hearing ..... .................. ... .. ..... ... .. .. ........ 398
Passive solar planning ..... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Height in place .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 192
Natural heating & daylighting .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 350 Hidden zones in american offices .. .. .. . .. 276, 2n
Windowless building .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 352 Hierarchy .... .. ....... .... .... ................. .... . 146
Utilization on natural growth .... .. ... .. ... .. .. 353 Honesty of expression .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... . .. .. .. 438
Equipment on the roof .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. . .. 356 Horizontal disposition .. .... .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. 216
Utilization of water & air ...... .......... ........ 357 Hu":lan architectural interfaces .. ..... ... .. .. .. .. 466
Thermisiphoning ..... .... .. .. .... ......... .... ... 358 Human needs.......... ...... ......................... 466
Emotional needs .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . 2 Hu I'Tl8f1 factors .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. 458
Emphasis ... .. ..................... ....... .... .... .. .. 162 Human scale .... .. ... ...... .... ...... ......... .. .... . 176
Enclosure .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 200
Enclosure !Building en velope).. ...... .. ... . .... .. 385
Energy and architectural design ....... , .. . . .. . .. 336
Energy consumption on buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 336 Illusions of depths .... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..... .. .. .. . 188
Environmental planning .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . 341 Impossible figures .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. . ... .. 176, 177
Ergonomics . .. .. ....................... ... ... .. ... 238 Indigenous materials... .... ..... ........ .. .... .... ... 451
Evaluation .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . 212 lndt~xicel sign or index ... ..... .. .. .... ....... .. , .. . 301
Evaporate cooling ... ... .................. .. .. .. .... . 346 Industrial............... .. ..... .. ... ..... ... ..... ,... .... 71
Excepti_ onal size ...... .. .......... .. ........ .......... . 146 Inherent quality ... . .. . .. . .. ... .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. fi1
Expression .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 309 Information .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 211
Innovations in airport design .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .... 222
Influence of man . .. .. ............ ............ ... .. .. 9
Influence of nature .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. . 5, 6, 7, 8
F Institutional .. ... . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. ... .. ... 73
l11tellectual needs .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . 2
Face to face contact .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. . 41
Family structure .. .... ................ .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 458 Interlocking space . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. ... . . . ... . . . . . 247
Figure ground .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 168 Interlocking volumes... ....... .......... ............. 41
Filled and empty distance ......... ........ .... ...... 186 Invisible structure .. .. . ........ ..... ...... ..... ..... 18
Filters .. .. .... ... ........ .... .... .... . ......... .. .. . .. .. . 332 Iconic signs .. ... ... .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ... . .. . 302
Fitting together ............. ....... ..... .. .. .. .. ...... 323 Irregular forms ..... .. .. ..... ......... ........ ..... .. . 35
Folk architecture .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 479
Folk betief in construction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4 75
Form ... .... ..... ......... ... .. .. .. ... ........ ...... . 19, 22 J
Forms and images ....... -·... .. ...................... 284 Job pattern..... .. .......... ........ ... ... .. ...... ...... 458
Forms of the circu lation space ......... .... .... .... 297 Joining elements ...... ............. .. .. .. ... ........ 324
Form shape and appearance .. .. .. . .... . .. .. .. .. . 411 J uKtaposition ... ...... .. ... .. •.......... .. .... .. .... 66,68
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Functional character .... ..... ....... ................. 151
Functional design .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. 225 K
Functional grouping & zoning ...... ......... 216, 286
Ken .. .. .. .... .......... .. ... ........ ,. .. .. .. . . .... 107
Fusion... ........ ......... ..................... ... ....... 325
Kinesthetic . .. ... .. .... . .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . 168, 167
Futurehome ........ ....... ......... ...... l7
Kinesthetic qualities of space .... ......... ..., .. .. 275
Floor & ceiling plane concepts ........... ...... .... 384
Auctuation ................... .. .... ......... ........... 186
Framework$ 324
Frenc h renai~ ~~~ .. : ·::::: :::::::::::::::::::::·:: ::: 10 l
Frontal .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. . ... .. .. .. '1If1 Learned symbols ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. ... . 3117
498
Le<~ther . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Pa.sive solar planning . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 348
Level CO\Intry . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 8 Path space relationships .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 296
Lift slab building system . .......... ......... . .. ... . 418 Personal character............ ...... .. ................ 154
Light .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ...... ........ .. .. .. 375 Personal space ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .......... .. . .. .. . 460
Linear ................ ........ .. .. ,. ....... .. ... .. .. ... .. 253 Personalization ......... .... .... ....... ........ . .... .. 466
Linear forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Perception of object .. .. ... .... ....... ........ ...... . 167
Linear organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 225 Perception ofshape .. ...... ........ ...... ....... ... 167
Line generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282, 283 Perception ofspace .... .... ........ .... ........ .. . . 185
Linkages ................ ...... .................... .. 227,285 Perceptual quality of the desjgned
environment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 466
M Position .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..
