The Energy Budget

UNIT 6 THE ENERGY BUDGET OF THE of the Oceans

OCEANS
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives

6.2 Solar Energy

6.3 Heat Balance of the Oceans
6.3.1 Unequal Heating of High and Low Latitudes
6.3.2 Transfer of Energy from Low to High Latitudes
6.3.3 Heat Gain
6.3.4 Water as a Storage System of Heat Energy
6.3.5 Heat Loss from Oceans
6.3.6 Heat Transfer
6.3.7 Variation in the Temperature of Sea Water

6.4 Salinity and Density Distribution in Surface Layers of the Oceans

6.5 Density Distribution in the Surface Layers of the Ocean and Process
Controlling Density Distribution
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Every minute the Sun delivers about 2 Calories to each square centimeter of the Earth’s
Surface normal to its rays. Due to different angles at which solar radiation strikes the
Earth’s surface and a very high reflective characteristic of the ice cover in the polar
regions, more energy is absorbed by in latitudes between 35º North and 40ºSouth.
Although Polar Regions are considerably colder than the equatorial regions, the
temperature difference does appear to be increasing with time. In this unit we will make
an effort to identify the mechanism which transfers the heat absorbed at low latitudes to
the higher Latitudes and maintains the heat balance.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to
• explain the reasons for variations in the temperature of the ocean water and
the heat balance of the oceans, and

• have a general idea of the processes which control the salinity and density in
the water of the surface layers.

6.2 SOLAR ENERGY

6.2.1 Sources of Heat
Natural heat energy on the earth has three sources:
(i) the radiated energy received from the Sun, called insolation,
(ii) the geothermal energy, that escapes from the hot interiors of the earth (it is
estimated that the temperature at the inner molten core of the earth is about
5000ºC), and 57
Meteorology and (iii) the earth’s own radiation.
Oceanography
Of these, the last two may be considered insignificant.
Given the depth at which the core lies, only a tiny amount of geothermal energy reaches
the earth’s surface, mainly in the form of geysers, hot springs, volcanic eruptions or lava
flows that eject hot material through gaps in the earth’s mantle. The earth’s surface is,
therefore, almost exclusively affected by direct insolation, i.e. the incoming heat energy
of the sun.
Continuous nuclear reaction within the Sun converts matter into energy and charged
particles. These radiate from the star (our sun) in the form of electro-magnetic waves and
‘solar wind’. The earth’s magnetic field deflects a major part of the ‘solar wind’, while
the atmosphere acts like a protective shield, scattering, absorbing and reflecting much of
the radiation, some of which can be potentially harmful to life forms. The remainder of
the solar energy that eventually reaches and is reflected and/or absorbed by the earth’s
surface, is still substantial, and is known as the ‘solar constant’.
During the day, this incoming energy causes a rise in temperature of the earth’s surface,
especially the land (lithosphere), which has a low specific heat. Adjacent water areas
receive the same amount of energy, but as water has a high specific heat and also spreads
the heat throughout the upper layers by convection, its temperature does not change by as
much. The table below accounts for the insolation received by the earth.
Solar Energy Received by Upper Layers of Atmosphere 100%
Reflected back into space by clouds 23

Reflected back into space by atmosphere, dust and water vapour 4

Reflected back into space by earth’s surface 4

Absorbed and re-radiated back into space by clouds 3

Absorbed and re-radiated back into space by atmosphere 21

Absorbed and re-radiated back into space by earth 45

TOTAL 100%

SAQ 1
(a) List the sources of heat energy which are prevalent on the earth.
(b) The temperature of the earth’s core is about
(i) 500ºC
(ii) 0ºC
(iii) 5000ºC
(c) The main source of heat energy that affects the weather is………………
(d) The sun generates energy by
(i) burning
(ii) chemical reaction
(iii) nuclear reaction
(e) The earth’s surface receives all the charged particles ejected by the Sun.
(i) True
(ii) False
(f) The electro-magnetic radiation of the Sun is
(i) fully reflected by the earth’s atmosphere
58
 (ii) fully absorbed by the earth’s surface iii) partly deflected by the The Energy Budget
earth’s magnetic field and partly absorbed, reflected, scattered by the of the Oceans
earth’s atmosphere.
(g) The proportion of solar energy absorbed by the earth’s surface is
(i) 21%
(ii) 45%
(iii) 100%

