Writing Difficult Texts

Writing Difficult Texts
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Lancaster University
7 January, 1999
Candidate: Christopher Tribble BA Hons. (American Studies & History)

MA (American Literature)
MA (Applied Linguistics)
Supervisor: Dr Greg Myers
Department: Linguistics And Modem English Language
CC
18 MAY1999
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ABSTRACT
This thesis usesconceptsand techniquesassociatedwith genreanalysis,corpus
linguistics and discourseanalysisto offer some solutions to problems in writing
instruction - in particular the problem of learning to write into a new or unfamiliar
genre. Two major corpus linguistic analytic frameworks are used in elaboratingthese
solutions. The first is the multivariate / multifunctional approachproposedin Biber D,
1988; the seconddraws on the notion of keywords developedby Scott M, 1996.
Theseframeworks are usedin a detailed analysisof a researchcorpus of an example
genre- fourteen Project Proposals(112,000 in

words) submitted bids to win contracts
issuedby Europeanaid and developmentagencies,.
The thesis has four major sections. In the first, an interpretationof "writing",
"difficult" and "texts" is provided as a way of framing the later discussion. This is
followed by a survey of current issuesin teaching writing, and an introduction to the
Project Proposalcorpus (including commentson technical problems of corpus
construction). In the secondsection, An account of the texts, a detailed analysisof
the texts in the ProposalsCorpus is presentedin three chapters:Grammar and Style,
Lexical Dimensions,and Organisation. This analysisis precededby a summary of
someof the problems which face researchersattempting to replicate Biber 1988. In a
small innovation for this kind of corpus study, the in

single chapter the third section:
Talking with writers goesbeyond a strictly corpus approach,and reports case-studies
and interviews with writers from the organisationswhich originally provided the
researchdata. This has proved to be a particularly valuable initiative as it
demonstratesthe importance of not only dependingon corpus evidencein developing
an understandingof a genre.
The final section of the thesis:Implications for pedagogy reviews a set of issuesand
questionswhich were raised in Chapter 2. During this chapter,thesequestionsare
usedas a way of offering a set of practical proposalsfor integrating genreanalysis
and corpus linguistic techniquesinto writing pedagogy.
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First I would like to thank my supervisor,Dr Greg Myers, for his consistenthelp and
supportthroughout the writing of this thesis. He has offered advice when I have been
unable to find a voice for what I have wanted to say, and has ensuredthat I have not
made a fool of myself when I have wanted to speakbefore thinking! I could not have
askedfor better help. Amongst the many who have given their time to listen to me
talking about this project or who have provided practical assistance,I would also like
to thank:
9 ProfessorCharlesAlderson for suggestingthat I undertook this researchat
Lancaster-I could not have had better advice
ProfessorDoug Biber for reading early drafts of Chapters3 and 4 and offering
clarification when I was confused
" Nick Smith for advice on working with corpora in early stagesof the project
" Martin Wynne and his colleaguesin UCREL for their invaluable assistancein
POS tagging my corpus
" Rachel Fligelstone in the Computer Support Service at Lancasterfor advice on
statistical matters
" ProfessorsHenry Widdowson and Michael Stubbsfor supervisingthe earlier
incarnation of this project at the Institute of Education in London University
9 ProfessorMichael Hoey and Dr Tony McEnery for their helpful and
perceptive commentsduring the viva for this PhD
111
9 and the British Association for Applied Linguistics for a research grant which
I received in 1990when I was involved in this earlier incarnation. I hope that
the committee feels that this final outcomejustifies their investment...
Finally, I have to thank SusanMaingay for her willingness to be my first reader
throughout this project, this in spite of the ever growing pressureof her own work,
and my friend and colleague Dianne Wall in the Institute for English Language
Education at Lancasterfor sharingthe processof doing the Ph.D. - knowing that she
was out there going through similar pain and pleasurehas been a huge support.
I hope that otherswho set out to completea similar task have such good teachers,
friends and colleaguesto help them on their way.
Christopher Tribble: London, Lancaster,Warsaw, Colombo 1988 - 1998
iv
This thesis is dedicatedto the memory of my parentsPhyllis and Albert Tribble
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................................
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
...............................................................................................................................
SECTION ONE: SETTING THINGS UP 1

..........................................................................................................
CHAPTER 1: WRITING DIFFICULT TEXTS 1
.................................................................................................................
1. What1 am attempting to do in this thesis 1
............................................................................................
2. Writing 4
.................................................................................................................................................
3. Difficult 7
................................................................................................................................................
4. Texts 14
..................................................................................................................................................
5. Signpost 18
CHAPTER 2: TEACHING WRITING............................................................................................................................................. 20
..........................................................................................................................
6. Introduction 20
.......................................................................................................................................
7. Pedagogic models of writing 21
.............................................................................................................
8. Process 23
..............................................................................................................................................
9. Genre 28
.................................................................................................................................................
10. Approaching writing 33
11.
..........................................................................................................................
English for business l professional communication 36
..........................................................................
12. Englishfor academicor studypurposes 45
............................................................................................
13. Englishfor international examinations 58
.............................................................................................
14. Conclusion 65
CHAPTER .........................................................................................................................................
3: APPROACHING THE DATA: DEALING WITH GENRE
............................................................................. 69
15. Introduction 69
.......................................................................................................................................
16. Are project proposals a genre? 70
17. Using
.........................................................................................................
corpora in genre analysis ....................................................................................................... 78
18. ThePP Corpus 80
..................................................................................................................................
19. A methodologyfor using corpora in genre analysis .......................................................................... 82
20. Genre, corpora, writing 85
.....................................................................................................................
SECTION TWO - AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEXTS 88
....................................................................................
CHAPTER 4: WHAT ARE WE LOOKING FOR? 88
...........................................................................................................
21. Introduction 88
...................................................................................................................................... .
22. TheBiber multi function / multi-dimensional model 89
........................................................................
.
23. Working with the Biber framework 93
..................................................................................................
.
24. Applying the Biber 1988 analytic framework 96
...................................................................................
.
25. Replicating the tools used in the Biber 1988 study 100
26. Improving the research design ..........................................................................
107
........................................................................................................
27. Revisedresults 111
.................................................................................................................................
28. Conclusion 116
CHAPTERS: GRAMMAR AND STYLE.......................................................................................................................................
120
....................................................................................................................
29. Introduction 120
.....................................................................................................................................
30. Style and stylistics 121
...........................................................................................................................
31. Provisional identification of prominent linguistic features of Project Proposals 123
...........................
32. Analysis ofprominent features 126
33. Attributive adjectives
........................................................................................................
126
.......................................................................................................................
34. Nominalisations 136
...............................................................................................................................
35. Phrasal coordination 139
.......................................................................................................................
36. Predictive modals 145
37.
............................................................................................................................
Low frequency items 148
........................................................................................................................
38. Adverbs 149
............................................................................................................................................
39. Third person pronouns 151
Private verbs
....................................................................................................................
40. 152
....................................................................................................................................
41. Conclusion 155
.......................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 6: LEXICAL DIMENSIONS 158
......................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
43 Is frequency enough? 160
. .......................................................................................................................
vi
44. Keywords 162
.........................................................................................................................................
45. Finding keywords 166
............................................................................................................................
46. Does the referencecorpus matter? 169
......................................
............................................................
47. Keywords in stylistic profiling 173
48. Interpreting the PP keyword lists .........................................................................................................
179
....................................................................................................
49. Positive keywords 181
............................................................................................................................
50. Negative keywords 184
...........................................................................................................................
51. Looking at but 186
..................................................................................................................................
52. Whatlexical patterns is the word part of? 195
.......................................................................................
53. Lexical patterns: collocates 196
54. Lexical patterns:
............................................................................................................
clusters ............................................................................................................... 201
55. Lexical patterns: patterns 203
56. Lexical
...............................................................................................................
patterns: conclusion ........................................................................................................... 204
57. Does the word regularly associatewith particular other meanings? 205
58. What does it ..............................................
structure(s) appear in? ............................................................................................... 211
59. Is there any correlation betweenthe word's uses/ meaningsand the structures in which it
215
participates? ..................................................................................................................................................
60. Is the word associatedwith (anypositions in any) textual organisation? 217
.......................................
61. Conclusion 220
CHAPTER 7: ORGANISATION .......................................................................................................................................
222
...............................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
63. Macro structures 226
.............................................................................................................................
64. Moves 234
..............................................................................................................................................
65. Minimum Discourses 237
Conclusion
.......................................................................................................................
66. 245
.......................................................................................................................................
SECTION 3- TALKING TO WRITERS 247
......................................................................................................
CHAPTER 8: WRITING PROJECT PROPOSALS 247
........................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
68. The organisations 249
............................................................................................................................
69. The interviewees 250
..............................................................................................................................
70. Interview structure 252
..........................................................................................................................
71. Interview results: QuestionSet 1 -Starting 254
....................................................................................
72. Interview results: QuestionSet 2- Writing the technical proposal 259
.................................................
73. TextAnalysis Taskresults 263
...............................................................................................................
74. Conclusion 268
.......................................................................................................................................
SECTION FOUR - IMPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGY 269
..........................................................................
CHAPTER 9: HELPING LEARNERS WRITE DIFFICULT TEXTS 269
.................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
76. Frameworksfor teaching writing 271
....................................................................................................
77. Question 1 272
.......................................................................................................................................
78. Question 2 276
.......................................................................................................................................
79. Working with corpus data 279
...............................................................................................................
80. Questions3 and 4 285
............................................................................................................................
81. Question 5 289
.......................................................................................................................................
82. Some conclusions 292
............................................................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY, TABLES & FIGURES 295
....................................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY 295
..............................................................................................................................................
LIST OF TABLES 312
.............................................................................................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES 314
............................................................................................................................................
LIST OF APPENDICES 315
..................................................................................................................................
vi'
(Writing Difficult "l'exts) Chapter 1: page
SECTION ONE: SETTING THINGS UP
Chapter 1: Writing Difficult Texts
ei°i )'"l pa.')Ilia fl(,wffic
Renee Nlai4rittc
© C. Herscovici, Brussels Belgium
-
1. What I am attempting to do in this thesis
1.1 1 chose the title for this thesis at the beginning of the research project, thinking
that it would be provocative and interesting - and it has been useful in helping
nie focus on why I am doing what I am doing, and in providing an explanation
of the project. The title has also presented me with a problem, as it could
commit me to dealing with several very large research areas and their
associated literatures -a task which is beyond the scope of what I want to do
in this particular piece of writing. What I propose to do in this opening section
is, therefore, to state as clearly as I can the limits of what I am doing, and to
situate what I am trying to do in an appropriate research context. If I can get
this clear from the outset, there is a much better chance that what follows later
will he seen as appropriate - and will, I hope, make sense.
1 This thesis has a practical aim - to help myself and (I hope) others to work
.2
more effectively as teachers of writing. I started the research project with a
Chris Tribble - NO Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

(Writing Difficult Texts) Chapter 1: page2
general question which had taxed me as a writer and as a teacher for several
years: "How is it that some pieces of apparently well-formed writing work
better than others?" Coulthard refers to this problem when he talks about the
way in which any given text can be seen "as just one of an indefinite number
of possible texts, or rather possible textualizations, of the writer's message
" (Coulthard M 1994: 1, emphasis in the original). And because I have

....
taught English to speakers of other languages throughout my career, I have
also had in mind a more specific question: "How can I help learners write
better? " - especially when matching writing style to writing purpose (Tribble
1985).
1.3 The main way in which I have approachedthis problem has beento draw on
insights developedover the last decadein empirical linguistics and corpus
research(Biber 1988, Biber D, S Conrad &R Reppen 1994, Botley S, Glass
G, McEnery T&A Wilson 1996, Granger S&C Tribble 1998, Hoey M
1997a,McEnery T&A Wilson 1996, Oostdijk N 1988, StubbsM 1995,
StubbsM 1996,Tribble C 1997,Wilson A&T McEnery 1994) in order to see
how useful they might be when it comesto dealing with the problems which
arise when someone,especially a foreign language is

student, writing a text
that he or she finds difficult (what I mean by difficult being somethingthat I
will discussbelow). It is only recently that we have reacheda point where it
has beenpossible to apply the results of corpusresearchto languageeducation
(Aston G 1996,Flowerdew J 1996,JohnsT 1988, JohnsT and P King, eds.
1991,Murison-Bowie S 1996, StevensV 1995,Tribble C 1991,Tribble C&
G Jones 1997), and it is in this areathat I would like this thesis to make its
contribution.
Chris Tribble - PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)

(Writing Difficult Texts) Chapter 1: page 3
1.4 The corpus linguistic componentof the thesis centreson the analysisof 14
Project Proposalswritten during the period 1994-1996. Twelve of thesewere
submittedto the EuropeanUnion's PHARE' programme,and two to the UK
government's Overseas Development Administration (as it was then called).
These texts have been chosen because writing such documents is considered to
be a demandingtask by professionalwriters with experiencein the field, and a
daunting undertaking for the apprentice. This is not to say that the end
product of this thesis will be a "How to" handbookfor writing project
proposals. The texts are simply useful examplesof the kinds of factual writing
problem that many professionalshave to be preparedto address- and which,
as a teacher,I want to be able to help my studentslearn to write. As such,
they offer a basis for assessingthe usefulnessof corpus linguistic approaches
in the developmentof writing instruction programmesfor learnerswishing to
write into other complex genres. A more detailed account of PPs and the texts
in the PP Corpuswill be given in Chapter3: Approaching the data: dealing
with genre.
1.5 While I feel that corpus linguistics offers teachersand studentsa major - and
very exciting - set of insights and tools, I also recognisethat it is unlikely that
a corpus approachwill offer all the pedagogic answers. For this reason,the
thesis will also contain a number of small casestudies(see Section Three:
Talking to writers) which reconnectthe texts in the researchcorpus with the
organisationsand writers who composedthe proposals. By considering the
texts both as linguistic products and as the result of socially situatedpractices,
I hope to provide a more adequateresponseto the main motivation for
I The European Union's main developmentprogrammefor countries in Central and Eastern Europe

undertakingthis research- the desireto help apprenticewriters to write more
effectively.
1.6 As with any other project, having decidedmy aim, I needto be clear about the
outputs which will be necessaryto its achievement. Theseoutputs can be
summarisedas follows:
Output 1a statement of the grounds on which subsequent arguments will

be developed. This statement will be mainly concerned with
what I understand by writing, by difficult and by texts and will
take up the rest of this chapter.
Output 2a I
summary of what consider to be key issues (and restrictions)
in current approachesto the teaching of writing. This will form
the secondchapterin the thesis and will make it possible for
later discussionsof pedagogyto be situated in an understanding
of current writing instruction.
Output 3 an accountof possible applications of empirical linguistics in
the developmentof writing instruction materials. This account
will form the major part of the thesis and will focus on the
needs of writers of one particular kind of text. It will contain
severalchaptersin which the methodology I have adoptedwill
be explained,and the findings I have obtained will be
discussed.
Output 4 an accountof the ways in which expert writers view a) the texts
that have beenthe subject of the corpus analysis, and b) the
writing processesrequired for the production of thesetexts.
Output 5a report of findings and recommendations for possible
pedagogic applications.
The next sectionsin this chapterwill, therefore, focus on writing, difficulty
and texts.
2. Writing
2.1 Grabe and Kaplan's distinction between "writing with composing" and
"writing without composing" (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:4) neatly
summarisesthe basic view of writing that is taken in this thesis:
(now including countries in the former Soviet Union)

"... one may distinguish writing which involves composing

from writing which does not; this distinction is useful because
most of what is referred to academically as writing assumes
composing. Composing involves the combining of structural
sentence units into a more-or-less unique, cohesive and
coherent larger structure (as opposed to lists, forms, etc.). A
piece of writing which implicates composing contains surface
features which connect the discourse and an underlying logic of
organisation which is more than simply the sum of the meaning
of the individual sentences." (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:4)
Such an understandingof writing has the merit of simplicity and relevanceto
what proposal writers do; it would only be in a moment of extremecynicism
that a proposal writer would say that his or her task was one which involved
writing without composing! It also has the merit of being a reasonablefocus
for EFL pedagogy. There are limits to the kinds of project that writing
teacherscan take on, and the kinds of responsibility they can assume
(especially in the foreign language). To help learnerswrite in the sense
outlined above - especially if you only have contact once a week for one or
two semesters- is realistic. To claim to do much more is probably not.
2.2 Clearly Grabe and Kaplan's accountof writing has its limitations. Witte has
made a more comprehensivestatementof what writing is, and also indicated
the problems that teachersand researchersface in dealing with this fuller
understandingof the object of their professionalactivity:
" any conceptualization of writing must be able to

....
accommodatenot only the production and use of extensive
alphabetictexts but also the production and use of minor (e.g.,
lists, labels, notes) forms of "writing" and texts such as
engineering proposals, guidebooks to indigenous plants, and
scholarly articles, all of which typically employ more than one
symbol system.Second,[... ] any conceptualizationmust be
able to account for both the meaning constructive and social-
constructive dimensionsof writing regardlessof whether
writing be viewed as a processor a product and regardlessof
whether the writer traffics in linguistic or nonlinguistic
symbols. Third, [... ] any conceptualizationmust be able to

account for both the protracted and the collaborative nature of

composing regardless of the symbol system the "writer" might
employ at a given time. In my view, none of the perspectives
by which meaning-making has been treated in writing research
and none of the perspectives into which writing research is
currently collapsed meets these three criteria, in large part
because those perspectives all presuppose verbal language as
the only sign system relevant to the study of writing. " (Witte S
1992:249)
2.3 In this understandingof writing, when writing teachersset out to help learners
to write, they should not only aim to help their studentsto use the "minor
texts" and more extendedforms familiar to EFL teachers(seeChapter2:
Teaching Writing below), they,should also help learnersengagewith the
"meaning constructive and social-constructive"dimensionsof writing, and
with the complex interactionsthat arise around writing in the workplace and
the academy. This is a much broader task than helping learnersto develop
skills in "writing as composing", but can still usefully be borne in mind by
teachersand materialswriters who are working with apprenticewriters.
2.4 We will, in fact, seein Chapter2 that in areassuch as businesscommunication
and English for academicpurposesEFL materials writers do take on someof
thesebroader cultural and interactional issuessuggestedby Witte. We will
also seethat this can be fraught with difficulty, raising as it does questions
about which social context text is constructing. Is it an anglophoneand
geographically discrete institution such as a British university, or a
multinational corporation (such as Volvo) whose corporate language may be
English but whose headquarters are in Sweden and which employs staff or has
affiliates in most countries on the planet? Or is it an amorphous polyglot
bureaucracy such as the PHARE office in Brussels? When an apprentice
writer is askedto build Babel, what assistancecan the teacheroffer?

2.5 Witte himself indicatesthat the questionshe raiseshave not been satisfactorily
researched,let alone answered. In this presentwriting I shall restrict myself to
the more rough-and-readyunderstandingof "writing" outlined by Grabeand
Kaplan. Thus, when I say "writing", I am referring to writing as composing,
and when I refer to helping studentsto write better, I am concernedprimarily
with ensuringthat learnersof English as a foreign languageare given more
effective support as they develop the language system knowledge and the
cognitive skills they needin order to composetexts that are appropriateto the
contexts in which they will find themselveswriting.
What then of difficult?
3. Difficult
"... thirty years ago, my older brother, who was ten years old at
the time, was trying to get a report written that he'd had three
to
months write, which was due the next day. We were out at
our family cabin in Bolinas, and he was at the kitchen table
close to tears,surroundedby binder paper and pencils and
unopened books on birds, immobilized by the hugeness of the
task ahead.Then my father sat down besidehim, put his arm
around my brother's shoulder, and said, 'Bird by bird, buddy.
Just take it bird by bird. "' (Lamott A 1994:19)
3.1 Part of me (my rememberedself at such an age, my own self at this moment of
writing) can feel someenvy for the boy in the passagequoted above. I can
regret that I have no wise mentor beside me now, ready to place a paternal arm
around my shoulder and provide me with such advice. 'Of course! Bird by
bird! Why didn't I think of it before...?'. Part of me, however, is concernedat
the offer of this particular counselto an apprenticewriter, because,all too
often, it just isn't like that. I would not deny that part of the difficulty which
facesus writers is the problem of working our way through the job in hand,

bird by bird, and that we do discover what we want to write by writing.
However, it is not only extent which can daunt. Yes, there is the difficulty of
getting through the task, but there can also be problems which arise from a
lack of understandingof the problem being addressed,or a lack of familiarity
with texts like the one you are writing which createsthe problems, and so
forth.
3.2 Martin toucheson theseother kinds of difficulty in a discussionof (some
pleasingly apposite)exampleof texts written by young children in the
Australian stateeducationsystem:
Text A 'Birds live up in a tree. If they don't eat they die. Redbirds
blackbirds any colored birds. Dark birds light birds. Someare
small and others are big.'
Text B 'My bird lived up in a tree. It ate so it wouldn't die. It was a black
bird and it was small' (Martin J 1989:7)
3.3 Martin reports that he found young children were often askedto write in the
style of Text B (which he classesas DESCRIPTION), but less frequently in
that of Text A (REPORT), and that they often find this latter presentsthem
with problems becausethey have not been taught how to go about the task.
He makesthe distinction betweenthese,and two other 'proto-genres'on the
basis of differences of focus and generality:
particular general
FDESCRIPTION
RECOUNT PROCEDURE
event focus
thing focus REPORT
(Martin J 1989:8)
In such a scheme,Text A is public, open to challenge and refutation, Text B is
personal-a challengeto the text also implying a challengeto the writer's own
experience. (Tribble C 1997:49). Martin's thesis in this instancewas that if
we want children to have the capacity to write effectively acrossa range of

genres- and to have the necessarycommandof appropriatelexico-
grammatical resourcesto complete such tasks,we needto give them
appropriate instruction. Martin concludes by commenting:
"... by focusing children's attention on the fundamental

differences between Descriptions and Reports, teachers could
help children to write more consistently in each genre."
(Martin J 1989:7)
3.4 Underlying Martin's argumentis a view that some approachesto teaching
writing - particularly those arising from progressivist educationaltheory
(Bowers CA 1987,Ellsworth E 1989, Giroux H 1988), and which depend
heavily on what has been called a "process"approachto writing2 (Murray D
M 1982,White R&V Arndt 1991, Zamel V 1983)- may inhibit learners
from taking on a range of powerful social roles which dependon explicit
knowledge of languageand a range of literacy practiceswhich are not
necessarilyacquired easily. In so far as it has been critical of processwriting
and the cultural relativism associatedwith this moment, part of the genre
literacy agendahas,therefore, beento give studentsaccessto a range of
factual genres(Cope B&M Kalantzis 1993, Martin J 1989) which take them
beyond personalwriting and into a world where written languageis usedto
make things happen. It would seemthat difficulties in writing might not
necessarilybe solved by just taking things one step at a time, and working
through the task from beginning to end - be it black birds or red birds.
3.5 1have proposedelsewherethat writers require four setsof knowledge if they
are to have in
a reasonablechanceof succeeding achieving particular writing
objectives. These are:
2 see Chapter 2

content knowledge knowledge of the conceptsinvolved in the

subjectarea
writing process knowledge knowledge of the most appropriate way of
preparing for a specific writing task
context knowledge knowledge of the social context in which
the text will be read, and co-texts relatedto
the writing task in hand
language knowledge knowledge of those aspectsof the language
systemnecessaryfor the completion of the
task
(Tribble C 1997: 43
Table I- Whatwriters needto know
3.6 Viewed from this perspective,the issueof difficulty becomesmore
approachable,as it is evident that writers may face problems along any of
thesedimensions. Halliday and Hasan'sdiscussionof the relationship between
text and context underscoresthis:
"To think of text structure not in terms of the structure of each

individual text as a separate entity, but as a general statement
about a genre as a whole, is to imply that there exists a close
relation between text and context [.... ]. The value of this
approach lies ultimately in the recognition of the functional
nature of language. [.... ] there cannot be just one right way of
either speaking or writing. What is appropriate in one
environment may not be quite so appropriate in another.
Further, there is the implication that an ability to write an

excellent essayon the causesof the SecondWorld War does
not establishthat one can produce a passablereport on a casein
a court of law. This is not because one piece of writing is
inherently more difficult or demandingthan the other, but
becauseone may have more experienceof that particular
genre." (Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985:6)
3.7 When one facesdifficulty in writing in a particular genre,then, this difficulty
can arise from a lack of many different kinds of knowledge, including:
9a lack of knowledge of compositional processesappropriateto writing in this
genre
9a lack of knowledge of the social relations in play in a genre

"a lack of knowledge of aspectsof the languagesystemrequired in order to
develop an appropriatewording of the required text by the genre
"a lack of knowledge of the text structuresnormally required in order to
instantiatemeaning in this particular communicative context
3.8 Myers draws attention to thesekinds of problem when he discussesthe
contrastingnarrativeswhich are required by texts developedfor an audience
of peersas opposedto a general,popular, readership:
"Textual differences in narrative structure, in syntax, and in

vocabulary help define two contrasting views of science. The
professional articles create what I call a narrative of science;
they follow the argument of the scientist, arrange time into a
parallel series of simultaneous events all supporting their claim,
and emphasize in their syntax and vocabulary the conceptual
structure of the discipline. The popularizing articles, on the
other hand, present a sequential narrative of nature in which
the plant or animal, not the scientific activity, is the subject, the
narrative is chronological, and the syntax and vocabulary
emphasize the externality of nature to scientific practices.
(Myers G 1990: 142)
If a writer is askedto take a text originally developedfor a scholarly journal
and re-word it so that it will be appropriatefor a news article, he or she should
be aware of the contrastingdemandsof the different narratives required by
thesetwo kinds of media. Similarly, writers of project proposalshave to be
aware of the constraintsof the genre,the kinds of narrative that are most likely
to be appropriatefor their readership,and the aspectsof the languagesystem
that they will needto draw on in order to achievethe textual effects they
require.
3.9 In order to achieve such textual effects authorshave to have a broad repertoire
of ways of writing - or they may find themselvesrestricted to the roles in

which they are competent. Myers demonstratesthis in his exampleof the shift
in the titling of an article as it was transferredfrom a specialisedscience
journal to a popularising one:
"For instance,the title of an article by Geoffrey Parker in

Evolution, a specializedscientific journal, was 'The
reproductive behaviour and the nature of sexual selection in
Scatophagastercoraria L. (Diptera. Scatophagidae),IX.
Spatial distribution of fertilization rates and evolution of male
searchstrategywithin the reproductive area.' The editor gave
Parker'sNew Scientist article the title 'Sex around the cow-
pats'. (Myers G 1994:180)
3.10 The writer of the popularising article has had to make a range of content and
lexical selectionsin order to arrive at this contextually felicitous re-wording
(i. e. "The reproductive behaviour and the nature of sexual selection "4
"sex"; " within the reproductive area" 4 "around the cow-pats"). Similar
issuesof knowledge and competencearise when we consider the way in which
a piece of writing is developedand the difficulties which can face a writer as
she or he prepares,composesand revises. Processwriting research(see
Chapter2) has demonstratedthat writing is not just a stepby step activity and
a specific experienceexemplifies this. At the time of writing thesewords in
this paragraph(07/03/98 13:07) Microsoft Word told me I had beenediting the
chapter for 2,366 minutes - nearly 40 hours. Although the figure of 40 hours
is misleading as it refers only to the amount of time during which the
documenthas been'open' on my computer-I might have been spendingmost
of the time having cups of tea in the kitchen - it does start to give an
indication of how long this particular piece of text has taken to develop. And
the fact of the matter is that although I beganto composethis first chapterin
February 1998- that is when I first openedand namedthis file - and I planned
to finish it before the end of the month, the whole the processstartedduring a

conversationwith Henry Widdowson and Mike Stubbsover ten years earlier
in the autumn of 1987! So this "first" chapterhas taken over ten yearsto write
and it has a relationship with the tens of thousandsof words I've written
during that time which relate to these topics; other chapters which follow in
this thesis, but which were written before this chapter; and the two books and
severalarticles and paperswhich developedthemesI am re-visiting in this
dissertation. Apart from the difficulty of working out what a PhD thesis might
be about, other difficulties I have faced here have beento do with time, with
technology3,with my own understandingof the literature and my capacity to
organiseand marshalideasand arguments.
3.11 Someof my ways out of difficulty have been found in what Britton has called
"shaping at the point of utterance" (Britton J 1983); other escaperoutes have
beendown to my experienceof planning and developing other long texts.
However, given that writing can be difficult in so many ways, I again want to
set a limit to what I have to say in this thesis. The kind of difficulty which I
be
shall considering will relate primarily to an aspectof knowledge of the
texts. I proposeto focus on a narrow set of problems which can face writers
who are working in what is for them a new genre- namely those that arise
from a lack of knowledge of texts like the one in hand, and a lack of
knowledge of what readersexpect from such texts. I shall, therefore, be
focusing on the co-textual aspectof context knowledge and will attempt to
find ways of helping the writer who doesnot know what the genrerequires of
them in terms of text organisationand wording.
3 Shifting from Windows 3.1 to Windows 95, the delights of Word master documents, coordinating files
between lap-tops and desktops, fitting graphics into the text
....