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24
Macro group . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 heat gain ... .. ... ...... .. .... .. .. .. .. .... .......... 345
Mall .. .... ........... ... .. .... ............... .... .. .. .. . 297 Physical n4J&ds .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2
Manufactured proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 102 Physical space . .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .
Z37
M811boro box to box design contest . ... .. . .. .. . 209 Plan configure~tion . ... .. .. ... .. ... .... .. ... ... . .. .. .. . 55
Mass ........ .......... ..... ... ..... ..... ...... ... 19 Plan configuration scheme .. ......... .... .. .. .. ... 160
Materials... ...... ... .... .. ...... .. .... .. ....... ..... .... 9 Planning .. .. . . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. . . . . 323
Mechenical electrical system ................. , . .. 288 Platonic solids . .... . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . . . . 32
Mechanical structural integration . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 288 Pragmatic design . .. . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Metal ................ .. ....... ................ .......... 422 Precast in concrete .. ....... ....... ... ... .... .. .. ... 415
Methodology .......... .. ............... ...... .. ....... 210 Precast waffle slab system . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Micro group .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ... . .. . . 466 Prestressed concrete.... ....... .. ..... .. .. ..... ...... 423
Milieu ....... .... ....... .............. ..... ....... ....... 158 Prestatement ......... .............. ........ ..... ".... 211
Mobility .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. 392, 399 Priorities .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 336
Mode of .construction or structural Princioles .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 161
pl'op<) rtion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . 103 Principle related to function . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 216
Modulor .. : ............ ............ .. .. .': ... ~.......... . 110 Prism sculptures .. .. ... .... .. ....... , .. .. .. ... .. .. .. 203
Monocular cues to depth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 189 Primary shapes .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. .... .... ... 28
Monumental architecture .......... ... ........ ...... 480 Privacy . .. ... .. .. .... . .. ... ....... ... ... .. ... .. .. .. . 467
Motor skill .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 397 Problem statement 211
Movement through space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Promenade .. .. . . . . . 297
Mountain regions . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . .. . .. .. . 8 Proportion . ............ 85, 150, 119
Multi-usa of space. .. ...... ... .. ...... . ............... 392 Proximity .............. ........ .... .. .. .. .. ...... .. ... 186
Process ofspace organization .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. 243
N Properties of enclosure ...... .. .. .• . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 372
Psychological effects of color .. .. ............ .... . 70
Natural heating & daylighting . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 350
Psychological blocks ..................... ............ 2!J7
Natur81 light and structure Interact
Psychological factors ........ ............... ....... 179
at overall level .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 403
Psychological considerations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 458
Natural material proportion .. .. .. ............ . ..... 101
Psychological & social space .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 460
Necessities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
New meterials .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . 447
Q
Notional.... ...... .............. ... .... .. .... ... ....... 480
Qualities of architectural space .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 372
0
Oblique . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 287
R
Occupancy ..... .......... .. ............. ............... 341 Radial .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 134, 253, 295
Open frames ........................ ..... .. .... .. .... . 330 Radial forms .. ............................... ....... 253
Opening in spa<:e defining elements .. .. . .. .. .. . 373 Radial organization .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 2'57
Openings .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
373. 382 Recreational pattern .. .. ..... . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 458
Openings within places movement . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. 382 Refurbishment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 437
Orientation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25, 348 Regular forms .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 35
Organic ........ .. . .............. .. .. ...... ... .. . . 161 Rehabilitation........ .. . ...................... .... .. .. . 15
Organizational process .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 141 Relations........... .. ........ .. .. ........... ......... . .. 98
Orientation to the sun . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 285 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Orientation to the wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Relative size ................ .......... ............... .
Overhead plane elevate~;! .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 373 Roof ............................. .. ..... .. .. ........... 414
Overall approach to structural
education .......... ........ ........... ......... .... 400 s
p Safety color guides .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..