6.3 HEAT BALANCE OF THE OCEANS

6.3.1 Unequal Heating of High and Low Latitude
It is true that the earth has maintained a constant average temperature over the years and
this means the earth must be radiating solar energy back to the space at the same rate it is
absorbing solar energy. But it is also true that much of this radiation is available to the
areas in lower latitudes as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1

The Figure shows that the radiation reaching the surface of the earth will strike at an
angle of 90º near the centre of the sphere, but will strike at 0º angle at the edge of the
circle as the solar rays will be tangent to the earth’s surface. The radiation available per
unit of surface area, therefore, decreases in the higher latitudes.
6.3.2 Transfer of Energy from Low to High Latitudes
As a result of the above phenomenon, one would expect the Equatorial Regions to get
continually warmer as the years pass and the Polar Regions to get progressively cooler.
But this does not happen. Although the Polar Regions are considerably colder than the
Equatorial Region, the temperature difference is not increasing with time. A stable
climate balance is maintained between the two regions. It may be interesting to note that
mechanism by which such transfer of heat is achieved involves oceans and the
atmosphere.
6.3.3 Heat Gain
The percentage of the Sun’s electromagnetic energy (all wavelengths, including visible
light) reflected by the surface of an object back into space is known as albedo. The
albedo of water varies with the angle of incidence, being almost 100 percent when the
Sun is very low on the horizon, and decreases to 2 percent when the Sun is directly
overhead.
59
Meteorology and Due to earth’s spheroid shape and its axis being tilted at about 23.5 (to its plane of orbit
Oceanography around the Sun, solar radiation strikes the higher latitudes at a lower angle to the vertical.
Conversely, solar radiation falls almost vertically at all times in the equatorial belt and
tropical regions (between 23.5 (N and S). Due to the combined effects of lesser insolation
and greater albedo, the oceans in higher latitudes generally are cooler than in lower
latitudes. This differential is further increased due to prolonged periods of cloud cover,
proximity to polar ice caps and the effects of colder surface winds.
Most of the heat energy from the sun is in the infrared spectrum. Water is essentially
opaque to this wavelength, and consequently, most of the radiated energy from the Sun is
absorbed by upper 30 meters of the surface layers of the oceans which extend upto 300
metres, raising the temperature of the water in this layer.
SAQ 2
(a) If an object absorbs all the radiated energy that strikes it, then its albedo is
________.
(b) The albedo of sea water ____________ as the angle of incidence of sun’s
rays decreases.
(c) Insolation is more concentrated in the higher latitudes.
(i) True
(ii) False
(d) Heat energy from the Sun is mainly in the ______________ spectrum of
electro-magnetic radiation.