3.12 Such an approachdoesnot, however, imply that difficulty is uniquely
determinedby the demandsof the reader.There are many reasonswhy a
particular text might be difficult to write.
" Does your job dependon your text closing the deal? - e.g. when an
advertising companybids for a new account
9 Do you have enoughtime to complete the task? - e.g. writing under
examination conditions
" Is the task of a particularly demandinglevel of complexity (both logistically
and intellectually)? - e.g. writing a PhD thesis
" Are you having to make the shift from primarily oral communication to
communication that is primarily written? - e.g. the dilemma which might face
a skilled interviewer having to devise a written questionnairefor the first time
I have chosento narrow my definition of difficulty to the "co-textual aspectof
context knowledge" becausethis is a kind of difficulty that a teachercan help
with. As a writing teacher,I cannot take responsibility for the experienceand
the content knowledge that the learner needsin order to fulfil real-world
writing tasks. What I can do, however, is to offer pedagogicpathways into
unfamiliar texts so that that which was difficult becauseit was unfamiliar
becomesless strange,and thereby, easier.
4. Texts
"To study writing is, over and above all else,to study acts for
making meaning that are mediatedthrough 'texts"'. (Witte S
1992:237)

4.1 So far we have concludedthat the main task of this thesis will be to consider
the needsof learnersinvolved in the activity of combining "structural sentence
units into a more-or-lessunique, cohesiveand coherentlarger structure"
(writing), in settingswhich involve what is for them a new genre(difficult).
The last elementof the title of this thesis ought to be unproblematic (we all
know what a text is, don't we?), but - as with Magritte's apple in the epigraph
to this chapter- it is probably better not to jump to conclusionson the basis of
appearances.A representationof an apple is not an apple. What is a text today
might not have existedthe day before. For Graddol and Goodman:
" new forms of text [.... ] have appearedin English as a

consequence of technological innovation and social change
[.... ] new kinds of text reflect and help construct changing
identities and social relations." Graddol D&S Goodman
1996:1)
4.2. "Texts" can include films, cartoons,wine-labels and advertisements,and if we
consider our own experienceof the world we can add the cereal packets,junk-
mail, jotted notes and shopping lists which clutter the kitchen tables of most
households,along with the e-mail printouts and doctoral dissertationswhich
clutter those of the less fortunate amongstus. Texts (like apples) can be many
things, some of them more slippery than others.
4.3 Such a view of text acceptsthat texts do not have to be written. Given below is
a seriesof examplesof different definitions of text. Although a rather long
list, they are offered here as they all sharea feature which will be important
for the rest of my argument:
" Bakhtin -a text was "any coherentcomplex of signs." (Bakhtin MM
1986:103)

" Halliday - the essentialfeature of text:
"is that it is interaction. The exchange of meanings is an

interactive process, and text is the means of exchange: in order
for the meanings which constitute the social system to be
exchanged between members they must first be represented in
some exchangeable symbolic form, and the most accessible of
the available forms is language. So the meanings are encoded
in (and through) the semantic system, and given the form of
text. " (Halliday MAK 1978: 139-140)
" De Beaugrandeand Dressler-a text is a:
"COMMUNICATIVE OCCURRENCE which meetsseven

standardsof TEXTUALITY. If any of thesestandardsis not
consideredto have been satisfied, the text will not be
communicative." (de BeaugrandeR&W Dressler 1981:3)
De Beaugrandeand Dressler'ssevenstandards(1981:3-11) were:
Cohesion Intentionality Informativity

Coherence Acceptability Situationality
Intertexuality
" Brandt:
"... the text appears as an instrument of social interaction,

conveying multiple messages about the social world in which it
has been developed" (Brandt D 1986:93)
0 Stubbsrefers to texts as:
"an instanceof languagein use, either spokenor written "

...
(StubbsM 1996:4).
" Clark and Ivanic follow Fairclough in taking text as either spokenor written,
but insist on seeingit as arising from specific social conditions. They
comment on Figure 1 below as follows:

"One advantageof this diagram [after Fairclough 1989] is that

it illustrates graphically how the words themselves
-'text' - are
embeddedin the social forces that producethem. Fairclough
showshow a text (written or spoken)is inextricable from the
processof production and interpretation that createit, and that
theseprocessesare in turn inextricable from the local,
institutional and socio-historical conditions within which the
participants are situated." (Clark and Ivanic 1997:11)
Layer 3
Social conditions of production

Layer 2
Processof production
-º Layer I-
Text
Process of interpretation
Interaction
Socialconditionsof interpretation
Context
Figure 1 Clark and Ivani61997: 11
9 Grabe and Kaplan provide a useful summary of many of thesepositions when
they offer the following definition of a text as:
"... a structural equivalent of language in real use which

conveys meaning in all four senses of Hymes's (1972)
communicative competence (whether a text is possible,
feasible, appropriate, and performed), and which suggests a
topic of discourse (however minimal) [.... ] A text occurs when
the discourse segment is identified as possible, feasible,
appropriate, and performed, and has a topic" (Grabe W&R
Kaplan 1996:40)
4.4 Thesevarious interpretationsof text all emphasiseits interactive and
communicative dimensions- with Grabe and Kaplan usefully stressingthat "a
text occurs when the discoursesegmentis identified as possible, feasible,
appropriate,and performed, and has a topic". It is this on this basisthat I shall
select and discussthe texts which will be consideredin this thesis. My
difficult texts will be examplesof written languagein use. They will be

identifiable discoursesegments,and, they will be drawn from real-life
instanceswhich are feasible, appropriate,performed and have a topic.
5. Signpost
5.1 Everything that I have said so far in this chapterabout writing difficult texts
has beenrelatively abstract. In paragraph1.6,1 presented5 major outputs
which will be required in order to achievethe overall aim of this thesis- to
help myself and otherswork more effectively as teachersof writing. Having, I
hope, fulfilled my obligation to accountfor the writing, difficult, and texts of
my title, I now feel that I should provide the readerwith a more explicit map
of what follows.
5.2 In Chapter2,1 shall provide an overview of writing theory and review someof
the practical problems which arise in the teaching of writing. This review will
provide me with a basis for the recommendationsfor writing instruction that I
in
shall make the closing chapterof this thesis.
5.3 In Chapter 3,1 shall give a more detailed account of the data I shall be using in
the corpus study section of the thesis, and also comment on why I feel it
constitutesa discretetext genre.For the moment, I hope that the readerwill
acceptthat I have chosenthesetexts becausethey are interesting examplesof
a relatively unusual genre,and present significant difficulties for those
unfamiliar with the demandssuch a genremakesof the writer.
5.4 In Chapters4,5,6 and 7,1 shall presentthe findings from my analysis of the
PP corpus. This will first require (Chapter4) a detailed account of the
difficulties that are faced when applying one of the major corpus basedmodels
of written and spokenlanguagevariation to a different data set from that used

in the original study (Biber D 1988). The following chapterswill addressthe
different aspectsof the PP corpus that I consider significant for this study -
that is, Grammarand Style, Lexis, and Organisation.
5.5 Following this linguistics section, I shall report on the findings of a survey in
which the results obtainedfrom the empirical study of the researchcorpus are
matchedagainstthe understandingof what Project Proposalsare that are held
by writers in proposal writing organisations. This survey has beenundertaken
in order to gain insights into how writers went about composingthe proposals,
and why they to

chose write in the in
particular ways exemplified the corpus.
5.6 The final chaptersin the thesis will offer somerecommendationsfor the
possible pedagogicapplication of the approachadoptedin this thesis, and an
indication of future researchdirections. The pedagogychapter has been
included as I feel it important to flag someof the advantagesand limitations of
what I have done in this to

study, and offer an agendafor teachersof writing
who are interestedin drawing on the sorts of tools and techniqueswhich
empirical linguistics offers to the practical languageteacher.

(TeachingWriting) Chapter2: page20
SECTION ONE - SETTING THINGS UP
Chapter 2: Teaching Writing

"... text is choice." (Halliday MAK 1975:123)
6. Introduction
6.1 As the statedpurposeof this thesis is to make a contribution to the teaching of
writing in English as a Foreign Language pedagogy, I want to situate the
researchI shall be reporting and any commentsI have to make in the context
of what is currently happeningin the mainstreamof EFL writing pedagogy.
As I believe that a review of practice given in isolation from the theory which
informs it will not provide a useful or persuasiveaccount, I shall also provide
a summary of some of the major themeswhich have occupied theory formers
with an interest in EFL writing pedagogy. In doing this, I shall not be
to
attempting replicate the work done by Grabe W&R Kaplan (1996), as
they have provided a more exhaustiveaccountof theory and practice in
writing than I could hope to undertakehere. What I present in the first sections
of this chapter should, provide

nevertheless, a useful contextualisation for the
review of practical teaching which will follow.
6.2 In this review I shall focus on specific instancesof contemporaryteaching
materials that have been published for the UK and EuropeanELT markets (or
those markets where UK basedpublishershave a leading market share- e.g.
large parts of East and South East Asia, and Latin America). This will give
to
me an opportunity review the in
ways which the teaching of writing is
currently approachedin many foreign languageteaching classrooms,and to
indicate any limitations which I feel such materials have. I have already
undertakena similar survey of writing instruction materials (Tribble C 1997a)

and have found it helpful in identifying those areaswhere a corpus linguistic /
genreorientation may make a contribution to the teaching of writing. This
chapterwill draw on and extendthis earlier work.
7. Pedagogic models of writing
7.1 In discussionsof the teaching of writing, it has beencommon to statethat,
unlike speaking,writing is not an innate skill or capacity (Halliday MAK,
1989 and GrabeW&R Kaplan 1996). It is a technology that has to be
learned. Although there are those like Lytton Stracheywho, according to his
biographer, "... write very slowly, and in faultless sentences " (Holroyd M
...
1971: 868), such individuals are rare - and we would have problems proving
that they were born that way. For most of us, our induction into writing
happenswell after we have acquiredour mother tongue, and may never
happenin the foreign language. One of the problems,therefore, for EFL
pedagogyhas been in deciding how and when to help learnerswrite
effectively and appropriately - and for which communicative purposes.
7.2 The cognitive dimension of writing is of particular importance given its social
functions which contraststrongly with those of reading. In the mother tongue
the developmentof effective writing skills enablesindividuals as writers to
position themselvesin social relations in very different ways from those who
only read. As Foggart commentswith regardto the attitudes of earlier
conservativeeducationalists:
"[for them, it has been] desirablethat the majority should read

- in that way they be
can given instructions and can be
educated into a particular ideology; writing, on the other hand,
assumesthe giving of instructions and theformation of views
about society." Foggart 1993:6)

7.3 Thus the ability to write - and to write effectively (even though it is not at the
Lytton Stracheylevel) - can have a profound influence on the way in which
individuals relate to the world around them, and act upon that world. Kress
and Stubbsboth refer to this changeof positioning and potential:
"Command of writing gives access to certain cognitive,

conceptual, social and political arenas. The person who
commands both the forms of writing and speech is therefore
constructed in an entirely different way from the person who
commands the forms of speech alone. " (Kress G 1989:46)
"Written languagemakesa radical difference to the complexity

of organisation that humans can manage, since it changesthe
relation between memory and classification, and it allows many
forms of referencing,cataloguing, indexing, recording and
transmitting information [..... ] The mere fact that something is
its for
written conveys own message, example of permanence
and authority. Certain people write, and certain kinds of things
get written. " (Stubbs M 1987: 20-21)
As the role of English in the world changesa capacity to write in English as
well as in the mother tongue is becoming more important, and not only for
elites (Graddol D&S Goodman 1996). Although learnersmay be able to take
on a full range of literacy roles in a local language,if they wish to enter a
global community, they also need a capacity to write in one of the global
languages.
7.4 Given the social importance of writing, it is surprising that, up until recently, it
appearsto have received relatively little attention from educational
researchers.Kress has commentedon the:
"startlingly massivediscrepancybetweenthe amount of work

which has been done on reading, compared to the work on
writing. The number of books on the learning of reading is
by
vast; contrast there are few books on the learning of
writing. " (Kress G 1993: 3).

He ascribespart of the reasonfor this discrepancyto the dominancethrough
the 1960sand 1970sof theories of languagewhich:
"focus on structures below the sentence, on decontextualised

sentences, on meaning as inherent in the individual linguistic
item, on reading as a decoding skill ". (Kress G 1993:3).
....
7.5 In such an environment,writing was viewed as a secondaryproblem, easyto
crack once the problem of reading had been solved. In addition, Kress
considersthat the decoding/ encoding metaphoritself has had a negative
influence on the developmentof researchin writing, predisposingworkers in
the field to consider meaningas existing independentlyof languageand, more
problematically, creating a false view of the 'code' itself as something empty
and neutral (Kress G 4-5).

1993:
7.6 In writing pedagogytwo major strandsof researchhave, however, been
elaborated,one often referred to under the broad heading of process approach,
the other as the genre approach.
8. Process
8.1 The first of thesestrands(and the one which has had the greatestimpact to
date on EFL instruction) has its origins in composition studiesin the US
(Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:18-23), and has focusedon writing processes.
The needfor this focus arosefrom a reaction (largely motivated by a changein
the kinds of studententering higher educationin the US after 1960) againsta
traditional approachto writing instruction which dependedon:
- the three or five-paragraphmodel

about the organisation and ordering of information
- simplistic assumptions
- the typical one-draft writing assignment
the assumption that eachstudent should be working alone, or only with the
-
instructor on summativefeedback

(Teaching Writing) Chapter 2: page 24
handbooks
- reliance on grammar/usage and lectures
- the linear composingmodel basedon outlining, writing and editing
(Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:86)
Although it is possibleto arguethat models developedin responseto specific
conditions in the US have little relevancein other settings,"processwriting"
has had such a strong influence on EFL writing teaching (White R&V Arndt
1990) that I feel it is appropriateto presentthe following summaryof its
origins and impact.
8.2 Using methods established in cognitive linguistics (Emig J 1983, Graves D
1984), an influential body of research in composition processes was published
in the early 1980s, largely based on protocol studies of expert and apprentice
writers (Hayes J&L Flower 1983). This led to the elaboration of a model of
the composing processes of the writer which has had a major impact on
writing instruction in the English speaking world. In the Flowers and Hayes
model (Figure 2), composing is seen as having three major components, the
composing processor, the writer's long term memory, and the task
environment. The composing processor is described as having three
operationalprocesses-planning, translating and reviewing which are
by
controlled a monitor. The task environment and the writer's long term
memory provide resourcesand stimulus which are drawn on by the composing
processor. Here, ideas in the planner are turned into languageon the page by
the interpreter and then reviewed.

(Teaching Writing) Chapter2: page25
TASK ENVIRONMENT
THE RHETORICAL
TEXT
PROBLEM
PRODUCED
Topic
SO FAR
audience
exigency
COMPOSING
THE WRITER'S
LONG-TERM PLANNING TRANSLATING REVIEWING
MEMORY
Knowledge of topic
0
Z IORGANISING
GOAL
EVALUATING
audience
SETTING EDITING
and writing
plans z
w
"""
MONITOR
Figure 2- Flowers & Hayes writing process model (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:92)
8.3 Work in ESL and EFL writing instruction (Hedge T 1988, Raimes 1993,
White R&V Arndt 1991,Zamel V 1983)has drawn on this model and
elaborateda persuasiveview of composition as a recursive processwhich has
supersededearlier assumptionsabout the linear nature of composition. During
the 1980sand early 1990sthis view cameto dominate instructional materials
in secondand foreign languageteaching (RaimesA 1993,Tribble C 1997a)
and, when allied with a desireto respectthe authenticity of the individual
writer's voice (Faigley L 1986,Mayer J 1990, SpackR&C Sadow 1983),
provided a powerful agendafor those with an interest in challenging received
views of the nature of (in particular) academicwriting.
8.4 Later developmentsin processresearchhave led to refinementsof this model,
notably in the work of Bereiter and Scardemalia(1987,1993) and the
distinction they make betweenwriting as knowledge-telling and writing as
knowledge-transforming. This developmentof theory has made it easierto
elaborate"explicit hypothesesrelating audienceand genredifferencesto

writing task difficulties. " (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:125). In like manner,
drawing on work in critical languagestudies(Fairclough 1989,1992, Cooper
M 1989) Clark and Ivanic (1997) have developedtheir own version of the
Flower and Hayes model - somethingwhich they call an "alternative
representation of the process of writing as a social practice" (Figure 3).
ANALYSING DRAWING ON ESTABLISHING ACCUMULATING

THE CONSIDERING
FAMILIARITY GOALS AND KNOWLEDGE CONSTRAINTS OF
EXPERIENCE WITH TYPES PURPOSES OPINIONS
TIME AND SPACE
OF WRITING FEELINGS
EXPERIENCING CONSIDERING
PLEASURE THE READER
SATISFACTION
FORMULATING
YOUR OWN
MAKING EXPERIENCING IDEAS
THE PANIC..
COPY PAIN
ANGUISH
CLARIFYING
OUR COMMITMENT
TO YOUR IDEAS
REVISING
PUTTING DECIDING HOW

DRAFTING PLANNING ESTABLISHING
YOUR KNOWLEDGE TO TAKE/MASK
YOUR IDENTITY
OF THE LANGUAGE RESPONSIBILITY
AS A WRITER
TO USE FOR YOUR IDEAS
Figure 3- An alternative representation of the process of writing as a social practice (Clark & Ivanic 1997: 98)
8.5 Clark and Ivanic are not attempting to develop a model - something which
purports to have generativepotential (such as that of Flowers and Hayes):
"We deliberately avoid using the term 'model' for this view of
what is involved in writing, becauseit suggestsa fixed,
predeterminedand henceprescriptive route through the process
and does not allow for differences in practices." (Clark R and
R Ivanic 1997:94)
The "representation"does,however, constitute both an interesting pedagogic
tool and a view on writing processesand concernsin higher educational
settings. By presentingthe componentsof composition in a largely non-
sequentialway (though there is a degreeof idealisation in the sequence
following 'planning') and showing the recursive inter-relations betweenthese

boxes, Clark and Ivanic catch many of the things that writers needto do, and,
importantly in their perspective,also situatetheseactivities in a real world:
"... we think it is crucial to include and emphasise the socio-

political dimensions to the writing process ... as expressed in
particular in the components 'clarifying your commitment to
your ideas', 'establishing your socio-political identity' and
'deciding how to take responsibility'. "
8.6 Grabe and Kaplan attemptto capturemany of the complex interrelations
implied by thesevarious interpretationsof writing processesin their model of
writing as communicative language use (Figure 4). They argue that:
"... such a model, or somesimilar model, provides a way to

integratethe three major concernsfor a theory of writing: a
writer's cognitive processes,the linguistic and textual resources
which instantiatethe writing task, and the contextual factors
which strongly shapethe nature of writing. " (Grabe W&R
Kaplan 1996:229)
CONTEXT
SITUATION (EXTERNAL) PERFORMANCE
Participants
- Settings
TEXTUAL
-Task
OUTPUT
-Text
- Topic
(INTERNAL)
INTERNAL INTERNAL
GOAL -º PROCESSING
PROCESSING OUTPUT
LANGUAGE
COMPETENCE
-Linguistic
Sociolinguistic
Discourse
VERBAL ON-LINE
PROCESSING PROCESSING VERBAL
WORKING
I - Metacognigve ASSEMBLY
processing MEMORY
KNOWLEDG
OF THE
WORLD
Figure 4- Writing as communicativelanguage use (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:226)
8.7 Such views of the writing process,explicitly connecting as they do the social
dimensionsof text with the processesof text production, imply a shift from the

strong writer-centrednessof someof the more extremeexponentsof "process"
approaches.Writing begins to be seenas a socially situated activity in which
the writer as composermust contendwith other texts and other epistemologies
as they establishtheir own voice and identity in their writing
9. Genre
9.1 Grabe and Kaplan's accountof writing as communicative languageuse
provides a handy bridge to the secondareawhere researchinto writing
pedagogyhastaken place - work undertakenby those who are sometimes
describedas 'social-constructivist'(Coe RM 1985,JohnsAM 1990). Key to
this approachto writing are the notions of discoursecommunity and genre.
9.2 The idea of a discoursecommunity developedfrom work in social
anthropology and social constructivism (Kuhn TS 1970, Fish S 1980,Foucault
M 1972, Geertz C 1983) and has beentaken up by researcherswith an interest
in written communication. Swalesconsidersa discoursecommunity to be an
institution which dependson texts for its existence,and assertsthat it has six
key characteristics:
A discourse community has a broadly agreed set of common public goals

...
A discourse community has mechanisms for intercommunication among its
members ...
A discoursecommunity usesits participatory mechanismsprimarily to provide
information andfeedback
...
A discoursecommunityutilises and hencepossessesone or more genres in the
communicative furtherance of its aims ...
In addition to owning genres, a discourse community has acquired some
specific texts ...
A discoursecommunityhas a threshold level of memberswith a suitable
degree of relevant content and discoursal expertise (Swales 1990:24-27)
...