Salubriousness .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
72
473
Pll8dox of depth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 184 Scale ..·............. ...... . ........................ ..... 126
499
Sernantii:s .. .. ...... .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ..... .. ..• .. .. .. .. . 330 Textile. .................................., ..... ... _ . , . 447
Sensory factors .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. 397 Texture . ....................... .. . ...... ........... .. .. 61
Sensory perception .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 329 ThefiTlOIIfphoni "9 .. .. .. .. .. .. ...................... . 358
Similarity .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. 89 Tone ........................ .. .... .. . .... ... .... . .... . 65
Sigl'\81 & sign .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 301 Topography ... . ...... .. .. ...... ... ........ .... ...... . 8
Site development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .... .... .. . . . . 343 Transportation ..... .... ... . .... ........ .. .. ....... .. . 115
Site selection . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Transformation ............. ...... ....... ............ . 163
Size................... .. ............ .. .. .. .. .. ........... 125 Transition .................. . .. ........... .... . . .. .... . 164
Social conditions .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 9 Triangles ...................... .. ... ..... .. ......... . ... . 38
Scx:io cultural variables........... ................... 456 Typologie design ...... .. .. ...... .. .......... ... .. .. . 309
Solar altitude in summer .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . 354
Solar shading in wmmer .. .. .. .. .... .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . 343
Subtractive forms .. .. .... .... .... ..... .. .. ...... .. ...
Subtractive transformation .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
38
38
u
Surface .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 372
Unaccented rhythm ...................... .... ....... 138
Schematicdesign .. .. .. ......... ......... .... .. ...... 338
Underground structures ...... ...... ....... .. ... ... 361
Slip form .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 43 Uniformity & diversitY .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . 392
Slump test .... .... ................... .. .. ... .... .. 415
Unique shape ........ ......... ............ . , .. .. . .. 147
Space........... .. . . ...... .......... ... . ... .. ... 237
Unity .. ............... .. ... ... .. .... ........... .... .. ... 142
Space to space relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . 246
Unsymmetrical ..... .............. ............... . 134
Space articulations .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 265
Users requirements .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 392
Space frame . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 234
Utilization of natural growth...... .................. 353
Utilization of water & air .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . ... .. . 357
Space to circulation relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Space to circulation linkage .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 285
Util ization .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 481
Spanstress .. .. ...... ..................... .............. 427
Users population characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Spatial organ ization ............................. .... 251 User efficiency .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 397
Spatial perception .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 239
Spatial tension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
Spatial qualities .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .
41
243
v
Spiral .... .... . ..... ................... ....... 295 Value ........ .......... .. .............. ... .. .. 468
Square ... .......... .. .... ........ .. . .. .. ... .... 27. 312 Value aspiration & culture .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. . . 468
Stability .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Vanity .... .......... ..... ... . . .... ............... ... 171
Stages in designing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Vertical plane........... . ... ...................... ..... 273
Strategic location .. .................. .... .. .. .. ... ... 147 Verr.acular .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 479
Stairs . .. .... ....... .... .... ... . .. . .. .. ... ...... ..... .. . . 299 View ................. .. ........ .................. ...... 379
Stereoscopic .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 166 View from site .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 380
Stone .. ... ......... .... .. .......... ..................... 441 Vision.. ...... .. ........................... .. .. .......... 397
Strength ........................... .... ................. 397 V isual depth ........... .. .... .... .... .......... .. ..... 187
Structural forms .. .. .. .... .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. . 431 Visual expression of f unction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 314
Structural & other sub•system.... .. .... .... .... .. . 10 1 Visual expression of production .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. 382
Structural & engineering .. .. .... .. ...... .. .. .. . .. 400 Visual expression of materials . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . 440
Symbols . . . . . ...... ......... .. .. .. . .. ... .. ... .. 306 Visual properties of form .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . 22
Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Visual inertia .. . .. .. .... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 26
Synthesis ..... .... .. .... ............ .. . .. .. ..... .. . 212 Visual or optical illusions .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. . . .. . . 100
Skylights......... .... ...... ... ........ . .... ... . . . 386
T w
Taste 88 Wall concepts .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. .... .. .. .. .... ... . 282
Technological experience ... ... ... .. .. .. . ... .. ... .. . 458 Wab panel joints ................................ .. .. 424
Temperature ......... ........... .. . ................. .. 369 WIOdow opposite side ............ .. ... ...... ..... . . 362
Temperature climate .... .. .. ... .................... . 330 Windowless building .............. ... . .. .. .... ..... . . 352
Tent . ... ... ..................... .. .. ...... .... ........... . 330 Window location ......... ................ .. .. .... .. 362
Tentative solution ... .... . ... ................. ..... . 206 Whining triangle ... ..... .... ........ .. .... ......... . 124
Terminate in a space .... .. ............. .... .... .. .. .. 296 White roof8 & desert cooling ............ .. ... . .. . 348
Territoriality ...... ... ....... .. ........ .. ............ . 464 Wood .. ... . .................... .............. ....... ... . 440
Answers To How good is your taste? Answers To How artistic are you ?
1. A 6. A 11 . B 1. B 5. A
2. B 7. A 12. B 2. B 6: A
3. A 8. B 13. A 3. A 7. B
4. B 9. A 14. A 4. A 8. A
5. A 10. B
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