6.3.4 Water as a Storage System of Heat Energy

Land, being mainly composed of insulating and solid matter, is warmed by insolation
only on the surface. Accordingly, land surface temperature shows great daily variation, as
insolation absorbed during the day is quickly re-radiated during the night. In contrast,
various movements on the surface of and within water bodies ensure that heat energy is
distributed fairly efficiently down to a depth of about 30m. Water also has a high specific
heat of 1. Due to these reasons, water can absorb vast amounts of heat energy without
much change in its temperature.
Salinity decreases the specific heat of water very slightly, but with the estimated 1370
million cubic km of water contained in the oceans, covering 361 million sq km (about
71% of total surface area), the ocean’s capacity to store heat is much greater than that of
land.
6.3.5 Heat Loss from Oceans
Absorption and Re-radiation
The ocean surface absorbs solar energy both on a daily and seasonal basis and this
causes a small but significant increase in the surface layer temperature. A portion
of this energy is then re-radiated back out to space in the form of long-wave
radiation, just like land does every night.
Conduction
As the ocean is able to absorb and retain a vast quantity of heat energy, the ocean
surface is, on an average, slightly warmer than the overlying atmosphere. Since the
ocean and atmosphere are in contact at the air-ocean interface, heat is conducted
from the warmer ocean to the cooler atmosphere.
60
Evaporation The Energy Budget
of the Oceans
Given that generally the ocean is normally warmer than the overlying atmosphere,
the natural tendency for water to evaporate is further intensified. Evaporation of
water absorbs heat energy from the ocean but when condensation occurs in the air,
almost the entire heat is released to the atmosphere. This is a crucial mechanism by
which the ocean acts as a heat sink and transfers excess heat from water to the
atmosphere. It must be understood that there is time gap between when the ocean
surface gains heat energy due to insolation and when it loses the same due to
evaporation from the surface.
6.3.6 Heat Transfer
Convection
All homogeneous fluids (liquids and gases) share a property by virtue of which,
internally, lighter parcels rise and denser parcels sink. As a result, warmer parcels,
become relatively less dense (lighter) and, therefore, rise. Conversely, the relative
density of cooler parcels tends to increase, causing these to sink. Indirectly, these
vertical movements, or ‘convection’ currents, transfer heat energy and overcome
temperature differences within the fluid. In a boiling kettle of water, prolonged
input of heat energy from the heating source produces vigorous convection cycles,
which cease almost immediately when the heat source is removed.
However, due to the peculiar property of anomalous expansion, normal sea water
is most dense at about +1.5ºC and this is the average temperature at the bottom of
the oceans. On the surface of oceans, there is a surplus of heat energy input in the
lower latitudes, causing these surface waters to be much warmer (e.g. +30ºC in the
Red Sea and +15ºC in the English Channel during the northern summer). This
means that with a couple of exceptions, there is never any mixing between
seawater on the surface and ocean floor.
Stirring
Wind and wave action stirs up the water, whereby warmer surface water is driven a
few metres downwards, where it mixes with colder subsurface water. Eventually, a
layer of water with a fairly constant temperature is produced. This process
overcomes the natural tendency for warmer and lighter surface water to resist
downward movement.
Horizontal Movement
Surface currents ensure that the surface waters travel long-distances (e.g. Gulf
Stream current in the North Atlantic that originates in the Caribbean Sea and
finally ends up off the NW Coasts of UK, Norway) and results in warmer
temperatures in these otherwise cold latitudes. If there were no surface currents,
the isotherms of sea-surface would probably be parallel to the latitude lines.
The balance between heat gain and loss must be maintained else temperatures on
the earth may become too high or too low. Ocean surface currents and prevailing
winds transport and effectively equalize the uneven distribution of heat energy
obtained by the oceans.
Additionally, there are several permanent sub-sea and bottom currents ocean
currents, which flow mainly due to differences in density and/or salinity, but these
play a relatively minor role in the heat balance.
Heat is lost from the ocean surface by three processes may be approximately
apportioned as follows:
Solar energy absorbed by upper surface of oceans 100%
Absorbed and re-radiated back into space 40
Transmitted by conduction to air in contact with ocean surface 10
Latent heat of evaporation from ocean surface 50
TOTAL 100%

61
Meteorology and SAQ 3
Oceanography
(a) State whether True or False?
(i) Insolation penetrates all the way to the ocean floor.
(ii) Heat energy from the Sun is distributed evenly on all oceans.
(iii) Anomalous expansion is observed only in pure distilled water
(iv) Currents flow only on the ocean surface
(b) The oceans as a heat sink are able to
i) generate heat
ii) store heat
iii) cause rainfall
(c) Horizontal movement of water in the ocean is known as ______________.

6.3.7 Variation in the Temperature of Sea Water

In the tropics, where insolation is nearly vertical all the year round, sea surface
temperature tends to be at an average of about +23ºC. The surface layer consists of the
upper 300 metres and due to penetration of insolation, convection, stirring and mixing,
the temperature in this zone is fairly steady in the range of +15 to +20ºC. Between 300 m
and 1000 m, lies the thermocline layer, where temperature falls sharply with increasing
depth, reaching a mean temperature of +6ºC at about 1000 m depth. Subsequent layers
are termed as ‘deep water’ and ‘bottom water’ respectively, wherein temperature falls
gradually at about 1ºC / km.
o
Temp ( C)

2 3 3.7 4.5 6 12 19 21 23

0
Thermocline Layer

1000

2000

3000 Depth (m)

4000

5000

6000

Figure 6.2
62
Surface temperature of the oceans shows a very small daily variation (<1ºC) and an The Energy Budget
appreciable seasonal variation (>7ºC). The seasonal variation is larger at lower latitudes of the Oceans
and becomes negligible in the Polar Regions. The seasonal variations in surface layer
temperature cause the thermocline layer to move upwards in the summer season and
deeper in the winter season.
SAQ 4
(a) State whether True or False?
(i) The temperature of sea water changes constantly with depth.
(ii) The Thermocline layer rises closer to the sea surface during the winter
(b) Thermocline layer normally exists between about _________ metres and
_________ metres below the sea surface, where temperature ___________
rapidly with depth.