9.3 This view of the nature and purposeof discoursecommunities (and in
particular the implications of Characteristic 6 above) is felt to be contentious
by teachersof writing who questionthe right of institutions to make linguistic
demandsof aspiring members(Bizzell P 1987,Clark R&R Ivanic 1997). It
represents,however, a view which hasbeentaken on and elaboratedby
researcherswith an interest in academicand professionalcommunication
(BazermanC 1994, SwalesJ 1981, Smart G 1993, Spilka R 1993, SwalesJ
1990, SwalesJM &P Rogers 1995) and acceptedby many authorsof ESL /
EFL instructional materials for English for Academic Purposesand
professional communication (Doherty M, L Knapp &S Swift 1987, Hamp-
Lyons L&B Heasley 1987,Tribble C 1997,Turk C&J Kirkman 1989,
White R&D McGovern 1994). It also fits the kind of organisationsthat are
engagedin the design,tendering,bidding and managementof large social and
technical developmentprojects. Thesehave "a broadly agreed set of common
public goals" - often declaredin organisationalmission they

statements; have
"mechanismsfor intercommunication" and "provide information and
feedback" through intranets,websitesand gazettes4;and they possess"one or
more genres in the furtherance

communicative of its aims" in this instance,for
example, "Invitations to Bid" and "Project Proposals".Not only do they have
thesecommon goals and genres,at an organisationallevel, they also have "a
threshold level of memberswith a suitable degreeof relevant content and
discoursal expertise" which is establishedthrough the managementprocedures
4A visit to homepagessuch as http://www.undp.org or http://www.dfid.gov.uk makes clear the

considerableoverlap betweenthese large developmentagencies in their communicationstrategiesand
the tools that they are developingto ensure informationflow betweenthe agency, stakeholdersand
potentialsuppliers

that control the proposal writing process. (see Chapter 8: Writing project
proposals)
9.4 If discoursecommunityhas proved to be a contentiousterm, genre has also
given rise to debateand confusion. I proposeto use an account elaboratedby
Hasan (Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985) as my main working definition:
1. A genreis known by the meaningsassociatedwith it. In fact the term

'genre' is a short form for the more elaboratephrase'genre-specific
semanticpotential'.
2. Genrebearsa logical relation to CC [Communicative Context] being its
,
verbal expression.If CC is a classof situation type, then genreis language
doing the job appropriateto that classof social happenings.
3. Genrescan vary in delicacy in the sameway as contexts can. But for
some given texts to belong to one specific genre,their structure should be
somepossible realisation of a given GSP [Generic StructurePotential].
4. It follows that texts belonging to the samegenrecan vary in their
structure; the one respectin which they cannotvary without consequence
to their genre-allocationis the obligatory elementsand dispositions of the
GSP." (Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985:108)
9.5 1 find this approachto genreparticularly useful as it allows for higher or lower
levels of genrespecificity as a function of the relative specificity of the
Communicative Context (CC). Through the breaking down of the CC into
situation types and the Genre Specific Potential (GSP), Hasan offers an
explanation of the way in which sometextual realisationsof a genre are
consideredmore appropriatethan others i.

- e. are allowable contributions -
and also of the way in which some genresare more narrowly specifiable than
It
others. also dissolvesthe potential contradiction between Swales'
apparentlynarrow accountof genres,and accountsof "protogenres" offered by
theorists such as Martin (Martin JR 1989:7). Thus one CC may be highly
5 "The rationale behind a genre establishes constraints on allowable contributions in terms of their
content, positioning and form Established members of discourse communities employ genres to realize
communicatively the goals of their communities. The shared purposes of a genre are thus recognized -
at some level of consciousness - by the established members of the parent discourse community; they
may be only partially recognized by apprentice members; and they may be either recognized or not
recognized by non-members. " (Swales J 1990: 53)

specific and have a very narrowly restricted GSP- e.g. Swales'example of the
Journal/Newsletterof the Hong Kong Study Circle of stampcollecting
enthusiasts(Swales 1990:27); or it might be of a more generalnature- e.g.
"good-news" and "bad-news" letters in administrative correspondence(Swales
1990:53) with a correspondinglybroader,though still identifiable GSP; or it
might be so generalthat it bearsno relation to a particular discourse
community - e.g. Martin's categoriesof RECOUNT vs. PROCEDURE /
DESCRIPTION vs. REPORT (Martin JR 1989:3-8), although experienced
readerswill still be able to identify allowable contributions. Thus whether it is
specific or general,eachCC has associatedwith it a GSP which can be
realisedthrough a (specifiable) range of allowable texts.
9.6 This view provides the basis for future discussionof genrein this thesis. Such
a dynamic interaction betweencontextsand texts is partially summarisedin
Swales'model of the schematicstructureof genres(Figure 5):
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
previous experience prior texts

(oral and written)
f,,, fý procedures information structures /

and concepts rhetorical elements /
style
content schemata formal schemata
genre (allowable contributions)
Figure 5- Swales 1990:84
9.7 Here, if one works back from an individual instanceof an allowable
contribution within a genre- "a possible realisation of a given GSP" (Halliday

MAK &R Hasan 1985:108) - one can seeits formation in terms of the results
of a seriesof decisionsthat are informed by:
- prior knowledge of the world which informs content schemata

- knowledge of prior texts
knowledge of procedures (how one goes about the writing in a particular
-
genre)
The one limitation of this particular model is that it fails to take into account
the knowledge of social relations which is also required if one is to ensurethe
acceptability of a contribution, or take the risk of knowingly flouting genre
expectationsin order to achieveanotherrhetorical purpose.Nevertheless,it is
a useful visual representationof the kind of knowledge basewhich writers
draw on during the developmentof a text.
9.8 Whatever the problems associatedwith the notion of genre,it has beenwidely
adopted(Benson JD & WS Greaves1980,Bhatia VJ 1993, Halliday MAK
1978, Martin JR 1985, SwalesJ 1990,Tribble C 1997a)and has provided the
basis for an alternative, socially situatedview of writing. This has become
increasingly influential in recent years,and is now referred to as a genre
to
approach writing (Bamforth R 1993, Cope B&M Kalantzis 1993, Gee S
1997). Curricula and instructional materials originating from a genre
approachtypically considertext as simultaneouslyconstructing and resulting
from social processes.Such a view is exemplified by Smart'saccount of genre
developmentin the CanadianNational Bank, where he presentsan account of
in
situatedwriting which:

"... four major contextual influences- the executives'issue-

resolving mandate,severalmental constructsthat inform their
thinking, a tacit understandingbetweenthe executivesand the
researchstaff about the delegationof problem-solving
responsibility, and the intertextual resonance of prior written
discourse - shape the executives' reading practices and
consequent expectations. These expectations, conveyed and
given authority through the institutional hierarchy, in turn exert
a compelling force on the composing processes of the staff as
they collaborate in preparing documents for the executives' use,
thereby giving rise to a body of typified discourse. " (Smart G
1993: 125)
9.9 In the banking context Smart was studying the texts which were used in policy
formation within an organisationwhich dependedon documentsfor this
In
process. such a setting the interaction is not only betweena group of
powerful readersand the bank's technical and researchstaff. It is also an
interaction betweencurrent texts and prior texts, and betweenthe problem
solving strategiesof some individuals and the solution needsof others. For
the purposesof this discussion,the example is useful becauseit underscores
the socially motivated and purposeful nature of writing in organisations. So,
while the writing that I in

will consider this thesis will remain an activity that
involves the "combining of structural sentenceunits into a more-or-less
unique, cohesiveand coherentlarger structure." (Grabe W&R Kaplan
1996:4), 1 will also considerwriting as a socially motivated activity - an
in
activity which someoneis trying to do'something which requires them to
write (rather than to speakor to gesture).
10. Approaching writing
10.1 The literature on writing might give the impressionthat there has been a
heateddebategoing on in the teaching profession betweentwo warring camps
- one waving the banner of processand the other that of genre. However, a

considerationof mainstreamELT writing materials paints a less divided
picture, indeed a in
picture which theoretical debaterarely seemsto raise its
head. Apart from a few recent specialisedtextbooks such asAcademic writing
for graduate students(SwalesJ& CB Feak 1994) we will seethat the
by
materialsused many teachersof English as a foreign languagehave been
developedmuch more pragmatically than the researchliterature might lead
one to believe. Rather than dependingon a single theoretical position, authors
and publishers tend to draw on aspectsof the theory that look as if they will be
useful. As for they

teachers, are less interestedin theory than in having
practical materials which will help them teach groupsthat more often than not
have a low level of motivation to develop writing skills.
10.2 The relatively low level of heat in the professionaldebateamongstteachersof
writing in EFL settingsarises for severalreasons: Firstly, much of the original
researchand the professionalmotivation for the elaboration of the "process
writing" approachhas arisen from the needsof teachersworking in further and
higher educationin the USA. As "freshman comp" and the tradition of
explicit instruction in rhetoric are not common outside the US, the more
partisan aspectsof the debatehave had little significance for EFL teachers.
Thus most EFL teachersof English with an interest in writing have accepted
as useful a book like Process Writing (White R&V Arndt 1991) without then
feeling a needto take sidesin a debate. Secondly,English languageteachers
in
working universities and those working in EFL languageschoolshave
strongly contrasting concerns. The former have a professional interest in the
needsof advancedwriters and a concern to publish theoretical articles; in
general,the professional concernsof the latter are focusedon the needsof

generalstudentsand practical mattersof classroomteaching. An additional
reason why the teaching of writing sometimes receives less attention in EFL
classroomsmay be that many English languageteachers(mother-tongueor
speakersof other languages)are often intimidated by what they perceive as
one of the more demandingaspectsof foreign languageteaching - most of us
are not confident writers. It is, therefore, often a low priority for learners,and
something that receives little attention in general teaching and little interest
from publisherswho do not seelarge salesfor writing skills books.
10.3 In this review of practical classroommaterials, I shall follow an approach
developedin Tribble 1997where I consideredteaching materials that had been
developedfor three classesof learner:
9 studentslearning English for businessor professionalpurposes
" those with academicor study needs
" those preparing for international EFL examinations.
A review of the publishers'cataloguesconfirms that this still covers the
majority of publications related to writing instruction. The only other area
where writing becomesa focus is in generalEnglish languageteaching, but in
this setting it is.more often the casethat studentsare "writing to learn" rather
than "learning to write" (Tribble C 1997:72) - i. e. writing without composing,
where the pen is put to paper as a handmaid to learning, not as an end in itself.
10.4 In the rest of this chapterI shall, therefore, discussexamplesof currently
available published teaching materials that have been preparedin order to help
thesethree different groupsof learners. During this review I shall draw

attention to a seriesof issuesin writing instruction which I feel an adequate
pedagogyof writing should address. Thesewill be flagged in the text in
separateISSUE boxes, and will provide the basis for recommendationsfor the
future developmentwriting of pedagogythat I shall make in Chapter9:
Helping learners write difficult texts.
11. English for business / professional communication
11.1 Two main groups of studentare cateredfor in materials marketed as "English
for Business"or "English for professionalcommunication": qualified business
practitioners, and studentspreparing to becomebusinessprofessionals.The
consensusamongstmaterialswriters appearsto be that the two groups have
very similar needs,that is:
"a need for information on businesspractice in the international English
speakingbusinesscommunity
"a needfor opportunities to develop a commandof the target languagein a
motivating context.
11.2 Working on this premise, authorsuse the behaviour, concepts,activities and
concernsof the international businessworld as a context for the development
of languageskills - including writing skills. They also give prominenceto the
importance of cultural factors in professionalcommunication (whether this is
spokenor written) and to the learner'sneedto becomeaware of the ways in
which speechand writing styles can have a major impact on businesssuccess.
11.3 Such an emphasisproducescoursematerials with contentspagessuch as those
reproducedin Table 2.

BBC Business English InternationalBusinessEng

The factory and the firm
1A tour of the factory
2 The firm
1 Faceto face
People and Jobs
2 Letters,telexesand memos
3 Appointments and 3 On the phone
applications 4 The place of work
4 Selecting staff 5 Importand export
5 Going on a training course 6 Money matters
The daily routine
6 Office management etc...
7 Paperwork (JonesL& Alexander R 1989:iii)
8 Data processing
etc.....
(Owen R 1992 :3
Table 2- BusinessEnglish materials (Contents)
11.4 Typically, teaching units in suchmaterials are contextualisedeither by the
creation of an imaginary company and its businessactivities (as in BBC
BusinessEnglish) or through a set of businessthemessimilar to those found
on technical and vocational businesstraining courses(International Business
English). Theseare then used:
9 to createa communicative context which requires some form of responsefrom
the learner and then
" to presentlanguageskills and knowledge that are relevant to that context and
which, it is hoped, will enablethe learner to perform effectively in the present
(simulated) setting and in future (analogous)ones.
11.5 When this approachis realised in teaching materials two major problems
becomeapparent. The first is that the materials frequently fail to offer
studentsa satisfactory analytic framework on which to basejudgements they
are askedto make about example texts. The secondis that they do not offer
learnerssufficient data on which to make reliable judgements. The result of
theselimitations is that all too often studentsare invited to imitate a model
without having a clear understandingof why the model is (or is not)

(TeachingWriting) Chapter2: page 38
appropriate. Such problems are exemplified in thesetwo extracts from
currently available teaching materials.
11.6 In BBC BusinessEnglish (Owen R 1992) contextualisation for a teaching unit
is provided through small scenariossuch as the one below:
We are still at the offices of Bookmart Publishing Services. In this unit we

see how to deal with problems of credit control; how to conduct an
employeeassessmentinterview; and how to investigate and report an
accident.
CHARACTERS
GeorgeHarvey
Terry Cabe
Frank Penny
Mr Harris owns a bookshop in York
Mr Martinu is GeneralManager at Martinu Books
Andy Brumshaw is the warehouseforeman at Bookmart
Alice Perkins is an office cleanerat Bookmart
All thesecharacters are British
(Owen R 1992:3)
Once the scenehas beenset, the authorsselectcommunicative activities that
would most typically be associatedwith that context. Thus the "employee
interview"
assessment is usedas a starting point for oral skills development,
while accidentreporting and credit control are used as contexts for writing
skills development.
11.7 The Credit Control subsectionbeganwith the activity reproducedin Table 3,
and was completed with a task in which studentswere askedto write an
equivalent letter on the basis of

of a set parallel information.

Document Study: A formal letter
George I larvey had to write a letter to another bookshop,

Martinu Books. They have not paid anything since the end
01"March. Read through the letter. Notice that it is very
10rlllill.
IN
P u© LISH IN G
SLRVICFS LTD
Mr .F Martinu
(am oral Nampo,
Martin. Book.
k astgate
rnrk Yol 1D%
1; 1 Jane 1991
0. Br Mr Mart flu
()ur Statements latod Al Hart 10 Apr iI and 31 May 149 1
As we have received no reply to our letters of 4 May and 30 May,

we are compelled to draw your attention once more to your non
payment of the sums owed to us. The total amount outstanding is
now £15,872.87.
we regret that we cannot continue to allow credit terms long

as
s this debt remains uncleared. Until further notice, thereforo,
goods will be supplied to you only on receipt of cash against a
pro forme invoice.
I shall be obliged if you will contact me personally the

within
next seven days to discuss means by which the amount outstandinq
can he c. Irrnr ec7- We are anx lone, to id any action which might.
ýerýl ý. rr Jie. e tr, il ýIý, r, A [ýusinvsr. rrýletiVnsh llr we hl- cri icry ead In the
past'
tour ". ., in<.. roly
6A Harvey
Table 3- Business Pmglisll l/uirriu/. s (()net R, 1992.59)

.
11.9 The problem with this activity (and similar examples in other publications) is
it
that oilers too much and too little. The example letter is a potentially rich
source of language information, but no guidance is otiered (here or elsewhere
in the book) on how to analyse such a text in order to learn from it. The
injunction to "Notice that it is very fn"mal", in combination with the
"Language Study" box, is supposed to guide learners towards an
understanding of the linguistic features which signal differing degrees of polite
distance. It is unlikely, however, that such an injunction would enable a
learner to obtain sufficient information to go on to elaborate an equivalent text
independently.
Chris Tribble - PhD Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

Issue 1 The materials reviewed here do not offer an accountof

languagein use that will help studentsto carry out a useful analysisof data
samples.As a result, text data may have limited value, and confuserather
than assistlearners.
MMO=d
11.9 When comparedwith the first example,Doherty M, L Knapp &S Swift
(1987) provide an analysiswhich might allow learnersto move towards
independentcomposition in a new communicative context. They do this by:
a) giving an explicit discussionof the power relations that exist between
readersand writers in businesssettingsand the way in which languageuse
changesas a result of different reader-writer relationships- e.g.:
for their suitability for each particular writing task. Good

2 downwards without offcnd"
UNIT writers can write upwards and
ing their readers. They use the most suitable expression!
Achieving a Tone to Suit the for their position and particular business.
The notion of tone is very important to the busirres!
Business Reader writer. Since readers can be insulted not by the message
but by the manner of expression, an otherwise perfece
business know how to choose memo or letter could quite possibly cause a breakdown it
Good writers in the world
The achieve its goal or communication. It is therefore important for you to be
their words. communication must
time and energy arc wasted. If you wish to be a good able to analyse your relationship with your reader(s) anc
and spelling are necessary but not then to choose the appropriate language and tone for you-
writer, good grammar
sufficient. Your words must be chosen with care and tested message.
b) then offering an opportunity to compareexpert performancesfrom
differently positioned membersof the sameorganisation,along with
c) a clearanalysisof someof the key linguisticfeaturesthatthe writershave

in
selected order to achievetheir contrastingpurposes(see example material in
Figure 6.)

(TeachingWriting) Chapter2:
page41
TO: Y Evaluation Exercise I

Look at these two memoranda. Reac
FR :x them with the aim of appreciating thi
SUBJECT:04"2! to Cagey furniture differences and similarities. Thi
second memo is from Y to Z.
It has been brought to my attention that so increasing
mount of daaape to campasyfurniture has ocoyrnd In ºryuet -4
reeks.
This dasrge has generally taken place while furniture
was
being movedInto or out of rented accofaodattoe. It seems
that. on each occasion, the labourers my have bees working
without supervlslaa. It ispossible that such dam" could
be avoided if stricter lovels of supervision were
maintained.
Therefore. It is felt that a responsible eher of the

General Services Departs+eetshould be present whenever
labourer are moving companyfurniture. The presence of this
person might ensure the reduction of snnecasafy damageand
subsequent expense to the company.
If accepted. this proposal ought to case into in diate
effect. Your cess»ets would be greatly appreciated.
$3 Tý Drrýs to Cospsny Furniture
is usrstrsst. t thorn... is the assort of domble to 4014M

furniture has tswatly to.. cote.
O.. b" toles vpi1o formtet. vss i. Sig iswli

This ** plaav
a" . um oeessiaa. !b
into or out of rsat. A secMMndatisa.
labovrtrs vogkisq without wponislos. aam /Us+W 4*11
we=
be rroIA. { if strict 1sv+ls of supervision are ruiatalss0.
member of the Gsasrsl Sao 080

Thsrstors. s responsible
P. psrtassl oust be Present h VUr 1466aro+ OMs vi
oespasV funitura. The presence of this Vernon rd11 sswsr.
the ro6eodus of vnrosn"T ds. s{s and oubsgsr"t, ssPssrs
to the aapwny.
individual to &Stams this r{stsnslº111tT

11MN sooloats the
by 30 Jus. 1fuS.
?hsM you for your oooprrstioo.
Nseus$IOn I Text 6 (Decisive)

that borh .narrow oowr ... city Text 5 (Twtative)
'ou can see quite quickly (1 1)
intono tion. The - .... nwvranted ..
to same topic and contain the same
(14)
tfterence between them 11 in their tone. Writer X and ... generally ... -
different language. Look at (15) It seems that -ý
Vriter Y have used entirely ...
(16) have been (15)
he following simple organization chart. It we know that . may ... were working
Writer X is the Senior Panonn. l Officer (Accanimo- working ...
(17) It is possible that ...
... n.. ) w... e ouiekiv tdennly Witter V.
tt 7) e . Id b. evoid. d (15) will be avoided
... ...
"' "w QieI '... fl! )
senior we.. ............... . e.:re
-
Accanmodot-on personmet Officer
(Accommodation) (110) it is felt that -
Controller ... ...
(I ll) should be present (18) must be present
.., ...
Writer Y is the General ServicesSuperintendent and Z is (113) might ensure (19)

. ... ... ... will ensure ...
he Accommodation Controller: this becomesclear when Note in particular how a single word can set the tone
we analyse and compare the language used in the two piece of writing; this is demonstrated very clearly in Te
nemos. The Senior Personnel Officer usesquite a tenta- by the word unwarranted. Notice also that a letter, me
ive and respectful tone when he writes his memo (Text 5) etc., with a tentative tone tends to be rather longer; tt
General Services
o his superior. On the other hand, the mainly caused by the use of such expressions as It se
iupt. showshis authority by writing his memo (Text 6) in a that..., It is possible that..., etc.
lirect and decisive way.
The following table shows the major differences be-
ween the two texts.
Figure 6- Doherty Knapp & Swift 1987:13-15
11.10 Although the accountof the topic is

not exhaustive,it is pedagogically useful,
and sufficient for learnersto draw on in future writing tasks. In this

sensethe
materials are more likely to achievetheir purpose to
- enableapprentice
Chris Tribble PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)

-
writers to compose texts that are appropriate to their professional needs (a
purposethat will be sharedby the authorsof the first example). Having
worked through thesematerials learnersshould have a better understandingof
how choicesfrom the grammatical and lexical systemsof the languagehave
an impact on the way in which writers and readersinteract, and to make use of
this understandingin their own writing..
11.11 The problem with the materials (and here they suffer from the samelimitations
as all currently available published materials) is that they simply do not offer
studentsenoughdata. A single example- genuine or fabricated is

- not a
sufficient basis for making decisions about the in

way which a text genreis
constructed. We will discusspossible solutions to this problem in more detail
in the closing chapters,but an examplewill be useful at this point. Remaining
in the areaof businesscommunication, consider a letter such as the one
reproducedbelow (Table 4- xxx indicates information removed for reasonsof
confidentiality) .
xxx xxx
xxx School of Art and Design

xxx, Falmouth, Cornwall
Dear xxx,
Thank you for your letter enquiring about the possibility of xxx xxx funding for a
xxx citizen, xxx xxx, to enrol in one of your BA courses. I am afraid that our
Scholarshipsprogrammefor the xxx xxx is currently limited to support for post
graduatestudies,so we cannot offer any assistancein this matter. Unfortunately I
am also unable to suggest to you any alternative sources of funding. The Open
Society Foundation in xxx sometimesoffers scholarshipsfor studiesin the arts,
though I know that they have many calls on their resourcesand I would not therefore
like to hold out too much hope.
I am sorry not to be able to be more helpful.
With best wishes,
Table 4- Letter of rejection (Corpus of administrative correspondence-personally held)

11.12 If learnerswere presentedwith such a letter, a certain number of learning
points might be made- e.g. :
" Genre - the letter is one of rejection / refusal (producedby a grant awarding
organisation)
" Discourse - in this particular (British) culture letters of rejection:
- open by acknowledging the recipient (Thank you for your letter )

...
- offer face-preservingreasonsfor the rejection (our Scholarshipsprogramme
is currently limited to support )

...
- offer alternatives(The Open Society Foundation sometimesoffers... )
9 Language -a number of key words and phrasesare typically used in such
letters:
I am afraid that / Unfortunately I am unable /I am sorry not to be able