6.4 SALINITY AND DENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN

SURFACE LAYERS OF THE OCEANS
In the surface layers of the open oceans the salinity varies between 32 and 37.50/00, 35
being the average.
Higher surface salinities occur in enclosed waters in low latitude, where evaporation is
excessive. Arabian Gulf and Red Sea are high salinity areas. Salinity in Red sea averages
about 410/00 . The salinity of the Dead Sea averages about eight times that of the open
oceans varying from 192 to 2600/00.
Salinities are not very high in seas which receive water from rivers. Water could be
practically fresh at considerable distance from the mouth of the large rivers. In the
northern part of Gulf of Bothnia the Salinity is in the region of 30/00.
Among the oceans, the Atlantic has the highest average salinity, 35.370/00.
Salinities are increased by factors which increase the rate of evaporation, such as those
tending to warm the sea surface, this is the reason why higher salinities occur in the trade
wind belts where there is bright sunshine and warm winds are strong.
In each ocean there are two maxima of salinity, one in the northern tropical belt around
Latitude 25º N and the other in the Southern Tropical belt between latitudes 15º to 20º S.
The equatorial belt, which experiences less wind and receives much rain, has lesser
salinity and separates the two subtropical belts of high salinity.
The polar seas are regions of still lower salinity. The surface water salinity is less when
the ice is in the process of melting, while greater when freezing is in progress. The polar
ice that covers the greatest portions of the Artic Sea, including the polar region, attains a
maximum thickness about of 50 meters. During summer months a lot of polar ice is
carried into the North Atlantic by the east Greenland current.
In the Polar Regions too, salinity of surface water is reduced, especially in the spring, due
to the input of large quantities of fresh water by melting ice.
SAQ 5
(a) Evaporation from sea surface causes salinity to _______________.
(b) Salinity in the tropics is higher than that in higher latitudes due to
(i) precipitation
63
Meteorology and (ii) greater evaporation
Oceanography
(iii) low winds
(c) Salinity of seawater is maximum in the equatorial belt.
(i) True
(ii) False
(d) The average salinity of sea water is
(i) 320/00
(ii) 35 0/00
(iii) 33.5 0/00

6.5 DENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE SURFACE

LAYERS OF THE OCEAN AND PROCESS
CONTROLLING DENSITY DISTRIBUTION
Density is expressed in grams per cubic centimeter and in the open ocean, ranges from
1.024 to 1.030 g/cm3.
The average density of the entire hydrosphere has been computed as 1.036, and the
greatest water density at the deepest point of the ocean would, allowing for compression
of water, be 1.077.

Salinity 0
/00
30 32 34 A 36 38 40
25
1.0235
A
Change 0.0012
20
D 1.0220

B 1.0247
Temperature C

15
0

1.0240

1.0260

1.0280

10
1.0300

C
5
1.0277

0 Change 0.0004
2 D 1.0281

Figure 6.3

The density of the ocean water is increased by an increase in salinity or pressure or by

decrease in temperature. But the temperature change can be expected to have a much
greater effect on density in the high temperature, low latitude areas than in Polar
Regions.
It may be seen from the above figure that densities determined for two points A and B in
low latitude with a temperature difference of 5ºC and salinity 350/00, and for two point C
and D in polar regions with the same temperature difference and salinity, the difference
64
in Density was 0.0004 in polar regions, while at higher temperature the difference was The Energy Budget
0.0012. of the Oceans

Please note that the density isopleths are nearly parallel to the temperature axis than for
high temperature, showing a greater density change per unit of temperature change in the
high temperature areas.
The figure below shows average temperature, salinity and density of the world by
latitude. You may note that density increases from about 1.022 near equator to a
maximum of 1.026 near 50º to 60º latitude in the surface waters of the ocean. Please note
that the salinity maxima in the tropics do not affect the density, but it is the temperature
that controls the density at lower latitudes.
30
Temperature
o
C
20