... ...
etc.
11.13 Unfortunately,someof theseconclusionscouldbe specificallymisleading-
or at least miss a main point. If a large collection of letters from the same
organisation is considered(this time contrasting letters of OFFER /
ACCEPTANCE and letters of REJECTION), systematicpatterns of use can be
identified which call into question the conclusionsbasedon the single
instance.The first thing that you notice is that there is no simple opposition
betweenpleased and afraid - the one identifying OFFER and the other
REJECTION. In fact, afraid is a poor identifier of REJECTIONS and, in the
caseof the data under review, was much more common in letters which were

apologising for a failure. While pleased was a strong indicator of OFFER /
ACCEPTANCE, the best identifier of REJECTIONS was unfortunately.
11.14 Of more importancethan this, the data for thesetwo words (seeTable 5) gives
a strong indication of a major contrast between OFFER / ACCEPTANCE and
REJECTION which would not have beennoticed in a study of the first
example. The contrastlies in the fact that in OFFER / ACCEPTANCE the
is
actor usually the first person singular (13/19) and in REJECTION it is the
first personplural (19/21). On the basis of observationof a large selection of
texts from a single organisation,it becomesclear that a) when offers are made,
the writer wishes to associatehim/herself with the act, and that b) when a
rejection is required, there is a tendency in this writing culture to distance
oneself from the act, implying that responsibility rests with an institution
rather than the individual.
idered your application and I am pleased to inform you that the Xxxxxx Xxxxx
sting and valuable one, and I am pleased to learn of the contribution from t
t the Edinburgh Festival. I am pleased to be able to offer you a contribut
Dear Professor Xxxxxxxxx, I am pleased to be able to assist with the fundi
Festival on behalf of xxxX. I am pleased to tell you that we will be able to
my of Art later this month. I am pleased to tell you that we will be able to
their performance in Oslo. I am pleased to tell you that the Xxxxxx Xxxxxxx
our scholarship programme. I am pleased to be able to tell you that you hav
our scholarship programme. I am pleased to be able to tell you that you hav
Sakala Street, Tallinn. I am pleased to know that you are already in tou
of your time in the UK. I am pleased to be able to tell you that the Dir
to the interview last week. I am pleased to tell you that we have sent your
is"award earlier this year. I am pleased to be able to tell you that you hav
ch a successful partnership, and pleased to be able to tell you that the Xxx
ing her visit. We would also be pleased to host a meeting for her to talk a
Professor Xxxxxx, You will be pleased to know that we have been able to p
uage Unit - Latvia You will be pleased to hear that we have now prepared a
member of your Office I would be pleased to attend such a meeting along with
1 it would be useful, I would be pleased to talk to you in more detail on my
are in Tallinn we would be very pleased if you could run a couple of sessio
can hope to satisfy, and we are unfortunately unable to offer you any finan
fore writing to say that we are, unfortunately, unable to offer you any assi
fore writing to say that we are, unfortunately, unable to offer you any assi
rtment in London about this but, unfortunately, they are unable to help this
Xxxxxx, the Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx is unfortunately unable to help you with fundi
nd offer of support. We are not, unfortunately, in a position to establish a
n interesting one, but we do not unfortunately have sufficient budget availa
5, and I am writing to say that, unfortunately, we will not be able to offer
dI am writing to tell you that, unfortunately, we have not been able to of
if of Xxxxxx Veterinary Academy. Unfortunately, we are unable to help you wi
ve you an application form. C. Unfortunately, we are unable to help you wi
id, to follow up our phone call. Unfortunately the Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx will not
g Sustainable Rural Development. Unfortunately, the timing of this course ma
isit the University of Xxxxxxxx. Unfortunately we have far more demands on o
onomies of Transition in Xxxxxx. Unfortunately, as you will realise, we have

hraseology to be held in Leeds. Unfortunately we are not able to contribute

r any assistance in this matter. Unfortunately I am also unable to suggest t
n number of Baltic participants. Unfortunately, we are unable to enter into
Xxxxxxxx Fellowship programme. Unfortunately we have already completed rec
nvolved in the Health project. Unfortunately our resources are limited and
tive of the aims of the project. Unfortunately, however, I do not currently
sible to waive this requirement. Unfortunately, however, we never received t
ndustry in the Baltic States. Unfortunately we are unable to offer you an
he EDEN conference in Tallinn. Unfortunately we have far more demands on o
urse to be delivered in Vilnius. Unfortunately we are unable to provide any
Table 5 -pleased/ unfortunately
11.15 Thus, while it might be possible to identify some of the important featuresof
the texts that are required by a communicative context by analysing a single
instance,such an analysis can be significantly misleading. A study of the
example letter given abovewould not have revealedthe important information
about the different roles speakerstake on in contrasting genresthat can be
gained from a study of REJECTION and OFFER / ACCEPTANCE in a
corpus of administrative correspondence6.
Issue 2 Single instances of language in use do not provide a

sufficient basis for conclusions about the linguistic specification of a genre.
In order to make such generalisations, multiple examples are needed -
ideally from several comparable sources
12. English for academic or study purposes
12.1 BusinessEnglish coursesand English for academicpurposes(EAP) courses
differ to a surprising extent and presentcontrastingpedagogicproblems. The
former are designedfor practitioners or those preparing to enter an identifiable
professional field, and who are frequently unfamiliar with the dominant
market oriented culture of the global businesscommunity. Writers of
"businessEnglish" courses,therefore, appearto feel justified in offering a
degreeof content and context knowledge as a way of framing the language

system and process knowledge that they provide. Most courses in EAP, by
contrast,have to cater for the needsof a group whose needsare a great deal
more varied..
12.2 First it is impossible to assumethat learnerswill sharea common content
knowledge (they may be taking coursesranging from applied linguistics to
zoology), still lessthat English teacherswill know more about their students'
subjectsthan the studentsdo. Context knowledge can be equally problematic.
Courseparticipants might be on vocational, undergraduateor post-graduate
courses;they might be foreign studentsalready in English speakingcountries,
to
studentspreparing enter such institutions, studentswho will take some
coursesthrough the medium of English while living in their own countries-
and, given the current rapid rate of changein academicinstitutions and texts,
their teachers'knowledge of these contextsmay be extremely out-of-date.
This presentsmaterials writers and publisherswith major problems when it
comesto designing and marketing EAP courses.
12.3 Broadly speaking,authorshave found two solutions to this dilemma. One,
common to all published EAP materials, has been to avoid content knowledge
to a
and give strong emphasisto languagesystemand writing process
knowledge, and, to a lesserextent, context knowledge. The other - and it is
here that EAP books differ most strongly one from the other - has been to opt
for one of two contrastingviews of what makesup the context of academic
6 This is a collection of administrative correspondence collected from colleagues when I was working in
such an organisation. For reasons of confidentiality, they are not publicly available. I would stress here
that if learners were working with this collection they would be advised that any conclusions they
reached on the basis of this data should be viewed as interim and would require testing against
equivalent data sets from other sources.

writing and how this context and the languageuse it generatescan best be
described.
12.4 The first view of the context of academicwriting is basedon a long-standing
tradition in the English speakingworld, and in many Europeancountries. This
a
view assumes common intellectual framework for all academicdiscourse-a
common academiccontext. In this tradition the modesof classical rhetoric are
taken as the starting point for instruction in academicwriting skills, and it is
assumedthat studentshave a primary needto gain a mastery of these
rhetorical modes if they are to becomecompetentwriters in their chosen
disciplines. The list below provides an example of the content that is
commonly taught in writing coursesof this kind.
" Exposition
Examples Comparison and contrast
Process Definition
Cause and effect Division and classification
" Description
" Narration
" Argumentation and persuasion
(Langan J, 1993 p 113)
Table 6- EAP Programme
12.5 In teaching materials that are built aroundthesecategories,it is common for
theserhetorical modesto be chapterheadings(as in Table 6). Examples of
languageuse and writing exercisesare then provided to help studentsto
expressthese in
rhetorical modes appropriatelanguage. Once learnersare
consideredable to use the exponentsat sentencelevel, they move on to
paragraphand text length exercises. I shall call this approachto teaching
academicwriting "intellectual / rhetorical".
12.6 The secondview takes as its starting point the notion of the DISCOURSE
COMMUNITY (Berkenkotter C& TN Huckin 1993, Berkenkotter C& TN

Huckin 1995, Clark R&R Ivanie 1997,Flower L 1994, FreedmanA&
Medway P 1994, Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996,Miller C 1984,Reither J
1985, SwalesJ 1990) and identifies not just one but a range of possible
academiccontexts. Swalesdescribesa discoursecommunity as being made
up of writers and readerswith "common goals, participatory mechanisms,
information exchange, community specific genres, a highly specialised
terminology and a high generallevel of expertise" (SwalesJ 1990:29). In this
account, "common goals" refers to the objectives of the scholarsin any
community - these can include accountsof replicable experimental
the
procedures, reporting of new knowledge, the examination of students,and
so forth. In the caseof writing, the "participatory mechanisms"are the texts
that are associatedwith the genresof a particular discipline. Thesemay be the
academicjournals producedby specific disciplines, the text books that
academicsprepareas a meansof teachingtheir subject to their students,or the
examinationsthat studentshave to write in order to proceedthrough their
courses.
12.7 Teacherswho work with this social view of the context of academicwriting
typically ask their studentsto discover how their own specific discourse
communities function and how this affects the in

way which membersof that
community write. In this processof discovery learnerswill look closely at the
relationships that exist betweendifferent readersand writers and in doing so
their primary data will be the texts themselves. Thesecan be analysed,
imitated and challenged,and - as the learner becomesan expert practitioner -
may well be transformed. We should note that such an investigative approach
will often include a considerationof modesof rhetoric, though not as models

for imitation, but rather as examplesof ways of writing that studentsshould be
aware of. I call this approachto writing "social / genre".
12.8 In the following paragraphsI will consider examplesof published EAP
materials from thesetwo perspectives- "intellectual / rhetorical" and
"social/genre".I have discussedelsewherethe ways in which several
componentsof an academicwriting syllabus - text structureand organisation,
argumentation,style etc. - can be delivered (Tribble C, 1997). For the
purposesof this chapterI shall restrict myself to a discussionof one of the
featuresmost commonly taught in English for Academic Purposesmaterials -
text organisationand argumentdevelopment- as this usefully exemplifies
some of the major contrastsbetweenintellectual / rhetorical and social / genre
approaches.
12.9 The two following examples(Figure 7 and Figure 8) are both concernedwith
problems of text organisation,but one is a fairly extreme example of the
rhetorical / intellectual approachto EAP and the other is one of the few
published examplesof an EAP text book which usesa well elaborated
social/genre approach.

I ,. -rin I I, Iml, l snits LA li llrr. Nl,ýt l1/.1" 100
Chris "Tribble PhD Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

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12.10 The I lamp-Lyons & Heasley extract appears to assume that the best way to
help students learn about text organisation is to offer them highly
gencralisahle accounts of major patterns of discourse - it then becomes the
learner's responsibility to implement this understanding in his or her own
subject area. Such an approach, essentially an intellectual/rhetorical one, has
many advantages. One is that it makes it possible for the course book to be
used with many dilicrent kinds of student; another is that the learner should be
Chris Tribble - Phl) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

(Teaching Writing) Chapter2: page 52
enabledto engageautonomouslywith new textual problems as and when they
arise. Thus Hamp-Lyons and Heasley do not attempt to give specific
information about how, say, historians, languagestudentsor earth scientists
organisetheir texts. Rather, they draw the learner'sattention to common
rhetorical patternsthat can be found in many texts - Generalto Particular,
Problem / Solution and so forth. While this ought to have the benefit that
learnerswill develop an understandingof how texts work that will standthem
in good steadfor the rest of their professionalcareers,there can also be
problems. Most importantly, studentscan feel that the examplesof texts
in
presented the materials, along with the activities that they are askedto carry
out, are so distant from their immediate needsor intereststhey are unwilling to
suspenddisbelief for the purpose of the task in hand.
12.11 The secondextract demonstratesa social / genreapproach. It provides
learnerswith highly specific information about the forms of text required by
the genreof reporting laboratory experiments. This way of working also has
advantages.First, learner motivation can be high as studentswith the right
interestscan seean immediate return on their investment. Secondly,the
function of grammatical and lexical featuresin the developmentof a text can
be shown more clearly, thereby making explicit the relationship between
meaning, communicative purpose and languageform. This link can be further
clarified (as, in fact, is done in the presentcase)by organising the instructional
materials around chapterheadingssuch as: "Title and Aim, Procedure,Results
and Discussion of Results, Comparison of Results ". The disadvantagesof

....
such an approachis that a book like "Writing Laboratory Reports" will only

to
appeal a narrow range of learners- although it makes sensepedagogically,
it is never going to be a big earner?
Issue 3 Authors of published EAP materials (along with course

developersand teachersof writing) face a dilemma when choosing the
context from which they will draw pedagogicexamples. If the context
is too narrow, it will only appealto a very small group of students. If
the context is too generalthere are (at least) two possible problems.
The first is that learnerswill not be willing to relate to the texts they are
being askedto exploit. The second,and more dangerous,problem is
that the exampleschosenwill mislead learnersinto making
generalisationsthat will not hold when they start to write within their
own disciplines.
12.12 The next two examplesoffer contrastingapproachesto teaching learnersto
develop an argumentin EAP. The first is taken from White R and D
McGovern 1994:
TASK 1
description basedon comparisonand contrastcan be developedin

two ways:
You can group the main ideasabout SubjectA in one paragraphor section
. B in 'vertical
to main ideasabout Subject in the next paragraphor section, 2
in first of the following diagrams.
iovement.as the
ideas on Subject A and Subject
Alternatively, you can treat the corresponding
after the other, in a'horizontal'
a pair and compareor contrast them one
in the second diagram.
)vement.as
7 As was the case with Writing laboratoryreports! (private communicationfrom Tony Dudley-Evans
1994)

Vertical pattern
Subject A Subject 8
Idea 1 I
Idea 2 2
Idea 3 3
Idea 4 4
Horizontal pattern
Subject A Subject 8
Idea 1N1
ldaa 22
Idea 33
Idea 44
'vertical' 'horizontal' pattern depends on the kind of

Whether you choose the or the
its own preference. Some writers and readers
text you are writing, purpose and your
find the 'horizontal' pattern clearer because it repeatedly reminds them of the
Others the'vertical' pattern because of
prefer
comparison or contrast relationship. for longer
its relative simplicity. The 'horizontal' pattern is often more suitable a
Both patterns are commonly used in descriptions involving
piece of writing.
comparison and contrast.
®
Step 1
1.1 Read Text 3.1.
1.2 Consider the following questions:

(a) Is the writer's description basedon comparison or contrast - or both?
(b) Has the writer used a 'vertical' or 'horizontal' pattern of organisation?
(c) Which words are used to indicate a relationship of comparison or contrast?
Can you think of similar words or phrases?(SeeAppendix 1.)
11) Concepts for the disposal of highly the US, the concept of a 'dry' repository
radioactive wastes have been around for took hold. IS) Furthermore, this was the
more than 40 years. (2) The most bam of research into disposal until the
authoritative early work was a 1957 late 1970t.
report by the US National Academy of (6) In other Eurowan iee, however,
Sciences. (3) ihrs recommended that larg e sae domes do no , mi
e st. (7) From the
rock-saltwould be the most suitable mid-seventies, having ignored the
medium rn which lo emplace wastes
because it represented a dry geological disposalproblem for about two decades,
these countries chose instead to look at
environment. 141In countries with large crystalline rock-types. (III Invariably these
salt deposits. such as West Germany and
were water-bearing
ALp d (-. 'The W1, dp. i. i by D. Prw Bnkhý 77.1 My 1989
Figure 9- White R&D McGovern 1994:22-4
12.13 The White and McGovern materials work in a top-down way, giving learners
an overview of typical organisationalpatternsfor this type of description and
then giving them an opportunity to work as analystsand editors. In the
processof moving from text to writing activity studentsare under a continuous
obligation to discussand shareexperiences- referencematerials which
provide instancesof languageuse associatedwith comparisonand contrast

being supplied in an appendix. An advantageof this activity is that, at this
point in the unit of work, the learnersare not under any pressureto be
inventive. Instead,they are able to gain confidenceto operateon the written
languagethat is appropriateto a particular kind of text. The materials draw on
an intellectual / rhetorical tradition of instruction, but face validity tends to be
higher for learnersthan it is with e.g. the Hamp-Lyons / Heasley materials as
the texts used are closer to those that studentsmay be askedto write. Once the
analysishas beenundertakenlearnersare expectedto apply ideas learnedin a
teaching unit to writing projects which they should be maintaining in parallel
to the published coursematerials.
12.14 The material from Jordan 1992 in the next example approachesthe problem
from a different starting point and usesa more bottom-up approach(Figure
10). Here learnersare given data to work on and are then askedto complete a
seriesof gappedsentences.This done, they are askedto complete further
exerciseswith a progressivelymore and more open structure- gappedtext to
notes to free writing - again of sentencelength. The materials, with their
movement from writing activity to text, are perhapsmore typical of a
rhetorical / intellectual to
approach writing instruction, using a'presentation,
practice, production' cycle in order to help learnersgain control of the skills
they needin the target language.

Stage I Comparison 1 Lookat TablesI and 2.
Table 1: The Longest Rn,ers in the Wodd
1 The We (Africa).--4,160 melee(6,69Sk Iomeoes)

2 The Amazon (South Amcnca)-4,080 miles (6,370 kilometres)
3 The Missiutppi-Muauuri (North Amenca)-3,740 miles (6,020
kilometres)
4 The Yangtze(Aua: Chma)-3,430 miles(3,320 kilometres)
Table 2: Temperaturesand Rainfall in Bu/pny. Cbna
ýUoih F M A M J J A S 0 N D
Iemlrr. niu l () -4. ' -1.5 3.0 13.7 19.9 24.5 26.0 24.7 19.6 12.5 3.6 -2.6
Itaýntýll pml 0.2 U.ä 0.5 1.3 3.6 7.6 23.9 16.0 6.6 1.3 0.8 0.2
Note: it the first monthisJanuary(J). the last is December (D).

No w "(by .. NoI Is the temperature is meawred in Centigrade, and is an
w- Swags.
t the rainfall is measured in centimetres, and is also an
average.
_, _
NOW complete ttw (uiiowfuy a... LCu es. Of neeeaaery, leek .t
Appendix 7: Comparisons. Put one or more words in each space.
Table 1:
I The Nile is the Mississippi-Missouri.

2 The Amazon is long
the Nile.
3 The Nile is river in the world.
4 The Mississippi-Missouri is the Amazon.
S The Yangtse is over in China.
Table2:
6 In Beijing, January is a month
December.
7 July is a month
June.
8 There is rain in May
in March.
9 July has the rain; in other words, July is
month.
10 August is warm
July.
11 December and January are months.
12 The rainfall in February is in March.
13 April is wct
October.
14 The rainfall in November is in May.
IS July is the month, and also
month.
2 Look at Table 3.
Table l: The Highest Mountain, in the Wurld
1 E. erew(NepaltTýbet)-29,028Im tg,x4# m«-s)

2 K2 (Kashmrfmkiang)-28,250 Net (8,611 mires)
l Kangchen(unga (Nepal/Sikkim)
-28, I68 fret (8J86 metrn)
4 Makalu (Nep. I?. bn)-27,805 Im (8,473 metre)
5 Dhaulag,ri (Nepaq-26,810 fm (8,172 etn+.)
Figure 10 - Jordan RR 1992:49-50
12.15 It is possible that with learnerswho have limited control of sentencelevel
grammatical relationships there are in

advantages using the bottom-up
approachfavoured by Jordan. Students(and teachers)are given a secureand
systematicmeansof controlling a set of rhetorical modes, and comprehensive
keying of the exercisesmakes it possible for learnersto work with the
materials independently. This way of working also makes it possible to plan
in
classes which a discrete set of information is dealt with in a controlled way.

A disadvantageof the approachmay be that insufficient emphasisis paid to
completetexts so that learnersdo not have the opportunity to develop their
ability to edit and revise texts with a view to communicative quality. In other
words, work at this level may not ultimately transfer to the higher level of
organisationof texts discussedpreviously.
12.16 Such a transfer, on the other hand, may be more readily achievedin the White
and McGovern materials since they focus on discourseorganisation and help
learnersto match languageuse to communicativepurposeat such an early
point in the book. This does,of course,presupposea fairly high degreeof
sophisticationon the learner'spart - but this is not an unreasonable
presupposition in higher education settings. The remaining tasks in this
teaching unit are consistentwith this philosophy, requiring discussion,
investigation and the discovery of rules or patterns. Although such a way of
working may be demandingfor teachersand learnersalike, it does require
learnersto do the things that they will eventually have to do as effective
writers, and also provides them with strategiesfor co-operative editing and
peer reviewing that will be useful to them in their later professional careers.
In short, such an approachallows for an integration betweenthis level of
argumentationand the overall level of organisationof texts in specific genres.
12.17 The approachesto text organisation and argumentdevelopmentthat are
exemplified above are representativeof two major tendenciesin writing
instruction for foreign languagestudents. One combinesprocessand genre
approaches,encouraginglearnersto discover patternsand rules of use as they
becomemore familiar with the genresin which they will needto write. The
other tendency ("intellectual-rhetorical") is more bottom-up and has the

strengthof a long tradition - and a high degreeof acceptability to many
teachers. It works on the premise that learnersneedto develop an awareness
of the linguistic options that exist at sentencelevel before they embark on the
composition or transformation of completetexts.
Issue 4 Most teachers will accept that there is no single "correct"

methodology for teaching writing. It will always be important to find an
appropriate a balance between approaches which encourage learners to
develop a mastery of language system knowledge appropriate to the kinds of
writing they want to do, and approaches which focus on knowledge of co-
texts and context. Teacherswill have to make choicesin relation to the level
of their knowledge
students' of the languagesystem,the writing demandsthat
they will face and the resourcesthat are available - and also in relation to
preferred learning styles.
13. English for international examinations
13.1 You might reasonablyassumethat there would be a marked difference
betweenthe situation of teacherspreparing studentsfor international EFL
examinationssuch as the CambridgeCertificate in Advanced English (CAE)
and teachersof studentson BusinessEnglish or EAP programmes. Teachers
of examination classesshould know the demandstheir studentshave to face:
the examination syllabus is explicit - as are the marking criteria. Students
preparing for an examination such as the globally dominant University, of
CambridgeLocal Examinations SyndicateFirst Certificate in English (FCE)
or Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) should know why they are taking a
writing course:they want to passthe exam, and writing is a compulsory paper.
13.2 In such circumstances,materials writers and teachersmight appearto have a
straightforward task - and one which allows relatively little room for
variation. At first sight this analysis is supportedby the high degreeof
similarity betweenthe different books that are published with titles along the

lines of Writing skills for the xxx examination. In order to seeif this apparent
simplicity is borne out in teaching materials, we will consider an example of a
recent examination preparation book from a leading UK publisher, Cambridge
University Press,CAE Writing Skills (O'Dell F 1996).
13.3 The official specification of tasks in the CAE written componentlists the
following texts that candidatesmay be askedto write:
announcements articles (newspaper / magazine)

directions formal and informal letters
instructions leaflets
notices personalnotes and messages
reports reviews
and, as is the casein the other exam preparationbooks on the market, this
specification provides the basis for the contentsof CAE Writing Skills:
Map of the book Articles Instructions and

To the student Narratives directions
To the teacher Reports Reviews
Foundation unit Writing about work Brochures
Writing basedon a Notes, notices and Competition entries
reading task announcements Answer key
Letters
F 1996:iii
13.4 After the generalfront matter, two opening units are devoted to a review of the
examination syllabus and marking scheme,and to introducing learnersto
issuesin question interpretation and examinationtechnique. The rest of the
book is designedto help studentsto preparefor the different kinds of text
which they be to in
may asked write the CAE exam. This all looks
unproblematic. We all know what letters, articles and brochuresare, don't we?
The job of the author and teacherswho use the book will be to demonstrateto
learnerswhat "letters" and "brochures" are, and then find ways of assisting
theselearnersto write this kind of text under examination conditions.

13.5 When individual teachingunits are considered,however, the problems faced
by authorsof exam preparationmaterialsbecomeapparent- along with the
still tenuousrelationship betweenthe theory of teaching writing and pedagogic
realities. In, for instance,the chapter on "Brochures" the aim of the unit is
statedthus:
"The aim of this unit is to answerthe following questions:
- What kind of brochure might CAE ask you to write?

- What are the characteristicsof brochures and similar literature?
- What style is appropriate when writing a brochure?
- How can you make sure you correct your work efficiently?
- How can you effectively write promotional or publicity literature?
- How can you use idioms effectively? " (O'Dell F 1996: 85)
13.6 Here, the questionsabout "the characteristicsof brochuresand similar
literature" and the "style appropriatewhen writing a brochure" indicate that a
"social / genre" approachis being applied to the teaching task, and that
"brochure" is a reasonablydiscrete genrecategory. The concern about writing
processesand languagesystemknowledge indicates that a balance is being
struck betweenthe needsof the learnersqua languagelearnersand their needs
as examination candidates. However, several difficulties arise when the tasks
in specific teaching units are consideredin detail. We will take the unit on
Brochures (Leaflets in the CAE specification) as an example of the kinds of
problem that authors face when writing teaching materials to help students
trying to preparefor CAE8.
13.7 The first problem is that the text label that O'Dell has chosento use, brochure,
seemsto be inappropriate in relation to the texts to which it is applied. The
8 Out of fairness to O'Dell, I should stress that the example given here was selected at randomfrom the
small number of recently published books designedto help learners preparingfor the CAE examination.
The weaknesses I indicate In the materialsare weaknessesshared by many books on writing (including
my own - see Tribble C 1989, HopkinsA and C Tribble 1989!)

Longman Dictionary of ContemporaryEnglish (2nd Edition) defines brochure
as:
a small thin book with a paper cover, esp. one giving

instructions or details of a service: a holiday brochure; an
advertising brochure" (Summers D&M Rundell 1987: 122)
and the idea that brochuresare mainly booklets designedto sell or promote
...
servicesis further supportedby a random sampleof 50 instancesin the BNC
(seeAppendix 2: Brochure (BNC searchresults)). Yet in the teaching unit,
studentsare askedto acceptthe examplesgiven below as also fitting into the
category brochure:
(1) Your local area is keen to encourageforeign tourists. You have

beenaskedto write a brochure to send to other countries in order
to promote the area. You have beenrequestedto pay particular
attention to at least three of thefollowing - landscape; local food
and drink; leisurefacilities; places of historic interest; transport.
Write the brochure.
(II) Youfeel particularly strongly about an issue that is causing

considerable discussion in your area. You decide to publicise your
views by producing a pamphlet in why you lay out clearly what the
issue is, why you feel as you do and why those with opposing views
are, in your opinion, mistaken. Write the pamphlet.
(O'Dell F, 1996:87)
13.8 The problem is, in the light of the earlier discussionin this chapter (Paragraph
9 ff. ), we would not considerthe two writing contexts/ texts presentedabove
to be membersof the samegenre- they shareneither communicative purpose,
audience,authorship,nor, in fact, name. The only thing that they seemto
have in common is that the texts which result from such communicative
contexts are sometimesprinted on piecesof folded paper, and they sometimes
include other visual or typographically distinct information. Physically the
textual realisationsof thesecontexts would not be understoodto be brochures;

generically they are non-equivalent. However, in spite of this, the
examination puts these writing contexts into the same genre category.
13.9 O'Dell tries to overcomethis difficulty by introducing sub-categories (leaflet,
information sheet,pamphlet) and then identifying the featuresthey have in
common:
"As the exam tasks on the previous page demonstrate,there are

different kinds of brochure and they can even be called by
different names[my emphasis].What they have in common is
that they:
- are short
- aim partly to inform people
- aim also to attract customersor supporters"(O'Dell F 1996:86)
Unfortunately a large number of other kinds of text - e.g. advertisementsand
CVs - can also be short and aim to inform and attract. Brochure remains
elusive on the basis of this specification.
13.10 The problems continue when O'Dell goesonto invite comment on a London
Transport brochure (Figure 11 below). She asksthe following questions:
"- What information is provided in the brochure?

What is it trying to attract people to do?
-
Which parts of the text are simply giving information?
-
How did the writer of this brochure try to interest readers? Think about
-
generalpresentationand sentencestructure in particular.
- Underline any words or expressions that are used with the aim more of
attracting customersthan simply informing. " (O'Dell F 1996:86)

I i,ýiu'" ll -(1/)rlll 096 S'
13.1 1 O'DelI's answers to these questions are given in the key to this chapter, but
unlortunately the information that is offered is, again, more likely to be
misleading rather than useful to the learner. For example, on the matter of
style, O'Dell comments:
"4. The writer uses a number of techniques: pictures;

addressing the reader directly by using you and imperatives;
vivid vocabulary to make the places sound interesting; lists e.g.
lights ('a/neru Ac/ion and the sentence beginning Enjoy a
... ...
magic lantern show ... The sentences tend to contain a lot of
adjectives and try to pack in as much information as possible
without become too long and complex" (O'Dell F 1996: 119)
13.12 Such comments are not internally consistent - and could be equally true of
other kinds of text. Counts for some of the features O'Dell mentions (you,
imperatives, vivid vocahulary, lists, high adjective count, sentences "not too
long uni/ complex", information level high) are given below, alongside those
Chris Tribble - I'hi) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

for a non-comparabletext: a biographic essayon Mahatma Gandhi taken from
a CD-ROM encyclopaedia9:
MI GANDHI TEXT
PAGEANT
words = 101 words = 105 120 words words = 109
sentences =4 sentences =7 6 sentences sentences =4
Average sentence Average sentence Average sentence Average sentence
length = 25.25 length = 15 length = 20 words. length = 27.5
clauses = 12 clauses = 11 clauses =9 Average clauses = 10
Average clauses per Average clauses per clauses per sentence = Average clauses per
sentence =3 sentence = 1.5 1.5 sentence = 2.5
adjectives =8 adjectives =5 adjectives =7 adjectives = 13
imperatives =4 imperatives =6 imperatives =0 imperatives =0
you=1 you=1 you =2 you=0
Table 7- Brochure counts
13.13 Although the main text for eachitem is of comparablelength, there is a wide
range of variation from one to the other acrossmost of the features O'Dell
mentions. Most significantly, there are no instancesof imperatives in
SCIENCE MUSEUM, and a strikingly high imperative count (6) in TOWER
HILL PAGEANT. Similarly there is a major difference betweenMOMI and
the other texts in terms of the number of clausesper typographic sentence'0.
The problem with the characterisationO'Dell offers is further underlined when
the counts for the Encarta extract are reviewed. GANDHI has sentencelength
and clausenumbers similar to the MOMI article - and it has a higher adjective
count than any of the "brochure" articles. Yet GANDHI is not a brochure - or
a leaflet, pamphlet or information sheet. It would seemto be the casethat
while O'Dell offers a useful insight in the way in which secondperson address
may characterisecertain kinds of short persuasivetexts, this point is lost
amongstother, less significant, featuresand would not be consistently relevant
to all the text categoriesthat are brought together under the heading brochure /
leaflet.
9 see Appendix: BrochureTexts for full details

Issue 5A social/genre approach to teaching writing becomes highly

problematic if you cannot specify the genre you are working with. The
problem with the CAE category "leaflet" (and also "letter" etc.) is that it is
not a genre. As Gee says:
"Genresare firstly social processesand, as such, entail participation, that is,

the social interaction of their participants. Further, each genre is a
purposeful processand therefore the participation is meaningful. Genres
are stagedwhich meansthat they consist of different stagesor stepswhich
lead to the achievementof a goal." (Gee S 1997:27)
Thus the Technical Component of a Project proposal is amenable to a social

/ genre pedagogic approach because it is a clearly identifiable genresH.
Similarly, the discussion section in one MSc dissertation can be seen as
standing in clear analogous relation with other discussion sections in other
MSc dissertations12
A letter, however, is not a genre;neither are brochures,leaflets, and

pamphlets. LETTER, LEAFLET etc. may be "text types" (Stubbs M
1996:10-12) and as such describablein terms of certain common
organisational features(e.g. "headline / body" in newspaperarticles /
"block-letter" format in commercial correspondence),but that is probably
the limit to the pedagogicallyuseful accountthat you can make of them.
The moment you start to make strong generalisationsabout other instances
of the sametext type - especially when you do this on the basis of a single
instance- the more likely you are to face the kinds of problem we have
outlined in the last section.
14. Conclusion
14.1 Five issuesin writing instruction have been identified during the courseof this
review of teaching materials, each of which raises a question for teachersof
writing. The issuesand associatedquestionscan be summarisedas follows:
Issue 1 Text data may confuserather than assistif learnersdo not have
an adequatetheoretical framework to shapetheir analysis of examples.
Question: What constitutesa theoretically adequatepedagogic framework for
10a more useful measure of a text's "writtenness"see Halliday MAK 1989

11 see Chapter 3:Approachingthe data: dealing with genre
12 see Dudley-Evans T 1994 for a fuller discussion of Discussion Sections

teacherswho want to help learnersto write difficult texts (as we have defined
them here)?
Issue 2 Single instancesof languagein use do not provide a sufficient
basis for conclusionsabout the linguistic specification of a genre. In order to
make such generalisations,multiple examplesare needed- ideally from
severalcomparablesources.
Question: What kinds of examplesdo teachersand learnersneedwhen
approachingthe problem of writing into a new genre?
Issue 3 Authors, coursedevelopersand teachersof writing face a
dilemma when choosingthe context from which they will draw pedagogic
examples. If the context is too it

narrow, will only appealto a very small
group of students. If the context is too generalthere are (at least) two possible
problems. The first is that learnerswill not be willing to relate to the texts
they are being askedto exploit. The second,and more dangerous,problem is
that the exampleschosenwill mislead learnersinto making generalisations
that will not hold when they start to write within the genresthat matter to them
in their own disciplines.
Question: Is there any help for teacherswho cannot get hold of examplesof
the kinds of texts their studentsneedto write?
Issue 4 There is no single "correct" methodology for teaching writing.
It will always be important to find an appropriatea balancebetween
approacheswhich encouragelearnersto develop a mastery of languagesystem
knowledge appropriateto the kinds of writing they want to do, and approaches
which focus on knowledge of co-texts and context. Teacherswill have to

make choices in relation to the level of their knowledge

students' of the
languagesystem,the writing demandsthat they will face and the resources
that are available - and also in relation to preferred learning styles.
Question: What practical guidancecan be given to help teachersdevelop
appropriatemethodologiesfor the writing coursesthey offer their students?
Issue 5 When using a social/genreapproachto teaching writing it is
particularly important not to confuse text types (which can be groupedtogether
on the basis of common organisationalfeatures)with written genres (i. e. texts
which are componentsof the GSP of a clearly specified communicative
context). Though useful at certain stagesin a writing syllabus, the kinds of
generalisationsthat you can make about e.g. letters in general (format, address
conventions,opening salutation, closing formulae) are different from the kinds
of generalisationsthat you can make about e.g. letters of appointment or letters
of rejection.
Question: What practical meansare there to help teachersdecide whether or
not the texts they are dealing with are exemplarsof an identifiable genre?
14.2 Theseissuesand associatedquestionswill be re-visited in Chapter 9: Helping
learners write difficult texts. It will be possible by this point to identify the
to
extent which the theoretical and practical frameworks for the analysis of
difficult texts developedthus far provide a basis for practical classroom
instruction. What I shall be looking for is a framework for teaching writing
which:
9 offers criteria for the selection of appropriatepedagogicexamples
" offers a practical basis for analysing theseexamples

9 enablesstudentsto develop useful hypothesisabout languageuse in genres
that are important to them, so that they will be better able to write texts which
will achievetheir various purposes.
14.3 However, I am in advanceof my argument. Before conclusionscan be
reached,I will first have to give an account of the data I shall be working with
(Chapter 3: Approaching the data: dealing with genre), and then offer a
reasonedbasis for my analysis. I will then have to make sure that I have the
right tools for the job and analysemy corpus. Thesetask will be the focus of
the four chaptersin Section Two: An accountof the texts.

(Approaching the Data: dealing with genre) Chapter 3: page 69
SECTION ONE - SETTING THINGS UP
Chapter 3: Approaching the Data: dealing with genre

"Both Firth and Malinowski believed that meaning in language
arisesprimarily out of speakers'and listeners' recognition of
conventional social situationswhich are associatedwith
linguistic choice" (Couture B, 1986:1)
15. Introduction
15.1 In Chapter 1: Writing Difficult Texts,one of my main tasks was to outline my
understandingof "writing" as a socially situated activity. In addressingthis
topic I began a discussionof genre,and this was further developedin Chapter
2: Teaching Writing where genre approaches to writing instruction were
contrastedwith the current dominant model of the processapproach.
15.2 In theseopening chapterswe have seenthat there is a growing literature which
either usesthe idea of genreto connect languagein use to its social context
(Miller C 1984, and Bakhtin MM 1986) or focuseson the interrelation
betweenwritten language,social context, and the teaching of writing
(Bamforth R 1993, Cope B and Kalantzis M 1993, FreedmanA Adam C&G
Smart 1994, Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985,Halliday MAK 1989, JacobsSE
1989, Samraj BR 1989, Smart G 1993,van Leeuven T 1993). In addition, and
building on earlier work (Benson JD & WS Greaves1980, Martin JR 1989,
SwalesJ 1981),two extensiveand influential studieshave developed
for
arguments using genreas a framework for the teaching of writing in
foreign languageeducation(SwalesJ 1990 and Bhatia VK 1993). Swales'
work particularly has begun to have a significant impact on the teaching of
writing in EFL settings, an influence that can be traced in recent work done by

(Approaching the Data: dealing with genre)Chapter 3: page 70
work by BazermanC 1994, Smart G 1993, Spilka R 1993, SwalesJ&P
Rogers 1995,Tribble C 1997.
15.3 While nothing in this body of literature constitutesa fully satisfactory theory
of genre- i. e. it is not yet possible to identify a set of rules and proceduresfor
the study of genre, and most work in the field remains more concernedwith
practice rather than principles or methods- there is a sufficient amount of
work clustering around the notion itself for it to be useful for my present
purposes.Although fuzzy, the notion of genre remains helpful as it makes
possible the uncovering of connectionsbetweentexts, communicative
purposes,and the lexico-grammatical resourcesthat writers draw on when
making texts in contexts.
15.4 In this chapter,I shall considerthe extent to which the texts I have selectedas
an example of "difficult texts" can be seenas a genre. I shall then discussthe
possibilities of using corpus linguistic techniquesin the analysis of genres,and
the implications such analysesmight have in helping foreign languagelearners
and apprenticewriters come to grips with the difficult texts they needto write.
16. Are project proposals a genre?
16.1 We have seenin Chapter2 how Hasan'snotion of "genre-specific semantic
potential" and Generic Structure Potential (GSP) can be used as a starting
point for explaining and working with genre. For Hasan, a genre bears a direct
relation to a communicative context and can be seenas a verbal expressionof
a classof situation type - "genre is languagedoing the job appropriateto that
class of social happenings"(Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985:108). We also
noted within her definition: "that texts belonging to the samegenre can vary in

(Approaching the Data: dealing with genre) Chapter3: page 71
their structure;the one respectin which they cannotvary without consequence
to their genre-allocationis the obligatory elementsand dispositions of the
GSP" (Halliday MAK &R Hasan 1985:108). Such a view of genre
harmoniseswith Swales' 1990 extendeddefinition in which he emphasisesthe
primacy of communicative purpose:
"Communicative purposeis both a privileged criterion and one

which operatesto keep the scopeof a genreas here conceived
narrowly focused on comparablerhetorical action ....... In
addition to purpose,exemplarsof a genreexhibit various
patternsof similarity in terms of structure,style, content and
intended audience". (Swales 1990:58)
On thesecriteria, are Project Proposalsa genre?
16.2 First, Project Proposals(PP) are associatedwith a number of analogous,
communicative contexts involving contractorswho require a professional
service, and suppliers who are competing with one another to provide this. The
PPsthat I have included in the researchcorpus have beenpreparedby
professional consultancygroups or larger institutions, all of which have
expertise in the areasthat are required for the implementation of a proposed
reform process.The PPsare, thereby, associatedwith the cycle of activities
and texts that have been required in the tendering processesfor European
Union and other developmentagencyprojects in Easternand Central
Europe13.This cycle has included:
9 notification of forthcoming projects (through the official gazettesand - more
commonly now - via the Internet)
13 See Chapter 8 Writing Project Proposalsfor comments on the cycle of work within consultancy
organisationsbidding for EU projects

(Approaching the Data: dealing with genre) Chapter3: page72
" the submissionof an expressionof interestby organisationswhich consider
themselvescompetentto undertakethe managementof the project
"a shortlisting process(in the caseof the EU this is usually managedco-
operatively by the Project Management Unit within a Ministry and the
relevant office in Brussels)
the issuing of an Invitation to Bid (ITB), Terms of Reference and Guidance
Notes for potential contractors. Theseare usually issuedat the sametime as
the ITB and may be subsumedunder that text
" the submissionof Project Proposalsby agenciesbidding for the management
of the project in question
" the selection procedureand, if all goesto plan, the final issuing of contracts.
16.3 Not only are the PPsin the researchcorpus associatedwith analogous
communicative contexts and communicative purposes,they also have similar
structures.Typically, a Project Proposalsubmitted to the EU (and other
developmentagenciessuch as ODA/DFID) has the following major
components:

PROJECT PROPOSAL
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
Part 1: Administrative
- Statements and Terms of Reference
-A statement of intention to provide the services in conformity with this
tender dossierby the Tendereror his duly authorisedagent.
- The Terms of Reference for the servicesas they appear in the tender
dossier,initialled on eachpageby the Tenderer.
-A copy of the first page of the General Conditions for Service Contracts
financed from PHARE Funds, signed by the Tenderer.
-A statement concerning the sub-contracting envisaged for parts of the
services,if sub-contractingis envisaged,signed by the Tenderer.
-A statement concerning the bank account to which payments may be
made.
-A signature by the Tenderer or his duly authorisedagent
Part 2: Technical Component (Organisation and Methods)
-A precise indication concerning the total amount of man-days /
/
man-months man-years proposed for eachexpert
- Logistics Plan:
- Risk Analysis:
- Time Schedule:
- Remarks, comments and suggestions which the Tenderer may consider it
advisableto raise.
Part 3: List of Staff, including Curriculum Vitae
FINANCIAL PROPOSAL
- Fees
- Allowances
- Direct Costs
- Reimbursables
16.4 In addition, the PPs sharea range of other features:theme,commonissuing
agency,geographical location, revenueand professional implications:
16.4.1 THEME - texts in the PP Corpuswere written as bids to manageextensive
projects concernedwith the restructuring of social or financial institutions (See
Appendix 36: PP Themesfor a detailed summary of the theme of eachPP)
16.4.2 COMMON ISSUING AGENCY - four donor agencieswith a commitment to
reform processesin the former Communist countries of Easternand Central
Europe were involved in issuing the Invitations to Bid for theseprojects:

EU PHARE (EU AssistanceProgrammefor Central Europe) 11 proposals

EU TACIS (EU AssistanceProgrammefor Former USSR) 1 proposal
UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA) - now known 1 proposal
as the Departmentfor International Development (DFID)
The Know-How Fund (a developmentprogrammefor former 1 proposal
Warsaw Pact countries provided by the UK ODA/DFID)
Table 8- Proposals: break-down by agency
At first sight, it might seem that the proposals submitted to the UK agency
should not have been included in the corpus as they would skew the sample.
However, following discussionswith professionalwriters in the organisations
which provided the texts I decidedto retain them for the following reasons:
9 ODA / DFID ITBs and TORs for projects in ECE have been designedto
ensuremaximum transparency,
and are very similar to those issuedby the EU
PHARE office
9 PPs submitted to ODA / DFID had closely analogousstructuresto those
presentedto the EU organisations
Although in one instancea writer commentedthat he differentiated between
writing for DFID and writing for the EU (taking care not to in
write an
overcomplicatedway for an audiencewhich might contain no British
other
readers14), writers commentedthat they felt there were only superficial
differencesbetweenproposalsto the two organisations. Given the problem of
obtaining proposal data, it was felt that thesecommentsmitigated the risk of
distorting the samplesufficiently to warrant their inclusion.
16.4.3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION - the projects in question were located in 6
different countries (although the Czech and Slovak Republics were treated as a
14 See Chapter 8: Writing Project Proposals

unit in one of the ITBs as it was issuedprior to the break-up of
Czechoslovakia).
Poland 7
Bulgaria 2
Hungary 2
Russia 2
Czech and Slovak Republics 1
Table 9- Proposals: location
Although the geographicallocation of a proposedproject will not make a
significant difference to the wording of the project proposal, the fact that all 14
proposalsfocus on activities in adjacentcountries in the former communist
block is likely to have someinfluence on the themesand issuesthat the
proposalsface (e.g. privatisation, collapseof state structures)and helps
maintain the comparability of the texts in question.
16.4.4 REVENUE and PROFESSIONAL IMPLICATIONS - each of the agencies
involved in thesebids has a commercial interest in winning the project. They
will gain revenueby managingthe project and without this revenuethey
cannot operateas businesses.Winning or losing the project will have an
impact beyond the immediate satisfactionof winning an argument.
Additionally, eachagencyalso standsto benefit in terms of future earning
capacity if it wins the managementof a project. The strongeryour track
record in a field, the greateryour chanceof winning further contracts. Apart
from this financial incentive, bids are also made within a professionalculture
which requires opennessand transparencyin its dealings. Part of this
requirementis met by the processof anonymoussealedbids commonly used
by aid and developmentorganisations. It is also respondedto by the discourse
practicesof those involved in bidding for contracts. Most proposal writers

come from an academicbackgroundand appearto derive their literacy
practicesfrom those of the academicdiscoursecommunity. Thus, although
PP writers want to make their proposalsas persuasiveas possible,they also
feel a need a) to warrant the claims they make (although as we shall seein the
results of the analysisof the languageof PPsthis warranting is often in
relation to the prior experienceof the bidding organisationrather than against
a published literature) and b) to demonstratetheir professional integrity
through the way in which they presenttheir case(as we shall seein the results
of the interviews reported in Chapter 8). It would seemthat writers have
plenty of reasonsfor producing good quality texts when they are preparing
PPs.
16.5 From the above, we can concludethat the PPsin the corpus sharesufficiently
similar communicative contexts, communicativepurposesand other
similarities "in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience" for us
to seethem as a distinct genre. Following Hasan(Halliday MAK &R Hasan
1985) I, therefore, consider the Project Proposals under consideration to be an
exemplar of a genrewithin the Generic StructurePotential (GSP) of a
communicative context we can call Identifying Project Implementation
Suppliers. Such a typification situatesthe PP alongsideother genres
associatedwith the processof identifying project implementation suppliers,
including: Invitations to Bid, Terms of Reference,Expressionsof Interest and
Contractsfor suppliers, and, as we have seen,thesegenresare in turn closely
connectedto analogousgenresrequired by other contractor/contractee
relationships.
16.6 The main featureswhich characterisesuch communicative contextsare:

" the organisationthat invites the proposalshas a specific social transformation
goal in view whose successfulimplementation dependson the provision of
appropriatespecialist expertiseand managementskills
" the organisation preparing the proposal has to demonstrate that it has such
appropriate expertise and skills and that it is sensitive to the needs and
concernsof the donor agencyand the recipient government
" there is an institutional requirementto ensuretransparency in the contractor /
contracteerelationship
" there is an obligation to achieve"best value-for-money" through the use of
market mechanisms.
16.7 It is worth noting that in the context of EasternEurope in the period after
1991,the introduction of such tender processeshad a profound influence on
the ways in which individuals and governmentdepartmentsin recipient
countries worked. By becoming involved in partnershipswith organisations
such as the EU, United Nations Development Programmeor the UK
Government'sKnow-How Fund, governmentofficials in the newly
independentstatesof the former Soviet Union or former Warsaw Pact
countries had to meet head-ona completely different approachto planning,
change and
management resourceprocurement.I am not aware of research
into the way in which a suddenobligation to develop a capacity to write into
new genrescan trigger changesin social relations - but it would appearto be a
potentially important areato investigate.

17. Using corpora in genre analysis
17.1 In Chapter 1,1 referred to four setsof knowledge that a writer requires in order
to have a reasonablechanceof satisfactorily completing a writing task-
content knowledge;context knowledge,language-systemknowledgeand
writing process knowledge. One way of describing the professionalproblem
faced by teachersof writing is, then, that they first have to identify those areas
of the knowledge basewhere they can most usefully assisttheir students,and
then find pedagogicmeansfor helping learnersto extendthat knowledge base.
As we saw in Chapter2, it is rarely appropriatefor the language teacherto
focus heavily on the content knowledge requirementsof languagelearnerson
writing coursesthey bring this with them, and in plentiful supply. Where
writing teacherscan make a contribution is in relation to the other three setsof
knowledge - but, in order to make this contribution, teachersthemselves
require resources.
17.2 One of the main resourcesthat teachersof writing need is implied in Swales'
comment on the characteristicsof a genre (quoted above- para 16.1). "In
addition to purpose,exemplarsof a genreexhibit various patternsof similarity
in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience".We have already
seen(Chapter 2) the problems that studentsand teacherscan face if they only
work with single instanceswhen they are approachinga new genre. In order
to identify the "patternsof similarity" Swalestalks about, teachersand learners
needaccessto many relevant examplesof the genrethey are attempting to
write into, rather than one.

17.3 If teachersand studentsneedmultiple examples,we will also seein this
chapter that they also need appropriate computational resources to reveal this
patterning. Without such computer tools, it is extremely difficult (if not
impossible) to identify regularities across a set of texts, or dissimilarities in
relation to other text sets. McEnery and Wilson comment on the way in which
frequency createsone such kind of patterning that can be revealedby corpus
analysis:
"There are certain kinds of languagedata that can only be

gatheredaccurately from a corpus. Human beings have only
the vaguestnotion of the frequency of a construct or a word.
Natural observation [using a computer] of data seemsthe only
reliable sourceof evidence for such features " (McEnery T
...
&A Wilson 1996:12)
17.4 There is nothing new about using a corpus of relevant exemplarsas a starting
point for genre analysis. Swales'pioneering essayAspects ofArticles
Introductions (1981) was basedon manual counts of a small collection of
instancesof a genreand the principles underlying this approachhave been
followed through to recent publications such as Stubbs' Text and Corpus
Analysis (1996), where, in spite of the huge computerresourcesnow available,
the starting point for the analysis is still counting patternsin texts.
17.5 A reasonablyextensivecorpus of appropriateexamplesof the genrein
question has, therefore, a unique potential to provide the writing teacher(and
writing learner) with the kind of resourcethey require. With such a corpus,
teachersand studentscan develop the languagesystemknowledge and (co-
textual) context knowledge that they needin order to approacha difficult text.
While the corpus will not provide all of the learner'sneeds,it can provide the
best starting point for the other questionsthat they will needto ask in order to

gain a fuller appreciationof the context and the writing skills neededto fulfil a
demandingtask.
18. The PP Corpus
18.1 Even though we may have establishedthat PPsare a genreand that a corpus of
PPswill be a useful resourcefor writing teachersand students,we are faced
with a problem regardingthose elementsof PPswhich should be included in
the researchcorpus. The account of a typical PP structure given in paragraph
16.3 showedthat PPstypically have two main sections,the first of which is
frequently divided into three sub-sections.
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
Part 1: Administrative
Part 2: Technical Component (Organisation and Methods)
Part 3: List of Staff, including Curriculum Vitae
FINANCIAL PROPOSAL
18.2 It also showedthat eachof thesesectionsand sub-sectionshas specific
characteristics- somebeing more useful in a study designedto help learners
develop their competenceas writers than others. The first sub-sectionof the
Technical Proposal,for example,is mainly a replication of information
provided in the ITB and Terms of Reference. As such, it is not the product of
the proposal writing team - often being photocopied and directly bound into
the PP. It has not, therefore been included in the researchcorpus.
18.3 For different reasons,the secondmain section (Financial Proposal)has also
not been included. Although it can be critical to the successof the bid, the
financial proposal was felt by all the donating consultancy groupsto be too
commercially sensitive to releasefor this study. Fortunately, from a language
teaching point of view, this lack is not critical. From my own professional

experience,I know that although financial proposalsare subjectto very
specific generic constraints(they are tabulated figures in the main), they
presentin the main a technical problem in which important strategic and
professionalexperienceis called on, rather than a language problem. Lists of
Staff and CVs are also extremely important in terms of the overall value of the
proposal. However, the needto ensureconfidentiality rendersthem more or
less meaninglesswhen they are anonymised(seeAppendix 38: Preparingthe
PP Corpus), and again,they do not presenta major linguistic challengeonce a
few complete instanceshave been studied. They too will be excluded from the
corpus basedstudy.
18.4 Given theseconstraints,I have decidednot to include the whole of eachPP in
the researchcorpus. In the light of the discussionabove, it should be now be
clear that the PP subsectionwhich will be the main focus of this study will be
the "Technical Component" (sometimesknown as the Organisation and
Method section). This is usually the most extensive section in the Project
Proposal, and, as it contains the response to the ITB is therefore, the most
professionally (and linguistically) challenging section to write (despite the
importance of the numbers in the Financial Proposal). So long as they have
been able to get the numbers right, it is in the Technical Component that
writers have to elaborate their response to the ITB and TOR, and it is here that
they establishthe casefor winning the bid.
18.5 While it is appropriatethat the Technical Componentof the PP should be the
focus of the corpus study, this is not to say that the sectionsthat have been
excluded are unimportant. They are not. As we shall seein Chapter 7:
Organisation, any apprenticeproposal writer will be well advisedto study the

in
way which the first section of the PP is organised,and also to study
examplesof Financial Proposals,Lists of staff and CVs. Rather, it is that I
have included in the corpus study those sectionsof the PPswhich would be
most helpful to those who are unfamiliar with this genreand who have an
interest in learning how to write into it.
19. A methodology for using corpora in genre analysis
19.1 In Halliday's seminal essayon style in William Golding's novel, The
Inheritors, he commentson the use of quantitative methodsin the analysis of
style, arguing that "a rough indication of frequenciesis often just what is
needed"(Halliday MAK 1973:117). This justification for drawing on
empirical techniquesin literary analysisnow has much greaterforce given the
recent massive increasein the sophisticationand availability of computerised
tools for the analysis of texts. Although the figures of themselvesstill do not
"constitute an analysis, interpretation or explanation of the style" (Halliday
MAK 1973:117) this increasein sophisticationdoesmeanthat the figures can
form a much greaterpart of an analysisthan was the casein 1973. It is, in
fact, now possible to arguethat the figures can provide the starting point for
the analysis. The computer can reveal "patternsthat would not otherwise be
visible. " (Tribble C&G Jones, 1990:

9)
19.2 If we decide to give the figures a more prominent part in the analysis of texts,
thenthereis a needfor a methodologywhich will allow a reasoneduseof the
numbers,and which makes it possible to comparethe data in

obtained one
study with the results of work done by others in the field. Such an approach

should constitute what Stubbs(1994) calls a corpus linguistic "meta-method":
a way of working with texts which is:
"basedon explicit comparativedescriptionsof substantial

corpora of data, in which clearerrelations are drawn between
lexicogrammar and text, and which incorporatesa theory of
probabilistic grammar." (Stubbs 1994:205)
19.3 The meta-methodI plan to use in this study will be most useful for teachers
and learnersif it meetsStubbs'criterion of drawing on "comparative
descriptionsof substantialcorpora of data". Fortunately I will be able to
benefit from work that has already been carried out in this field and can make
use of existing methodologiesand published results in developing my own
analysis.
19.4 In an earlier study (Tribble C, 1985), 1used a literary stylistics framework
derived from Leech G&M Short (1981) to study differences in wording
betweenreferential texts which shareda common content focus. Basedon
manual counts of short extractswith the common theme of "photography" it
was possible to demonstratethe ways in which different communicative
/
purposesand reader writer relations required contrasting grammatical
realisations. For the presentstudy I intend to continue in this tradition, using
in
work reported Biber D 1988 and which connectswith the corpus referenced
tradition pioneeredby Leech and Short. I shall draw largely on Biber D
(1988) for the main framework for analysis, and also refer to Biber D
(1989a), Biber D (1989b), and Biber D (1990) and particularly Biber l) &E
Finegan (1989) where a reducedset of variables is introduced. Biber has
for
many advantages this study. Stubbsdraws attention to one of the most
important of thesewhen he says:

"Many linguistic featuresare of potential stylistic interest, and

severaloverlapping lists are proposed,e.g. by Fairclough
(1989: 110-11),Fowler (1991b:68ff. ), and Myers (1992); and
Biber (1988) provides a list of lists. However, theselists
summariseexperienceand intuition, and as Fowler (1991b:90)
admits: 'apart from Biber's they are unformalized and only
partly useablein computer assistedstudies'."
The multi-variate analysis in Biber 1988provides an accessibleand
establishedframework in which to exploit the tools that experiencein corpus
linguistics has made available to the text analyst.
19.5 A further reasonfor drawing on Biber 1988 is the significant progressthat has
beenmade since his researchin automatictext parsing at the University of
Lancaster(GarsideR, Leech G&G Sampson,1987; Black, Carling &G
Leech, 1993) with the developmentof the CLAWS 7 part-of-speech(POS)
tagging program, and other corpus processingtools associatedwith the British
National Corpusproject (Burnard L, 1995). This has greatly simplified the job
(see
of corpus preparation15 Appendix 38: Preparingthe PP Corpus) and has
meant that I have been able to concentrateon the problem of applying the
approachdevelopedin the Biber study rather than having to develop a POS
tagging system-a job which would have been well beyond my computing
skills.
19.6 Carrying out this kind of study in the late 1990srather than the 1980shas also
meant that it has been possible to extend the Biber framework by taking
advantageof recent developmentsin tools for corpus analysis. The
groundbreakingwork done by Scott (Scott M 1996,1997b, 1997c, 1998) has
it
made possible to undertakea sophisticatedanalysis of an unannotated
corpus and produce results which are of great potential benefit to the learner. I

shall include the findings of this extensionof Biber in SectionTwo of this
thesis:An account of the texts.
20. Genre, corpora, writing
20.1 The utility of including a genre approach in programmes of writing instruction
has begun to gain wider acceptance in a range of educational settings (see e.g.
Flowerdew J, 1993for an interesting example from teaching professional
writing skills, and essaysin Cope B and Kalantzis M, 1993, for accountsof
the experiencein the context of the Australian secondaryschool system).
Projectsto teachwriting from the point of view of genre- and in that process
focusing on the linguistic featuresof the texts which are membersof the genre
in question- also harmonisewell with Bazerman'sargument in favour of a
theory of written languagewhich "posits a framework for constructing an
understandingof prior eventsand creating new "

ones. (Bazerman C,
1994:165). Like Bazerman,I am arguing for an approachto the teaching of
writing which gives importance to a knowledge of other "relevant written texts
(intertextuality) along with the better establishednotions of audience,self,
reality and text" (ibid.: 163).
20.2 In order to achievethis purpose I shall, however, be obliged to addressa wider
set of themesthan the corpus linguistic one alone. We have seenin Chapter 2
that teachersof writing needto take into accountmore than one kind of
knowledge when addressingthe needsof writing students. I, too, shall have to
ensurethat any proposalsI make here for teaching written communication
have more than a single focus. The corpus is not going to give all the answers.
15 Many thanks to Martin Wynne and Nick Smith for their help in undertakingthis task

Swalesand Rogers'comment that an analysisof linguistic featuresalone
"would in the end do little more than underscorethe limits and limitations of a
purely textual approachto genreanalysis", (SwalesJ&P Rogers, 1995:233) is
particularly apposite. I have already indicated (Chapter 1) that I will,
therefore, also be taking a "contextual turn" (SwalesJ&P Rogers, 1995:233)
once the corpus linguistic section of the thesis is complete. Using structured
interview procedures(Fielding N 1993) 1plan to achievethe following main
objectives:
" to test conclusionsreachedin the corpus study
" to identify with authorshow they and their organisationshave respondedto
the requirementsof the ITB and organisedthe processor writing PPs
9 to identify with writers the reasonsthey have for preferring particular salient
wordings in the texts they have written, and in analoguesto those texts
20.3 The chapterswhich follow this opening section: Setting things up, will have,
therefore, three different kinds of focus. They will be:
" CORPUS FOCUS (Chapters4,5,6,7): to develop techniquesof corpus
description which will be of relevanceto teachersof writing. These
techniqueswill be applied to the researchcorpus in order to identify the
language-systemknowledge which is required by learnerswishing to develop
a capacity to write PPs (or any other genre which is analysedusing the same
tools).

" CASE STUDY FOCUS (Chapter 8): to gain insights into the ways in which
contextual knowledge (knowledge of audience,of other texts) causeswriters
of PPsto make particular selectionsfrom the meaning potential of English.
9 PEDAGOGIC FOCUS (Chapter 9): to proposelearning / teaching strategies
which will help foreign languagelearners(or apprenticewriters in general)to
write difficult texts.

(What are we looking for?) Chapter4: page. 88
SECTION TWO - AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEXTS
Chapter 4: What are we looking for?
Polonius: What do you read, my lord?

........
Hamlet: Words, words, words
(Hamlet: Act 2, scene2)
21. Introduction,
21.1 The first Section of this thesis was devotedto "setting things up". In the three
in
chapters Section One I presentedthe major themeswhich I consider
to
relevant my overall purpose- to help learnerswrite difficult texts. Having
set out my understandingof writing, difficult and texts in Chapter 1, in Chapter
2, I raised five issuesassociatedwith the teaching of writing. I shall re-state
two of theseissueshere, as they are of particular relevanceto this first chapter
in Section Two.
ISSUE 1: Text data may confuserather than assistif

learnersdo not have an adequatetheoretical framework to
shapetheir analysisof examples.
ISSUE 2: Single instances of language in use do not
provide a sufficient basis for conclusions about the linguistic
specification of a genre. In order to make such generalisations,
multiple examples are needed - ideally from several
comparable sources
21.2 Thesetwo issuesare central to this secondSection of the thesis, as it is here
that I wish to establisha pedagogically useful meansof analysing examplesof
a genre. If I am correct that learnersbenefit from having accessto more than
one instanceof an exemplar text when learning how to write into a new genre,
and that they need a rationale on which to basetheir analysis and develop
generalisationswhich can guide their future writing, then it is in this Section
that I have to justify my assertion. In this first chapterI shall, therefore outline
the main theoretical framework I proposeto draw on as the starting point for

learner analysis of examplesof difficult texts. In doing this, I shall also have
to give an account of someof the practical problems that are faced by anyone
wishing to use this framework - and someof the solutions that I have found to
theseproblems. This will require a fairly extensiveaccountof someof the
pitfalls that can lie in wait for anyonedoing an empirical study of languagein
use. This accountmay go beyond the interest of the readerwho has a primary
interest in the results of this study rather than the meanswhereby those results
were obtained. I make no apology, however, for I feel it important to include
this study at this point in the text as it allows me:
" to indicate the problems that may be faced by other researcherswho wish to
use the Biber 1988 framework
" to sharemy solutions to theseproblems so that they can be testedand further
refined by others with similar intereststo my own.
21.3 The accountthat I presentin the first chapterwill, therefore, focus on someof
the practical problems of corpus study. Once I have clarified my own
resolution of theseproblems I shall report the results that I have obtained from
the computational analysis of a genrein the next three chaptersof Section
Two.
22. The Biber multi-function / multi-dimensional model
22.1 With the original intention of establishinga linguistic basis for differentiating
betweenspoken and written languageproduction, Biber useda corpus based,
multivariate statistical procedure(Biber D 61-97)

1988: to identify six

(What are we looking for?) Chapter4: page.90
"dimensions" which could be used as a meansfor specifying the relationships
betweentexts. Thesedimensionswere:
Factor 1: Involved versus Informational Production "a dimension

-
marking high informational density and exact informational content versus
affective, interactional and generalisedcontent. Two separatecommunicative
parametersseemto be involved here: (1) the primary purposeof the writer /
speaker:informational versus interactive, affective and involved; and (2) the
production circumstances:those circumstancescharacterisedby careful
editing possibilities, enabling precision in lexical choice and in integrated
textual structure,versuscircumstancesdictated by real-time constraints,
in
resulting generalisedlexical choice and a generally fragmentedpresentation
of information" (Biber D 1988:108).
Factor 2: Narrative versus Non-narrative Concerns - distinguishes
"narrative from other types of discourse. It might also be consideredas
distinguishing betweenactive, event-orienteddiscourseand more static,
descriptive or expository types of discourse." (Biber D 1988:109).
Factor 3: Explicit versus Situation Dependent Reference - "corresponds
most closely to the distinction betweenendophoric and exophoric reference"
(Biber D 1988:110). Typically, texts with high exophoric referenceare
associatedwith spoken,unplanned,or markedly informal discourse.
Factor 4: Overt expression of persuasion - ".... this dimension marks
the degreeto which persuasionis marked overtly, whether overt marking of
the speaker'sown point of view, or an assessmentof the advisability or

likelihood of an event presentedto persuadethe addressee.

" (Biber D
1988:111)
Factor 5: Abstract versus Non-abstract Information ".... marks

-
informational discoursethat is abstract,technical and formal, versusother
types of discourse...." (Biber D 1988:112-113)
Factor 6: On-line Informational Elaboration "seems to distinguish

-
discoursethat is informational but producedunder real-time conditions from
other types of discourse" (Biber D 1988:114).
22.2 The importance of Biber's 1988 study for languageteaching is that he
demonstratedthat it was not only possibleto distinguish betweenspokenand
written production by identifying the way in which examplesof different
genreswere distributed along thesetextual dimensions- it was also possible
to provide a coherentaccountof linguistic variation acrossthe different text
genresexemplified in his corpus. Having isolated the linguistic featureswhich
were closely associatedwith particular modesof production, he showed it was
also possible to seehow these samefactors were associatedwith production in
contrasting genre settings.
22.3 A later study (Biber and Finegan, 1989) looked at the way a smaller set of the
1988 factors (1/3/5) can be particularly helpful in differentiating between
modes of written production. Specifically:
9 Factor 1 ("A" in Biber & Finegan 1989) distinguishesbetweentexts which
have a high information loading as opposedto texts (such as unscripted
conversationas a polar extreme) which have the primary purposeof

relationship building. (seealso Halliday MAK 1989 for backgroundto this
argument).
" Factor 3 ("B") Biber and Finegan comment that this factor "seemsto
distinguish betweenhighly explicit, 'context-independent'reference,on the
one hand, and non-specific, 'situation-dependent'referenceon the other"
(Biber & Finegan: 1989:492).
9 Factor 5 ("C") has the capacity to distinguish betweenAbstract and Non-
abstractstyles, and is, again, an important meansfor distinguishing between
genresof written communication.
22.4 Biber and Finegan comment that with referenceto the broad range of genresin
the LOB corpus: "It is possible to characterizeparticular genresas relatively
LITERATEor ORAL,where 'literate' refers to language produced in situations
that are typical for writing, and 'oral' refers to languageproduced in situations
typical for speaking. Conversationis a stereotypically oral genre,and
academicprose a stereotypically literate "

genre. (ibid: 493). It is this aspectof
Biber's approachwhich makes it so potentially important for teachersof
writing. He offers a way of seeinghow certain well formed texts may be
perceived as more acceptablethan others - the problem statedat the beginning
of this thesis.
22.5 1 shall, therefore, focus particular attention on the results gained for thesethree
factors when I come to analysetexts in the PP Corpus. Although I have
collected data for all six of the Factors in

used Biber 1988 in order to provide a
comprehensivereview of the generic relations the PP texts enter into, the
factors of greatestinterest to teachersof writing will be at the centre of the

study. In their 1989 study Biber and Fineganused dimensions 1,3, and 5 in
an analysis of diachronic changein written style - their premisebeing that
since the 18th Century there has been a shift acrossa range of written genres
from a more formal and archetypically "written" style to a style that is more
informal and "orally" oriented. While I am not attempting to trace diachronic
shift, thesethree factors - and the notions of "literate" and "oral" texts that are
in
elaborated Biber & Finegan 1989a- provide an effective meansof
identifying the extentsto which the texts in my corpus are similar or dissimilar
along specific dimensions,and the to

extent which they can be consideredto
be linguistically differentiated from other written genres. The same
categorisationwas used in Tribble (1985:56) in a study of texts with related
topics but different readerships(i. e. expert --* expert vs. expert -* non-expert).
23. Working with the Biber framework
23.1 One of the charms of Biber 1988was that his starting point is very simple. In
line with Hallidayan notions of the situationally determinednature of language
use, Biber predicts that texts producedunder different conditions and for
different purposeswill have contrasting grammatical realisations.In order to
test this hypothesishe then identifies a list of sixty-seven grammatical features
and find ways of counting their distribution acrossa large number of different
kinds of text. Having obtained his raw data (no mean feat, especially given the
developmentof computing at the time of the study), the much more
sophisticatedaspectof Biber's study lies in the statistical procedureswhich he
used in order to make reasonablegeneralisationsabout different modesof
production on the basis of his counts.

23.2 The grammatical/ lexical categorieswhich are used in Biber 1988are
summarisedin the table below. They were groupedby meansof a weighting
systemallocated to each linguistic feature,the weightings being establishedby
calculating the co-occurrenceof each of 67 text featuresusing factor analysis
procedures. This analysisprovided the meanswhereby the featureswere
allocatedto a particular factor. The processof allocating featuresto factors
involved:
9 identifying those featureswith the largestweighting scores(either positive or
negative), and
9 allocating them to a particular factor through a in

process elimination which
of
a linguistic feature was allocated to one factor only.
This procedureallowed the identification of the six factors that will be used in
this study.
23.3 The linguistic featuresassociatedwith the factors which will be used in this
study, are given in the table below:

dimension +1 present-tenseverbs dimension +3 nominalizations

first-person pronouns WH-relatives: subj. position
second-personpronouns WH-relatives: obj. position
pronoun IT WH-relatives: pied pipes
demonstrative pronouns phrasal coordination
indefinite pronouns dimension -3 place adverbials
DO as pro-verb time adverbials
WH questions adverbs total
BE as main verb dimension +4 infinitives
WH clauses adv. sub. - condition
sentence relatives necessity modals
adv. sub. - cause predictive modals
hedges suasive verbs
amplifiers split auxiliaries
emphatics dimension +5 agentless passives
discourse particles BY-passives
possibility modals past participle adverbial
clauses
private verbs past prt WHIZ deletions
contractions adv. sub. - other
THAT deletion
stranded prepositions dimension +6 THAT verb complements
non-phrasal coordination THAT adj. complements
analytic negation THAT relatives: obj position
dimension -1 nouns demonstratives
prepositions
attributive adjectives
type/token ratio
word length
dimension +2 past tense verbs
perfect aspect verbs
third person pronouns
present participle clauses
public verbs
Table 10 - Biber 1988: Linguistic Features
I have in turn attemptedto use theselinguistic featuresin the analysis of the
Project Proposal corpus and they have provided the meansfor establishing a
characterisationof eachtext in terms of its position relative to the other genres
in LOB+.
23.4 Biber describesthree key stagesin developing a multidimensional analysis of
texts: "Preliminary analyses;Step 1: Factor Analysis; and Step2: Factor
scoresas operational representativesof the textual dimensions" (Biber D.
1988:64). As I have already mentioned, Biber's 1988 study was initially
designedto seeif it was possible to make a linguistic differentiation between

spoken and written language. During the development of his analytic model
he also found that it was possible to provide a linguistic characterisations of all
of the genres used in his study through this account of their textual
dimensions.
23.5 As my study has not had the samestarting point as Biber's - the desireto
identify the differentiation betweenspokenand written production - it has not
beennecessaryto passthrough the first two stagesof this sequence.Instead,I
have been able to draw on the factor analysisalready undertaken,and to use
Biber's results as the starting point for establishingfactor scoresfor individual
in
exemplars my own researchcollection and for the Project Proposalcorpus
as a whole. However, parallel to Biber's first two stagesI have had to identify
and count the linguistic featuresthat are neededto establishFactor scoresfor
individual texts or for the whole PP Corpus. It has beenduring this
preliminary analysis that I have had to come to terms with some of the
problems that in
were mentioned my opening remarks. While "a rose is a rose
is a rose", a word might not always be a word when seenthrough the tunnel
vision of a computer.
24. Applying the Biber 1988 analytic framework
24.1 Geoffrey Leech's apparently straight-forward commentthat "a corpus can be
in
stored a 'raw' orthographic form, that is with the texts in the sameform as
they would have on the by

printed page,with words represented strings of
by
charactersseparated spaces"(Garside R et al 1987:
8) in fact saysa great
deal about the problem that faces anyonewho tries to use a computer to
analysetexts. When a confusedor contrary Hamlet respondsto a question

about what he is reading, he is at least able to give the plausible, though
uncooperative,response:"words". If a computer is askedthe samequestion it
may only reply, "strings, strings, strings". These strings have no meaning for
the computer, they are merely - "charactersseparatedby spaces"- until a
human intervention informs the machine that this string meansthis word, and
this string meansanother.
24.2 This point has beenbrought home to me while attempting to use the analytic
framework outlined in Biber 1988. The basic problem is that your way of
counting Class A words may not be the sameas mine. We then find that
although we both appearto be counting the sameClass A words in the same
text, our results do not tally. What happenedduring the initial analysis of the
PP corpus, happenedbecauseof the differencesbetweenwhat Biber was doing
in the late 80s and what I did in the late 1990s. The basic difference between
our two be
studiescan summarisedunder the headingshardware, software,
and corpus mark-up. These differences have had a significant impact on the
results I have obtained- and I have had to undertakemajor revisions of the
searchalgorithms that I have used in order to ensureas much as possible that
the "words" and word classesthat I have been counting in the late 1990sare as
close as possible to those that Biber was counting ten years earlier.
" Hardware - during the decadebetweenBiber's original study and my current
work there have been huge technological changes- which mean, for example,
that the analysisthat I have done has been carried out away from the
university on relatively simple computing equipment (by today's standards).
While this developmentis one which I welcome, it meansthat I am not able to
replicate exactly the manner in which Biber carried out his preliminary

analysis. In fact, as things standtoday, neither he nor I are able to reproduce
his results as (if still usable)the IBM tapeswhich recordedthe original results
can only be used on a now obsoletegenerationof IBM computers,and no
paperprintout of this original data has beenretained (personalcommunication
from Doug Biber - 22 July 199716)
" Software - in parallel with thesechangesin the technology, there has been an
increasein the sophisticationof the software available for researchers.For the
presentstudy I have used four programs for text searchingand analysis:
- WordSmith Tools, a suite of text analysisprogramsdevelopedby Mike Scott
of Liverpool University and published by OUP (Scott M, 1997)
- Windows Grep (Millington H 1995,1997), a commercial program for the
Windows PC environment
- Microsoft Word 97
- Microsoft Excel 97.
The easy availability of such sophisticatedsoftware tools has been of
enormoussignificance to the recent developmentof corpus studies,as
be
extensivecorpus researchcan now undertakenby individuals who do not
have accessto major institutional resources- and who do not have the
programming knowledge by
needed earlier researchers(Tribble C 1997a). It
also means,however, that in spite of Biber's providing a detailed listing of
16 "1 did not include modals in the verb counts as far as I can remember, but the bottom line is that I
really have nothing left from that analysis to check concretely. This is really unfortunate! I guess the
one thing that I do have is some old IBM MVS tapes, that have everything on them (I think?? ) if
- you're
able to process those (and if they are still readable?? ), I'd be willing to send them off to you - but I'm not
optimistic that that would really work out. " Personal communication from Doug Biber

algorithms he developedduring the courseof his study (Biber D 1988: 211-
245), extensive "reverseengineering" has beenrequired to approximatethe
specific searchproceduresused in Biber 1988.
" Corpus mark-up - the third, and most significant, difference betweenmy
study and Biber 1988is the contrastbetweenthe part of speech(POS) tagging
systemwhich he usesand that which has beenavailable to me in the
developmentof my own analysis. During the period 1983-1986Biber built a
set of dictionaries and computerprogramswhich made it possible to allocate
POS tags to words in his researchcorpus with around 90 percentreliability
(Biber D 1988:217). While Biber was able to produce results which were
internally consistentand sufficient to his purposeusing thesetools, a
significant drawback to Biber's study is that it seemsto be impossible to
it.
replicate Although Biber 1988worked within the sameprobabilistic
paradigm as, for example, at

researchers Lancasterand Leeds Universities
(Garside et al, 1987) his tag set remainsunique. The tag set that I am working
with has the advantageof being more accessiblethan Biber's and of being
used on major projects such as the British National Corpus (Burnard L 1995).
CLAWS7, the latest version, (Wynne M 1996) is a developmentfrom earlier
work at Lancaster(GarsideR et al, 1987). It provides 148 tags (seeCLAWS?
Tagset list in Appendix 6). Its disadvantageis that it is more comprehensive
than Biber's and also more accurately applied through the CLAWS tagging
program used at UCREL at LancasterUniversity. In it

other words, gives
different results from Biber's, even when the same"words" are being counted.
24.3 The procedureI followed in putting together the PP corpus is describedin
"Supplementaryissues:Corpus Preparation". This provided me with a data set

capableof being analysedin a way which paralleled (as much as possible)
Biber's 1988 study. The next task was to prepareand test a set of algorithms
which would mimic Biber's published set. This proved to be more difficult
than I had at first thought would be the case.
25. Replicating the tools used in the Biber 1988 study
25.1 We have already seenthat 67 linguistic featureswere searchedfor in Biber
1988. Biber found that not all of thesewere required in order to establishthe
six textual dimensionsmentionedabove, and the final set that is required for
practical analysis containsthe 58 essentialfeatureslisted above(para 23.3),
plus 3 other features(predicative adjectives,existential THERE, downtoners).
Theselatter are only included in the counts as a way of excluding them from
the final analysis.
25.2 In order to identify theselinguistic featuresit is necessaryto have a set of
searchalgorithms which specify the strings you wish to find in a way which
makes sensein the context of the corpusmark up being used and the software
available for searchingand counting. A full list of the first set of algorithms I
is
prepared provided in Appendix 40.
25.3 Someof thesealgorithms look unambiguousand unproblematic; others look
more complex. The instructions that are issuedto the searchsoftware will
dependon the computer resourcesthat are available. Take for example
Algorithm 1 "Private verbs" -a classderived from Quirk et al (1985:1180-1)
which expresses"various intellectual states(e.g. believe), or non-observable
intellectual acts (e.g. discover)." (Biber D 1988:242).
56 private verbs C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PRIVAT.