28 Density 36
10

26 35
0
-2
24 34
Salinity
Equator

22
Tropic

33
Tropic

1.022
3
32
g/cm
S 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 N

Latitude
Figure 6.4

Gain and loss of heat energy at the ocean surface is of primary importance in determining
density characteristics of the ocean water. In extreme high latitude areas however where
temperatures remain relatively constant, salinity changes can have significant changes on
density.
SAQ 6
(a) Density of seawater is affected by ______________, ______________ and
__________.
(b) State whether True or False.
(i) In Red Sea in summer, surface water has maximum salinity, and
therefore maximum density and sinks to the bottom
(ii) Horizontal temperature differences are negligible along the ocean
bottom.
(iii) Bottom waters in all oceans regularly rise to the surface.
(iv) There are no currents on the ocean floor.

6.6 SUMMARY
Heat energy is received by the ocean surface mainly in the form of infrared waves from
the Sun. Water is ‘opaque’ to infrared waves, and consequently this energy is absorbed
by the surface layer of only a few tens of metres, raising its temperature. Below the
surface layers lies the thermocline layer, between 300 and 1000 metres, where
temperature falls rapidly to reach about +6ºC. Below 1000 metres, temperature decreases
at a nearly constant rate of 1ºC / km. 65
Meteorology and Due to earth’s axis being tilted and its shape, tropical regions receive substantially more
Oceanography heat input. Consequently, sea surface temperatures in the lower latitudes are higher than
that in the middle latitudes and near the poles.
The oceans are a very effective ‘heat sink’ as they can store vast amounts of heat energy,
so that the heat balance is maintained between the oceans and atmosphere.
Surface currents transfer heat energy across long distances, overcoming the ‘imbalance’
in heat input between the tropics and higher latitudes.
Regular transfer of heat also occurs from oceans to the troposphere by means of the
hydrological cycle which you will learn in Meteorology.
Variations in salinity usually are greatest on the surface, where precipitation, rivers and
runoff from land decrease seawater’s salinity and density, whereas evaporation and
cooling tends to increase them.
Convectional circulation within oceans exists only within the upper 200 metres, as below
this depth, increasing density, salinity and lower temperatures ensure that the heavier
waters never rise to the surface, except in a very few isolated cases (upwelling currents).

6.7 KEY WORDS

Insolation : Sun’s electro-magnetic energy received by
the earth.
Solar Wind : High-speed charged particiles ejected by the
Sun into space.
Geo-thermal Energy : Heat energy contained within the earth’s hot
core and mantle.
Solar Constant : Amount of insolation received by the
earth’s surface equal to 1.36 kW/mz.
Hydrological Cycle : Continuous cycle of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and
re-circulation of water on the earth.
Troposphere : The lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere
at a height of about 8 km above the poles
and 13 km at the equator.
Albedo : Proportion of electro-magnetic energy
reflected by the surface of a body.
Heat Sink : A system capable of storing and later
releasing heat energy.
Convection : Vertical movement in a fluid of portions of
varying densities and/or temperatures
Conduction : Process by which heat is transferred by
molecules of a conducting medium.
Isotherm : Line joining locations of equal temperature.
Thermocline Layer : A sub-surface layer in the oceans, usually
between 300 and 1000 metres, where
temperature decrease sharply to about +6ºC.
Salinity : Measure of dissolved solids in water, units
parts per thousand (0/00).

66
 The Energy Budget
6.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs of the Oceans

SAQ 1
(a) Insolation, Geo-thermal and earth’s own radiation.
(b) 5000ºC
(c) Insolation
(d) Nuclear reaction
(e) False
(f) Partly deflected by the earth’s magnetic field and partly absorbed, reflected,
scattered by the earth’s atmosphere.
(g) 45%
SAQ 2
(a) Zero
(b) Increases
(c) False
(d) Infrared
SAQ 3
(a) (i) False
(ii) False
(iii) False
(iv) False
(b) Store heat
(c) Current
SAQ 4
(a) (i) False
(ii) False
(b) 300, 1000, decreases
SAQ 5
(a) Increase
(b) Higher, ii) evaporation
(c) False
(d) ii) 35 %
SAQ 6
(a) Salinity, temperature and pressure
(b) (i) False
(ii) True
(iii) False
(iv) False

67