TXT Context WS
Word 1 right [V*

The algorithm can be interpretedas follows:
Using WordSmith Tools, search for all instances of the strings

in the lemmatized list ofprivate verbs stored in the file V-
PRIVAT. TXT where they are immediately followed by a verb
POS tag
25.4 The first version of the algorithm only required the creation of a list of the full
lemmasof all of the private verbs listed in Biber (1988:242), saving this as a
text file and then using this as a searchreferencein WordSmith. Such an
algorithm should produce completely dependableresults with any set of plain
text files in so far as it will identify and count the strings that are specified.
The weaknessof the algorithm was that it could not distinguish between
verbal usesof the strings and other useswhich may be, for example,nominal
(e.g. Our only enemyisfear itself ). I, therefore, improved the algorithm by

...
requiring a tag for any verb form ([V*) in the immediate right context. In this
way only those strings in the corpusthat have been identified as verbs will be
selected.The impact of this refinement is considerable.The total count for
Private Verbs for the PP Corpus using the wordlist alone is 533. Using the
refined algorithm the count is 382 -a 28% difference.. Output is presentedin
the following form (counts and file referencesare automatically provided by
the programme):
1 VVI] successfully (RR] (. 1 We (PPIS2) believe (VVO] that [RG] mu sq-vlad. gre
.
2 [NN] that [CST] has [VHZ] already [RR] demonstrated [VVN] serious sq-vlad. gre
3 [NN2] arise (VVO] from [II] : (: ) - [-] demonstrating (VVG] new [J sq-vlad. gre
4 AT] factors (NN2] which [DDQ] will [VM] determine [VVI] its (APPGE sq-vlad. gre
5] will [VM] need [VVI] to [TO] be [VBI] found [VVN] to (TO] decent sq-vlad. gre
6 I01 these [DD2) initiatives (NN2] - (-] indicates (VVZ] that [CST] sq-vlad. gre
7 (NN1] [, ) but [CCB] do [VDO] not [XX] know (VVI) it (PPH1] well sq-vlad. gre
,
8 CST] businesses [NN2] do [VDO] not (XX] know [VVI] what [DDQ] dema sq-vlad. gre
9 ved [VVN) are [VBR] likely [JJ] to [TO] recognise [VVI] that (CST] sq-vlad. gre
10 that [CST) it (PPH1] is (VBZ] also [RR] recognised [VVN] that [CST sq-vlad. gre
25.5 The problem here is that it is not clear whether or not a similar refinement has
beenimplemented in Biber 1988 (seeBiber D 1988:242) as no mention is

made of the needto qualify the searchin such a way. When Biber is counting
Private Verbs is he counting his understandingof Private Verbs or mine?
More of this anon.
25.6 If Private Verbs were an apparentlysimple casethat becamecomplicated,
anotherclass in the sampleabove startedcomplicated and stayedthat way.
"THAT deletion" presentsus with the major problem of counting something
that isn't there. In an earlier study (Tribble 1985) I identified post-modifying
participle clausesas a feature which appearedto distinguish expert 4 expert
discoursesfrom expert -> non-expert written exchanges. In that very
restricted study all counts were manual, so, although it was tedious, it was
possible to identify unambiguouslyany instancesof presentor past participiles
immediately following a subject.
25.7 Biber 1988 addressesthe problem of counting that deletions by using 3
separatealgorithms:
" PUB/PRV/SUA + (T#) + demonstrativepro/SUBJPRO- i. e. count all verbs in
the public/private/suasivelists +a tone marker + either demonstrativepronoun
or subject pronoun (used in searchingtranscriptions of spokenproduction)
9 PUB/PRV/SUA+ PRO/N+ AUXN i. e. countall verbsin the
public/private/suasivelists + all pronouns or nouns + all auxiliary verbs or
verbs in the dictionary
" PUB/PRV/SUA + ADJ/ADV/DET/POSSPRO + (ADJ) +N+ AUX/V i. e.
count all verbs in the public/private/suasivelists + adjective or adverb or
determiner or possessivepronoun + (optional adjective) + noun + auxiliary or
verb.

Within the constraintsof his own systemof corpusmark-up and search
software, this producedan acceptablyaccuratecount of the feature in
question.
25.8 Working with CLAWS marked up text and my own toolkit I had to develop
two new algorithms in order to replicate Biber's search patterns as closely as
possible. Thesewere:
" [P* * [V*/N* * [V*
Context word [V*/-[CST*/-[? ]/-[VD*/-[VM*/-[VH*/-[VVN*/-[VVG* 2
LEFT Manually edit to identify private/public/suasivewords
i. instancesof either a PRONOUN + VERB, or NOUN + VERB

- e. count all -
NOT immediatelypreceded by VERBor THAT (as conjunction), or
PUNCTUATION, or DO, or MODAL, or HAVE, or PAST PARTICIPLE, or
*ING verb and then sort to identify PUBLIC/PRIVATE/SUASIVE VERBS
" C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS. TXT Context Word [J*/[R*/[AT*
i. all instancesof any PUBLIC/PRIVATE/SUASIVE VERBS

- e. count
immediately followed by ADJECTIVE + VERB / ADVERB + VERB, or
ARTICLE + NOUN + VERB
25.9 The algorithms I had developedseemed,therefore, to be catching the strings I
was looking for, but with the way I had designed I

my research could not be
I
sure. was, perhaps,following the method used in Biber 1988, or perhapsI
was not. My algorithms might appearto be internally consistent,but I could
not guaranteethey would produce reliable results for anybody else. Although
the numbersthat were produced looked reasonable- and certainly positioned
the texts in the PP Corpus in relation to other texts in LOB+ in ways which

(What are we looking for? ) Chapter 4: page. 104
were predictable -I was not sure that they were really counting the same
things. The charts below summarise results for this first attempt17
Factor 1
Factor 2
I iiIII r1i-A, u-, - i1i% v-.N A"ll li'IraIII n' lud (111clnl)l
17 In the charts PPMean refers to results from the PP corpus when plotted against the 23 genre
categories Biber 1988 includes in LOB+

Factor 3
I /,titre I. 1 11:
v/)IU it i. c ''ihculic, n I )'f t /id/ iU: Jirst utlc'ntpt
- ,
Factor 4
l i, ttrr 1! Urrý7 ýI u/pc r. crnINw II Iir: v1 ýifI, ý11IN

-
Chris Tribble - Phl) Manuscript (this doe: January 7,1999)

Factor 5
l/ 'Hl ' l0, - .Jb. Nn, r, r .c rtnrr -rrh.clrrrrl / irsi culrntl'I
{'actor 6
I Ii: lair / -' ()I/ /1)1c I)J,ii /irxl 0lki? i/4
25.10 'Ehe important fact about each of these charts is that they were completely
unsurprising. In each area which Biber and Finegan (1989) consider critical to
the differentiation of written texts (Factors 1,3,5) the Project Proposals are

situatedat the "written" extreme of a cline between "spoken" and "written"
styles. The five closesttexts18in eachof thesefactors are:
Factor 1 Factor 3 Factor 5

Pressrev 13.5 Pressrev 4.3 Religion 1.5
Ac rose 14.4 Ac rose 4.4 Letprof 1.9
Pressrep 14.9 Offdoc 5.4 PPmean 2
OffDoc 17.9 Letprof 6.5 Offdoc 4.9
PPmean 24.5 Ppmean 13.9 AcProse 5.6
Table 11- Neighbouring Genres
25.11 In this first analysisthen, Project Proposalsemergeas giving a strong
emphasison information in their orientation towards the reader,extremely
explicit and placing little dependenceon the extra-textual context for their
interpretation, and addressingpredominantly abstractinformation.
Predictably, they sharestrongly similar characteristicswith birds of similar
feathers. (Printouts of the datasheetsunderlying the charts above are provided
in the Appendicesas Excel Spreadsheet2- Corpus Results Original Counts
(XL Corpus Results Original Counts.xls)
26. Improving the research design
26.1 The key resourceswhich I had assembledat the beginning of this research
exercise were:
" the results reported in Biber 1988 and Biber and Finegan 1989
two electronic corpora of 14 Project Proposals- one with POS mark up, the
other as plain text.
"a set of searchalgorithms for use with the two main software tools I had
available for analysis.
18 Pressrev= Press Reviews/ Acprose = Academic Prose / Pressrep= Press Reports/ Offdoc =

26.2 Theseresourceshad initially appearedto be adequate,but once I had done my
first batch of counting and summarisedthe results I faced two questions. One
was "So what?". I had managedto produceresults which confirmed what was
pretty predictable- Project Proposalsare formal, written texts and it is not
surprising that they sharemany of the characteristicsof other formal written
texts. To what extent would such a (laboriously achieved)analysishelp
resolve any of the five issuesI have identified Chapter2? The other question
was the one that I discussedin the first part of this chapter. Was I counting the
samethings as Biber?
26.3 In order to answerthe first question,I neededto go to a level lower than the
summary of the data and to look at individual counts of specific strings. It was
here that it will be possibleto find pedagogicallyuseful insights into the way
in which the PP corpus differs from its apparentanaloguesin LOB+.
However, in order to feel safemaking generalisationsbasedon thesenumbers,
I also neededto answerthe secondquestion and feel sure that my counts
matchedthose of Biber's. Without this certainty my comparisonswould
remain dangerouslyspeculative. We seemto have beenhere before

...
26.4 The way out of the problem was to take a set of data from the original Biber
study - i. e. a genre from the LOB+ corpus - and to repeat my analysis on this
data. If the results I obtainedthrough this processreplicated those of Biber I
would feel safer about my own algorithms. If they did not, then I could re-
design and improve my algorithms in order to get better results, or, in the
event that there was a fundamentalproblem with Biber's numbers (e.g.
Official Documents/ LetProf = Professionalcorrespondence/ Religion = Religious prose

resulting from the lower accuracyof his tagging), to make a statistical
adjustmentto my data to make it more reliably comparablewith his.
26.5 In order to implement this addition to my study I selectedone of the genres
used in LOB+ - Romantic Fiction LOB CategoryP. Part of my reasonfor
doing this was that it would provide me with the meansof making more
interesting statementsabout the style of the PP corpus in later discussionsif I
was working with a fairly I

extreme comparator. arrangedwith Martin Wynne
at UCREL to have the whole genrePOS taggedwith the CLAWS7 tag set and
then took the first 30,000 words - the amount of text included in LOB+ (Biber
D 1988:67 & Biber D 1988:209)19. This has proved to be a slight problem as
Biber's original results for the corpus were basedon meansof totals for each
componenttext rather than for totals of the whole text. Given the laborious
processinvolved in building the counts I have decided for the moment to stick
with the results arrived at from a total rather than for means. Even with this
potential sourceof inconsistency,the results were illuminating.
26.6 The set of counts obtainedwith the first algorithms are given in Table 12. The
areaswhere there seemedto be a major discrepancybetween my own counts
for Romantic Fiction and those obtained by Biber are summarisedin Table 13.
I have included counts for text types closely associatedwith PPsin order to
provide a basis for comparison. The column labels stand for:
Corp PP Mean Press Off Ac Fict ROM % diff.

Mean Rev Doc Prose Rom FIC
Mean of Mean PP LOB LOB LOB LOB My counts Difference
all LOB + Corpus Press Official Academic Romantic for LOB between
scores scores Reviews Docments Prose Fiction Romantic Fict ROM
Fiction and
ROMFICT
19 There is a slightly confusing inconsistency in Biber 1988 in that at page 67 it is stated that there are
13 texts from this category in the LOB+ corpus and at page 209 Biber reports that there are 14 (the first
30,000 words).

ýInqulstIC fea_ ; ý'? PressRev OffDoc AcProse FictRom ROMFIC

,
present-tense ver 77.7 37.7 70.90 59.10 63.70 65.80 35.01
first-person pronou 27.2 5.5 7.50 10.00 5.70 32.40 28.84
second-person pron 9.9 0.2 1.20 1.40 0.20 18.60 16 40
pronoun IT 10.3 3.0 7.90 3.20 5.90 9.80 12.54
demonstrative pro 4.6 15.3 1.90 1.10 2.50 2.60 13.70
indefinite pronouns 1.4 0.0 1.00 0.20 0.20 2.30 3.05
DO as pro-verb 3.0 0.5 1.10 0.60 0.70 3.70 2.70
WH questions 0.2 0.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.39
BE as main verb 28.3 7.3 25.50 16.50 23.80 28.10 16.11
WH clauses 06 3.6 0.40 0.20 0.30 0.50 4.69
sentence relatives 01 0.1 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0 U0
adv. sub. - cause 11 0.1 0.20 0,10 0.30 3.20 0.614
hedges 0.6 0.0 0.40 0.00 0.20 010 0.51
amplifiers 2.7 0.9 2.00 0.90 1.40 2.20 2.86
emphatics 63 1.4 6.50 4.00 3.60 6.80 6.75
discourse particles 1.2 0.0 0.20 0.00 0.00 0 00 0.96
possibility modals 5.8 2.2 3.50 5.00 5.60 6,50 7.59
private verbs 18.0 3.5 11.30 7.80 12.50 24.20 22.09
contractions 13.5 0.0 1.90 0.00 0.10 19.00 19.68
THAT deletion 3.1 0.1 0.50 0.80 0.40 5.20 4.15
stranded prepositio 2.0 0.0 0.50 0.30 1.10 1.50 0.26
non-phrasal coordin 4.5 0.6 1.80 1.20 1.90 2 80 1.86
anal tic negation 8.5 0.7 6.00 3.40 4.30 12.70 5.14
nouns 180.5 314.8 208.30 206.50 "188.10 146.80 140.08

prepositions 110.5 141.1 119.30 150.90 139.50 8200 86.68
attributive adjecti 60.7 77.5 82.30 77.90 76.90 41.90 27.07
type/token ratio 51.1 47.2 56.50 47.80 50.60 52.90 41.66
word length 4.5 5.4 4.70 4.90 4.80 4.10 4.09
(Involved versus tntormationat Production
past tense verbs 401 6.1 18.20 16.20 21.90 83.70 82.95
perfect aspect verb 8.6 5.6 6.80 7.90 4.90 13.60 15.63
third person pronou 29.9 5.6 33.60 10.10 11.50 78.50 79.48
present participial c 1.0 3.3 0.50 0.30 1.30 4.50 4.63
public verbs 7.7 1.5 4.90 4.90 5.70 8.60 7.33
synthetic negation 1.7 0.1 2.00 1.50 1.30 2.50 1.93.
;
Narrative versus Non-narrative Concerns
nominalizations 19.9 71.4 21.60 39.80 35.80 8.50 9.03
WH-relatives: subj. 2.1 1.5 3.50 2.70 2 60 0.80 0.58
WH-relatives: obj. 1.4 0.4 2.60 2.00 1.30 0.40 0.23
WH-relatives: pied 0.7 1.0 1.50 3.00 2.00 0.10 0.55
phrasal coordinatio 3.4 21.3 6.50 1.30 4.20 120 527
place adverbials 3.1 2.1 1.90 2.10 2.40 3.60 4.50

time adverbials 5.2 1.2 4.30 3.40 280 6.80 659
adverbs 65.6 18.0 60.80 43.70 51.80 78.40 64.91
Explicit versus Situation Dependent Refer ence

infinitives 14.9 15.7;" 11.60 13.40 12.80 19.00 ' 19.58
adv. sub. - conditi 2.5 0.5 1.10 1.00 2.10 0.80 3.83
necessity modals 2.1 10 1.10 2.20 2.20 1.90 2 38
predictive modals 5.6 13 5 3.00 4.90 370 8.50 8.6a
suasive verbs 2.9 1.9 1.90 5.20 4.00 2.60 2,03
split auxiliaries 5.5 1.7, 4.80 5.70 5.80 6.00. 3.34
10vert expression of persuasion ,
agentless passives 9.6 96 8.60 18.60 17.00 5.00 5.11'

BY-passives 0.8 20 1.40 2.10 2.00 0.00 0.13
past participial adv 0.1 0.6 0.20 0.50 0.40 0.10 0.26
past prt WHIZ delet 2.5 2.1 3.80 7.50 5.60 0.10 0 26
adv. sub. - other 1.0 0.7 0.80 0.90 1.80 0.20 1106
conjuncts 1.2 1.4 1.20 1.20 3.00 0.10 0.46.
Abstract versus Non-abstract Information
THAT verb comple 3.3 10 1.80 1.40 3.20 2.50 3.02
THAT adj comple 0.3 03 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.93
TI IAT relatives: obj 0.8 01 0.90 0.70 0.80 0 20 1.00
demonstratives 9.9 2.5 "- 70 9.60 11.40 7.30
,
IOn-line Informational Elaboration
SF?EM/AI'PEAR 0.81 2; 1AQ,,,, aQ,,. i t11] ' : at1'At?ýo
,,. _( _.
Table 12 - Counts (First Algorithms)

Linguistic feature Corp PP Press Off Ac Fict ROM %

Mean Mean Rev Doc Prose Rom FIC difference
present-tense verbs 77.7 37.7 70.90 59.10 63.70 65.80 35.01 46.79%
demonstrative pronouns 4.6 15.3 1.90 1.10 2.50 2.60 13.70 -426.92%
BE as main verb 28.3 7.3 25.50 16.50 23.80 28.10 16.11 42.67%
analytic negation 8.5 0.7 6.00 3.40 4.30 12.70 5.14 59.53%
attributive adjectives 60.7 77.5 82.30 77.90 76.90 41.90 27.07 35.39%
adv. sub. - condition 2.5 0.5 1.10 1.00 2.10 0.80 3.83 -378.75%
split auxiliaries 5.5 1.7 4.80 5.70 5.80 6.00 3.34 44.33%
adv. sub. - other 1.0 0.7 0.80 0.90 1.80 0.20 1.35 575.33%
demonstratives 9.9 2.5 8.70 9.60 11.40 7.30 3.38 53.70%
Table 13 - Major discrepancies
26.7 The nine featuresfocusedon here are those where there is a major difference
betweenmy counts and Biber's counts for the samedata set (expressedas a
percentagein the final column). Having establishedthat there was indeed a
major difference betweenmy results and Biber's 1988 results I had a clear
motivation for reviewing all of the algorithms I had been using - focusing in
the first instanceon those where there seemedto be gross discrepancies.
26.8 One of the lessonslearnedfrom this processhas beenhow easy it is to
produce internally consistentand plausible results from this sort of counting
exercise.Moreover, as we shall seein the following discussion,there is still
somequestion over what is being counted in the published data. The most
depressingthing for me has beenthat in many instancesdiscrepancieshave
not arisen from my failure to design an algorithm correctly (although this has
also beenthe case)but for simple mechanicalreasons- usually typing the
right data into the wrong cell on the spreadsheet!A lesson in humility if
nothing else ...
27. Revised results
27.1 As mentioned above,in order to check if the variance betweenmy counts for
RomFict and those in Biber 1988 were the result of inaccuraciesin my
algorithms (most likely in

case)or his data (least likely case),I double-

in
checkedand, where necessary,re-worked eachalgorithm my set (even in
those caseswhere there was a very close correlation betweenBiber's results
and mine - e.g. Agentlesspassives:Biber-5.00 per 1000/ Tribble -5.11 per
thousand). This produceda significant improvement in the counts for the
"problem" set and also improved the overall match of my numberswith those
in Biber 1988.
27.2 In the light of the earlier discussion(para 25.10) it was interesting to note the
relatively small overall impact of these corrections to the data on the
positioning of the PP in
corpus relation to LOB+. Once again I give the
in
environments which PPsare placed for the three key Factors (Table 14)
and the chartswhich plot the relationship betweenPP and other genresin the
LOB+ Corpus (Factors 1 to 6, SecondVersion - seebelow). It is immediately
obvious that although there has been a major improvement in the quality of
my algorithms and a correspondingreduction in the mismatch betweenmy
counts and Biber's (seeTable 15 below), this improvement has not had a
significant impact on the overall profile of the PP Corpus. The flawed counts
had been "good enough" to permit the categorisationof the PP Corpus and to
demonstratethe (expected)linguistic contrastbetweenPP and RomFict.
Factor I Factor 3 Factor 5

no change from Version one no change + still a no change + still a
results (other than a reduction considerable distance between considerable distance between
in the distance between PP PP and Professional letter PP and Professional letter
and Official Document)
PressRev PressRev 4.3 Religion 1.5
-13.5
AcProse AcProse 4.4 LetProf 1.9
-14.4
PressRep OffDoc 5.4 PPMean 2
-14.9
OffDoc LetProf 6.5 OffDoc 4.9
-17.9
PPMean -19.6 PPMean 13.7 AcProse 5.6
Table 14 - Neighbouring texts

Linguistic feature Corp PP Fict ROM current % previous %

Mean Mean Rom FIC difference difference
present-tense verbs 77.7 57.10 65.80 55.51 15.64% 46.79%
demonstrative pronouns 4.6 2.50 2.60 3.44 -32.31% -426.92%
BE as main verb 28.3 16.40 28.10 27.05 3.74% 42.67%
analytic negation 8.5 0.73 12.70 13.70 -7.87% 59.53%
attributive adjectives 60.7 77.5 41.90 27.07 35.39% 35.39%
adv. sub. - condition 2.5 0.5 0.80 3.83 -378.75% -378.75%
split auxiliaries 5.5 1.59 6.00 3.54 41.00% 44.33%
adv. sub. - other 1.0 0.76 0.20 1.35 575.33% 575.33%
demonstratives 9.9 8.61 7.30 8.17 -11.92% 53.70%
Table IS- Discrepancies
27.3 Charts summarisingthe revised Factor scoresare given below:
Factor 1- Version 2
hvotved versus InformationalProduction
30 C
t9
20 TNy
L
ya
ö° (D CL
10 aoau U.
o LL
0
V>d ý^ ä.ý
iz
LL.
LL.
J LL lL
a- ill
U. CO
-10
CL c co
-20 y U.
ýy
LL
-30
-40
Factor 2- Version 2

10
Narrative versus Non-narrative Concerns
8 E
t V
6
LL LL
LL LLLL.
LL
LL
2
') O
m
OL
LL LL
0 W N Ì
LL LL
N LL LL
_GT
": j ýý ö
G_
Öy LL
C LL LL
G1 >N
-2 N -l
Cä
_ JU U-
t`ý d
LL U.
Ö 0 LL
U-
41 rn
-4 LL
Factor 3- Version 2
15 C
Explicit versus Situation Dependent Reference y
a
a
10
> 9D
5 o Q U.
O
haJ LL LL
U.
d 3ä °-' E LL
Ö 0, SD 20 LL
0 "; c,
Ü ä c
ll
ä
V)
LL
LL LL
N 12 LL U. LL LL
N
LL
0
EL LL
> U. LL
.5 U.
0 LL
LL
U.
2
. 10 LL
Factor 4- Version 2

4
Overt expression of persuasion
°
ul
3
Ü
U.
2 (D Ö
Ix
LL W
a
NO V)
LN V) lL
-LgW
CZ ly lL
Q. aOý
NaC lL
>0jSQ. Fn U
C LA- LL U.
0
U- 0ä
U- tU-
>
N
-3
A
U-
-4
v
m
Q
0°
- 5

Factor 5- Version 2
s
Abstract versus Non-abstract Information
5
LL
4
2- - C4
ad rh
Q (D
W w NoiU. LL
N2
d LL
0 °'t °i LLto LL
I
N ý
ö ý
ý c LL
LLý
Li
C) U0 Li U_
o 2U
-2 L)
J) _j LL M
LL U.
LL U
`-' U LL
.3 LLLL LL
LL
Factor 6
4
On-line InformationalBaboration
ID
CL
3 21 a
c
l. LL LL
Co
Cl)
tr3
2 LL
ö
w o-
v
O LL
.ý'
oU
00 Qý
N2 LL u
>Ü
6
LL
0 LL
vw0
O
ý
W
CO
2
o LL LL
y Oäa
M LL
N fn 2 LL LL
EV J LL LL
T LL co
LL LL LL LL.
CL
-2 LL
U.
28. Conclusion
28.1 If the eventual result of this revision of the searchalgorithms has been so
slight, has it worth the effort? In brief - "yes". I say this for two reasons. The
first is that it has given me an insight into the problem of handling such large

amountsof data statusof the published data with which I am working. In all
but three instances- Conditional adverb subordinator(adv. sub. - condition),
Other Adverbial Subordinators(adv. sub. - other), and Attributive Adjectives
- it was possible to effect a significant improvement in the quality of the
searchalgorithms and a concomitant improvement in the match of the Biber
results and my own. In the caseof thesetwo linguistic features,the search
algorithms are simple, unambiguoussearchstrings:
I count all instances of.

" adv. sub. - cause
because
" adv. sub. - other countall instancesof., / /

/ / /
since while whilst whereupon whereas/ whereby such
that / so that / inasmuch as / forasmuch as / insofar as /
insomuch as / as long as / as soon as
28.2 This being the case,either my Romantic Fiction texts are different from those
in Biber 1988- unlikely, as they are the sameas the set Biber specifies (Biber
D 1988:209), the first 30,000 Category P in LOB, and also there is

words of
betweenthe rest of my counts- or in

there are errors the
such a close match
data in Biber 1988 in the table 260. If there are errors in the
published at page
RomFict results, are there more as yet unaccountedfor, and are the results of
Biber 1988 open to seriouschallenge? I think not. For a start, many of the
differences betweenBiber's from the

minor results and mine will arise
unavoidable differences between our separatestudies:
the specific differences of hardware, software and text mark-UPmentioned

"
above
Biber's use of meansas opposedto my use of totals in presentingthe results

"
for RomFict

Where the differencesbetweenour results appearto be errors in Biber's
reporteddata, it is unlikely that there are many such mistakes- and part of the
great strengthof the design of Biber 1988 is that he dealswith such a large
number of separatefactors, and baseshis conclusionson the results of
statistical procedureswhich have'been employed in order to reducethe risk of
distortion and bias in the results which might arise from inaccuratesampling.
A conclusion from this argumentis that - given the impossibility of exactly
replicating Biber's 1988 study for reasonsalready discussed- those of us who
follow his work do not needto be unduly concernedabout minor differences
betweenhis counts and our counts, so long as we have made an effort to be as
scrupulously accurateas possible and have presentedour results in such a way
that, this time, they can be reproducedand testedby others. The fundamental
principal holds -a multifunction, multivariate approachto corpus study has
to
much recommendit and is robust enoughto cope with minor inaccuracies
in the counts..
28.3 The secondreasonfor feeling that the revision of the algorithms has been
effort well spent is that I feel in

more confident following up insights that
emergefrom an analysis of the counts of the individual featureswhich
contribute to the factor scoreswhich have positioned PP at the extreme end of
the written / spokencline. It had never beenmy purposeto replicate the
results from Biber 1988. It has been interesting to discover that it is so
difficult to do this, but not important from my point of view. The factor scores
for PP were predictable and there was no need to use the Biber tool to
conclude that PPs are formal written texts. What is interesting is that the
counts for many of the individual items which go to make up these scores

were surprising and not expected. The predictablepositioning of PPs in
relation to other texts in LOB+ is the outcome of specific choicesthat writers
have made about the words they want to use. Thesechoicesare the things that
interest me, and it is the surprising counts of the strings which mark the trace
of thesechoicesthat will form the basis for the next chapter.

(Grammar and Style) Chapter 5: page 120
SECTION TWO: AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEXTS
Chapter 5: Grammar and Style

"A rough indication of frequenciesis often just what is needed:
enoughto suggestwhy we should acceptthe writer's assertion
that that somefeature is prominent in the text, and to allow us
to check his statements. The figures, obviously, in no way
constitute an analysis,interpretation or explanation of the
style." (Halliday 1973:117)
29. Introduction
29.1 In the previous chapterwe discussedissuesthat arosefrom differences
betweenthe results of the study carried out in Biber 1988 and this present
study. We establishedthat thesedifferenceswere the result of contrasts
betweenthe text mark-up, software and hardwareused in the two studies- and
also from possible inaccuraciesin the published researchdata. In addition we
establishedthat although there were some major differences betweenthe
presentresults and the results in Biber 1988,the data obtained from the
analysis of the PP Corpus provide a sufficient basis for an identification of
contrastsbetweenthe PP Corpus which are potentially salient in an analysis of
PPs as a genre.
29.2 In this chapterwe will considerthe extent to which the analysis of the PP
corpus provides information which might have pedagogicvalue. In the first
instance,we will do this by comparing the linguistic profiles of the PP Corpus
in relation to the profiles of the six text genreswhich are located most closely
to the PP corpus in eachkey text dimension in LOB+. Thesetext genresare
listed below in Table 16.

Dimension 1 Dimension 3 Dimension 5

PressReview PressReview Religion
Academic Prose Academic Prose Letters - Professional
PressReports Official Documents Official Documents
Official Documents Letters - Professional Academic Prose
Table 16 - Neighboring texts (by Dimension)
29.3 We shall make this comparisonin order:
" to identify those linguistic features in the PP Corpus which are statistically
prominent, and
" to establishwhich of thesefeaturesare salient to a stylistic typification of PPs.
In order to help teachersor other researchersto make use of this approach
when studying genreswhich are of importance to them, I shall also give
relatively detailed commentson someof the practical techniquesI have used
to develop theseanalyses.
30. Style and stylistics
30.1 The identification of prominence and a subsequentexegesisof salience is an
approachthat has been used successfully in literary stylistics (Halliday MAK
1973, Leech G&M Short 1981). It provides a meansof identifying those
linguistic featureswhich might be consideredas having literary significance
(Leech G&M Short 1981: 48-5 1) or, in Halliday's terms, which are
foregrounded in relation to a reader'sprobabilistically establishedexpectations
of textual patterning:
".... we are concernednot only with deviations, ungrammatical

forms, but also with what we may call 'deflections', departures
from some expectedpattern of frequency." (Halliday
1973:113).

(Grammar and Style) Chapter5: page 122
Those of us with an interest in teaching studentsto deal with a range of
referential texts are also interested in such departures from "some expected
pattern of frequency" as it is precisely this sort of understanding that
apprentice writers need as they develop a performance repertoire in a
particular genre.
30.2 It is also of relevanceto this study that theseearlier analysesdo not attempt to
referencetheir statistical data againsta corpuswhich purports to be
representativeof the "languageas a whole" - indeed Leech & Short argue
forcefully againstthe possibility of such a procedure:
"Without some clear cut notion, for statistical purposes, of what

is meant by "the language as a whole" any sampling procedure
is bound to involve subjective decisions. The norm of 'the
languageas a whole' is not the reality that it seemsto be "
....
(Leech G&M Short 1981:43)
Instead,Leech & Short consider a range of possible norms - the most
important of which for our purposesare relative norms:
"Where an absolute norm cannot be relied on, the next best

thing is to compare the corpus whose style is under scrutiny
with one or more comparable corpuses, thus establishing a
relative norm. " (ibid: 51)
30.3 Using a methodology similar to that elaboratedin Biber 1988 (though it lacked
the multivariate / multidimensional delicacy of this later study) they
demonstratedthat it was both possible and interesting to literary scholarsto
identify contrastsbetweenthe linguistic featuresof threesmallcorporaof
work by three authors- Conrad, Lawrence and James(ibid: 74-118) - and to
use this as the basis for a discussionof stylistic difference betweenthese
authors. The procedure involved developing a list of sixty nine textual
featuresand identifying saliently prominent differencesbetweenthe counts of

thesefeaturesin the three text collections prior to a discussionof the literary
style of the three authors. Such a comparativeapproachaccordsstrongly with
the positions taken in e.g. Fox G 1993 and StubbsM 1996:127, and constitutes
a useful starting point for the following discussionof the differencesbetween
PPs and the text genreswith which they stand in close relation.
31. Provisional identification of prominent linguistic features of Project

Proposals
31.1 The core data with which we shall be working are the meansof counts
(normalised to counts per 1000) for the 58 linguistic featuresin Biber 1988
acrossall the genresunder discussion(i. e. PP + its near neighbours in LOB+).
Thesedata are given in ranked order in Table 17 below. In order to achieve
this ranking the procedureoutlined below was followed20:
9 the minimum, maximum and mean scoresfor the six genresin the reference
set (PressRep/ PressRev/ Religion / OffDoc / AcProse / LetProf) were
calculated (Excel MIN, MAX, AVERAGE functions)
9 those counts in PP which are greaterthan the MAX or less than the MIN
scoresfor the referenceset were identified (Excel OR function)
" percentagevalues for the difference betweenthe PP mean and the reference
J
set MIN or MAX scoreswere calculated
" the table was sorted in descendingorder by the ">MAX" and "<MIN"
to
columns produce the results in Table 17.
201 have given the Microsoft Excel functions here for the benefit of others who may have an interest in
replicating parts of this study

31.2 Given below are the ranked scores (PP vs. PressRep / PressRev / Religion /
0111)oc / AcProse / LetProf) plus means for all language features implicated
in all 6 Factors:
+3 phrasal 21.88 6.5 1.3 1 236.62 0 4.48 5.2

coordination
+2 present 2.68 1.3 0.3 1 106.15 0 0.57 1
participle
clauses
+3 nominalisations 69.4 44.2 19.2 1 57.01 0 31.23 25
+5 past participle 0.66 0.5 0.1 1 32.00 0 0.27 0.4
adverbial
clauses
nouns 282.93 220.5 172.6 1 28.31 197.28 47.9
-1
93.24 13.29
0
-1 attributive 82.3 59.5 1 0 72.93 22.8
adjectives
+4 13.47 11.9 3 1 13.19 5.93 8.9
predictive 0
modals
-1 word length 5.33 4.9 4.5 1 8.78
0 4.73 0.4
L
-L 0 1.1 0.1
+1 stranded 0 100.0 0.50 1
prepositions 0
+2 synthetic 0.06 2.8 1 0 94.00 1.68 1.8
negation
+1 non-phrasal 0.18 2.9 1.2 0 85.00 1.93 1.7
coordination
+1 THAT deletion 0.08 2 0.4 0 80.00 1.08 1.6
+3 WH-relatives: 0.24 2.9 1 0 76.00 2.02 1.9
obj. position
+1 indefinite 0.05 1.1 0.2 0 75.00 0.67 0.9
pronouns
+2 public verbs 1.52 12 4.9 0 68.98 7.68 7.1
+4 split auxiliaries 1.59 6 4.8 0 1 66.88 5.60 1.2
+6 THAT relatives: 0.21 1.1 0.6 0 65.00 0.82 0.5
obj position
+1 WH clauses 0.07 1 0.2 0 65.00 0.52 0.8
+1 amplifiers 0.33 2 0.9 0 63.33 1.43 1.1
+1 emphatics 1.38 7.8 3.6 0 61.67 5.02 4.2
+1 DO as pro-verb 0.23 2.6 0.6 0 61.67 1.42 2
-3 adverbs total 17.49 60.8 43.7 0 5998 52.17 17.1
+1 private verbs 3.46 17.1 7.8 0 55.64 12.27 9.3
+4 adv. sub. - 0.55 2.1 1 0 45.00 1.52 1.1
condition
+2 past tense 6.12 45.1 10.1 0 39.41 23.00 35
verbs
+1 analytic 0.73 7 1.2 0 39.17 4.43 5.8
negation
+2 third person 5.62 33.6 8.7 0 35.40 19.18 24.9
pronouns
time adverbials 1.32 6.5 2 0 34.00 3.68 4.5
-3
+1 second-person 0.14 15.2 0.2 0 30.00 3.67 15
pronouns
+6 THAT verb 1.1 4.3 1.4 0 21.43 3.05 2.9
complements
+3 WH-relatives: 1.6 3.5 2 0 20.00 2.83 1.5
subj. position
+4 necessity 1.01 2.2 1.1 0 8.18 1.93 1.1
modals
+1 pronoun IT 3.02 9.6 3.2 0 5.63 6.58 6.4
+5 adv. sub. - 0.76 2.9 0.8 0 1 5.00 1.37 2.1

other
+1 possibility 3.11 7.7 3.2 0 1 2.81 5.07 4.5
modals
+1 first-person 5.56 40.9 5.7 0 1 2.46 15.03 35.2
pronouns
-1 type/token ratio 46.9 56.5 47.8 0 1 1.88 52.22 8.7
+1 ßE as main 16.4 30.4 16.5 0 1 0.61 23.98 13.9
verb
-1 prepositions 141.69 150.9 116.6 0 0 127.15 34.3

+1 present-tense 57.1 94.7 55.8 0 0 70.60 38.9
verbs
+4 infinitives 14.31 24.1 11.6 0 0 15.10 12.5
+5 agentless 10.16 18.6 7.3 0 0 12.85 11.3
passives
+6 demonstratives 8.61 13.5 7.4 0 0 10.43 6.1
+2 perfect aspect 5.66 10.3 4.9 0 0 7.33 5.4
verbs
+1 demonstrative 2.5 3.6 1.1 0 0 2.18 2.5
pronouns
+5 past prt WHIZ 2.05 7.5 1.3 0 0 4.12 6.2
deletions
-3 place 2 4.7 1.6 0 0 2.50 3.1
adverbials
+4 suasive verbs 1.94 5.2 1.9 0 0 3.45 3.3
+5 BY-passives 1.84 2.1 0.6 0 0 1.47 1.5
+5 conjuncts 1.32 3 0.6 0 0 1.73 2.4
+3 WH-relatives: 0.97 3 0.6 0 0 1.48 2.4
pied pipes
+6 THAT adj. 0.29 0.5 0.1 0 0 0.25 0.4
complements
+1 adv. sub. - 0.12 2 0.1 0 0 0.62 1.9
cause
+1 sentence 0.06 0.1 0 0 0 0.02 0.1
relatives
+1 hedges 0.02 0.4 0 0 0 0.18 0.4
+1 WH questions 0.01 0.1 0 0 0 0.02 0.1
+1 discourse 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.08 0.2
particles
+1 contractions 0 4.7 0 0 0 1.72 4.7
l uhle 17- Ranked scores
3 1.3 The rank orderings and counts given here are purely descriptive statistics and
will have to be tested later from an inferential point of view. However, as a
starting point they help identify those areas in which there may be interesting
divergencies from relative norms - particularly if we remember Halliday's
comment (given in the epigraph to this chapter) on the value of counting in
stylistics.
31.4 Given this caveat, I propose then to examine the stylistic significance of those
features which have a relatively high percentage difference from the maximum
Chris Tribble - Phi) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

score in the neighbouring texts and where there is a reasonably large number
of counts in the overall corpus. Thus I shall be considering e.g. Phrasal
Coordination (236.62%/21.88 per 1000 mean) and Nominalisations (57.01%
/ 71.3 per 1000 mean), but not Present Participle clauses where although there
is a high percentage difference (106.15%) the count is so relatively low at 2.68
per 1000, that it is improbable that any major stylistic impact could be
identified for this feature.
32. Analysis of prominent features
32.1 Using the criteria outlined above, seven prominent features of PPs have been
identified. They are listed in Table 18 and Table 19 along with a reference to
the Factor with which they are associated (Column 1). The rest of this chapter
will he devoted to a review of their potential salience to a typification of PPs.
1 attiibutive adjectives 93.24 82.3 59.5 1'ý . 19

3 nominalisations 69.4 44.2 19.2 57.01
3 phrasal coordination 21.88 6.5 1.3 236.62
4 predictive modals 13.47 11.9 3 13.19
Tuhlr 1S hi'h /i i'gxeucv items
-
3 adverbs total 17.49 60.8 43.7 59.98

2 third person pronouns 5.62 33.6 8.7 35.40
1 private verbs 3.46 17.1 7.8 55.64
Table l9 - losefrequency items
33. Attributive adjectives
33.1 In order to get counts of individual attributive adjectives it was necessary to
run the WordSmith Tools Wordlist program with Clusters set at 4 to create a4
"word" wordlist for the PP Corpus. This list contained combinations of both
"Word + PUS-tag + Word + PUS-tag" and "POS-tag + Word + POS-tag +
Chris I'rihbic - I'hl) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

Word". 't'his latter set was then be eliminated by means of the following
procedure:
" Convert the WordSmith Wordlist to a plain txt file
9 Use WordSmith Text Converter to
0 replace all tab codes with single spaces
0 replace all single spaces with tab codes
" Open this tab-delimited file in Excel and format it so with the following
headings and columns (the # column used the Excel LEFT function as a way
of identifying the base form of tag in the adjacent column):
Attrib No. Word # TAG 1 Word # TAG 2 COUNT

test 12
1 LONG J JJ TIME N NNT# 522 10 00
0 Use Excel text and logical formulae to identify all instances of 2,3,4, and 5
character strings in the TAG 1 and TAG 2 columns (See Appendix I for a full
listing of the formulae used and the results of this procedure) and test for those
instances which contain attributive adjectives.
0 This "word + tag + word + tag" list was then available for use in the
discussion o('attributive adjectives and other features in the PP. The
procedure outlined above was also applied to the RomFict data set for
purposes of comparison. It appears to be a robust and easily accessible means
fir identifying and quantifying strings in POS tagged texts.
33.2 Biber describes attributive adjectives as one of the devices "used for ideas
integration" (Biber D 1988:237) and categorises attributive adjectives
Chris Tribble - Phi) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

themselvesas being "highly integrative in their function" (ibid: 237). It seems,
however, that this view of attributive adjectivesonly accountsfor one aspect
of the function of theseterms in the developmentof discourseas there
appearsto be a significant contrastbetweenthe roles of the two main classes
of attributive adjectives- qualitative and classifying.
33.3 In the discussionin Sinclair et al 1990:64-72 attributive adjectivesare divided
into two main classes- qualitative adjectives(which identify a quality that
somethinghas) and classifying adjectives(which identify the class something
belongsto). Taking those attributive adjectiveswhich occur in the PP Corpus
with frequenciesof 20 or more acrossall 14 texts (seeTable 20), the majority
(33:4) are classifying adjectives. What is more, within the very small count
for qualifying adjectives,"short" is part of the pair "short-term" (having been
separatedfrom its partner in CLAWS processing),and would in other
circumstancescount as a classifying adjective. An informal survey of this
trend confirms that it is sustainedthroughout the set (seeTable 21 below for a
list of the last ten items in the 852 types accountedfor in the attributive
adjective set in the PP Corpus).
Word I TAG 1 Class Word 2 TAG 2 COUNT

WIDE JJ Q RANGE NN# 25
SHORT JJ Q TERM NN# 24
CONSIDERABLE JJ Q EXPERIENCE NN# 23
KEY JJ Q ISSUES NN# 20
BRITISH JJ C (institutionname) NNJ 134
TECHNICAL JJ C ASSISTANCE NN# 131
ENVIRONMENTALJJ C EDUCATION NN# 131
SLOVAK JJ C REPUBLICS NN# 55
INSTITUTIONAL JJ C DEVELOPMENT NN# 48
PUBLIC JJ C ADMINISTRATION NNJ 39
FOREIGN JJ C INVESTMENT NN# 39
LOCAL JJ C SPECIALISTS NN# 37
ECONOMIC JJ C DEVELOPMENT NN# 36
HUMAN JJ C RESOURCES NN# 34
SOCIAL JJ C WELFARE NN# 34
REGIONAL JJ C DEVELOPMENT NN# 33

NATIONAL JJ C EDUCATION NN# 33

EASTERN JJ C EUROPE NP# 32
TECHNICAL JJ C PROPOSAL NN# 32
INWARD JJ C INVESTMENT NN# 31
ENGLISH JJ C LANGUAGE NN# 31
SOCIAL JJ C POLICY NN# 27
SENIOR JJ C ADVISER NN# 25
VOCATIONAL JJ C EDUCATION NN# 25
FINANCIAL JJ C MANAGEMENT NN 25
ENVIRONMENTALJJ C PROTECTION NN# 24
POLISH JJ C CONSULTANTS NN# 23
LOCAL JJ C GOVERNMENT NN 23
HUMAN JJ C RESOURCE NN# 23
CIVIL JJ C SERVANTS NN# 23
INTERNATIONAL JJ C SPECIALISTS NN# 23
CENTRAL JJ C EUROPE NP# 21
EUROPEAN JJ C UNION NNJ 21
PUBLIC JJ C ADMINISTRATION NN 20
Table 20 - top 34 out of 852 attributive adjectives
Word 1 TAG I Class Word 2 TAG 2 COUNT

TOTAL JJ C TRAINING NN# 2
TRAINED JJ C STAFF NN 2
TRANSNATIONAL JJ C NETWORKS NN# 2
UNEMPLOYED JJ C PERSONS NN# 2
URGENT JJ Q NEED NN# 2
VISUAL JJ C AIDS NN# 2
VOCATIONAL JJ C TEAM NN 2
VOLUNTARY JJ C SECTOR NN# 2
WESTERN JJ C INVESTMENT NN# 2
WORKING JJ C DAYS NNT# 2
Table 21 - bottom 10 out of 852 attributive adjectives
33.4 In order to get an impressionof the cumulative stylistic effect of this
preponderanceof classifying adjectivesit is instructive to review the role of
attributive adjectives in the corpus set which has beentaken as a comparator
for this study (RomFict - seethe precedingchapter: What are we looking for?,
for a discussionof the reasonfor choosingthis comparator). Table 22
summarisesall counts for attributive adjectivesin this data set. In this set 16
out of 29 instancesare qualitative adjectives:
Word 1 TAG I Class Word 2 TAG 2 COUNT

LONG JJ Q TIME NNT# 5
DAMP JJ Q PATCH NN# 3
WEALTHY JJ Q WOMAN NN# 3
YOUNG JJ Q MAN NN# 3
ANGRY JJ Q TEARS NN# 2

COOL JJ Q DRINK NN# 2

DEEP JJ Q BREATH NN# 2
HIGH JJ Q SPIRITS NN# 2
LITTLE JJ Q WHILE NNT# 2
LONG JJ Q WAY NN# 2
NEW JJ Q PLAY NN# 2
NICE JJ Q RED JJ 2
OLD JJ Q HENRIETTA NP# 2
PRETTY JJ Q GIRL NN# 2
SMALL JJ Q TABLE NN# 2
SWEET JJ Q THING NN# 2
CHINESE JJ C QUARTER NN# 3
RIGHT JJ C THING NN# 3
WHITE JJ C CAT NN# 3
BARDIC JJ C ROBES NN# 2
EURASIAN JJ C SEWING NN# 2
FRENCH JJ C GIRL NN# 2
FRONT JJ C DOOR NN# 2
FULL JJ C MOON NN# 2
GREY JJ C ROCK NN# 2
OTHER JJ C ROOM NN# 2
OTHER JJ C WAY NN# 2
PREVIOUS JJ C EVENING NNT# 2
RED JJ C DRESS NN# 2
Table 22 - Attributive Adjectives
33.5 The three qualifying adjectiveswhich occur in the high frequency group of
attributive adjectives in the PP Corpus (Table 23, Table 24, Table 25) are used
in the main at momentswhen the authorsare establishingeither their own
authority or the authority of team members. Key is interesting as it is the most
widely used attributive adjective in the PP Corpus associatedwith moments
when authorsare making a commitment to the value of an aspectof their
technical response.I shall return to thesemoments in which authority or
commitment are expressedin my specific considerationof the lexical
typification of PPs.
Office of Xxxxxxxxxxxxxx which has considerable experience in organising an

f client satisfaction. We also have considerable experience in delivering tr
hare. Experience Xxxxxxxxxxxxxx has considerable experience relevant to this
s. - Project Implementation We have considerable experience of project imple
United Kingdom. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxx have considerable experience of supporting to
formation and training. He also has considerable experience in the problems
Table 23 - Considerable
ent with a contractor to supply a wide range of high-quality expertise in

al Studies. We have carried out a wide range of strategic, policy and anal

ntre which will offer access to a wide range of information on occupationa

fining provision in Eastern Poland wide ranging consultancy skills capabili
rtant that the report should have wide support among stakeholders. The dra
luded a survey of 600 firms world-wide to assess their attitudes to invest
nd Slovak Project Unit, she has a wide understanding of the training needs
cluding: inspection of sites in a wide variety of heavy industry; transpor
ia, and as sub-contractors with a wide variety of networked partners mostl
Table 24 - Wide
hould identify target markets and key actions to increase awareness and pr
ntify objectives, target markets, key actions and resource requirements. T
work in Poland and in the EL. The key activities during Phase Two are like
ct identification, involvement of key actors in the region, packaging to a
on which follows, we summarise the key areas of expertise of XXX Limited an
This list encompasses most of the key aspects of economic transformation,
ble at this stage to identify the key beneficiaries of the Programme and t
e business training including for key client groups, the unemployed and gr
Table 25 - Key
33.6 The role and effect of the qualifying adjectivesin the PP Corpus standsin
predictable contrastwith the qualifying adjectives in RomFict. For the authors
of these texts
representational qualifying adjectives are a basic tool for
establishingcharacterand mood. Interestingly, apart from right andfront the
classifying adjectivesin RomFict are also implicated in the sameaspectsof
text development- characterand mood - with the emblematic values of
red/white/full/grey with referenceto dressesand other apparelbeing exploited
to the full.
Qualifying
angry cool damp deep high
little long new nice old
pretty small sweet wealthy young
Classifying
right white bardic Eurasian French
front full grey red
d worn at school in Paris, a soft grey wool which blended with the rock ag
trousers, or swathed herself in a red blanket! There was n't a man in the
s richly furnished, with handsome red brocade curtains, and a carved mahog
always a powerful rival. The deep red colour of this dress would surely pr
get the chance of wearing a nice red dress instead of your old blue trous
all mirror in the kitchen. A nice red dress, Tom had said. Probably that w
through, tall and elegant in his white dinner jacket. " Hullo, you 're lo
cked her nylons towards the high, white sandals. They waded into the shall
le strapless dress of a green and white silky cotton. Her shoulders and fa
of the sunshine. She wore a full white skirt of some silky material and a
Table 26 - Colours

33.7 Yet is the rhetoric of project proposalsentirely free of affect? Traditionally,
adjectives- as one of the constituentsof "purple prose" - have beenviewed as
somethingto treat with great care in formal modesof discourse:
"Don't use extravagant adjectives. Don't say magnificent when

a thing is merely pretty, or splendid when excellent or some
other word will do. Extravagance of this kind is never in good
taste." (Censor 1880/1982: 67)
If the writer of soberprose should eschewthe adjective, why is it that there is
such a high preponderance of attributive adjectives in the PP Corpus?
33.8 This apparentflouting of conventionscan be partly justified be recognising
that the majority of attributive adjectivesin the PP Corpus are classifying
rather than qualifying - and henceless marked as evaluative. We have already
commentedon this contrastbetweenclassifying and qualifying adjectivesand
noted that the attributive adjectivesin the PP Corpus are mainly in the former
category. As we have seen,one of the things that attributive adjectives does
allow you to do is to integrateinformation in the noun phraseand to express
ideas economically:
s capability undertaking local and international assignments Curricula

able value in raising national and international awareness about investmen
ojects: collaboration with the International Baltic University; TE
15. The company operates on an international basis from offices in the
onment on a regional, national and international basis through: 89
studies (Task A8) and the proposed international benchmarking exercise (Ta
des consultancy services to assist international business partnership and
ssist individual companies seeking international business projects, to ass
Table 27 - International
33.9 However, there is a very large number of theseclassifying adjectives,and-
becausePPsare prose constructslike any other - these adjectivesparticipate
in the creation of cumulative effects acrossa spanof text: at the end of the
day, classifying doesnot have to be a strictly neutral activity. Taking the most

frequent classifying adjectives+ noun pairs (Table 28 - Top PP classifying
adjectives),some (British, Slovak) are clearly neutral, the adjective being the
necessaryother half of an institutional name,and others are closely linked to
the theme of the proposal itself (e.g. environmental education).Many pairs,
however, appearto be constitutive elementsof a common languagefor the
organisationswhich are bidding for the managementof project funds in post-
communist Europe. In this closed universe, assistanceis technical,
developmentis economic,institutional or regional (#16 in Table 20), and
specialistsare either local or international (#29 in Table 20).
technical environmental Slovak institutional

public foreign local economic
human social regional national
eastern technical inward English
social senior vocational financial
environmental Polish local
civil international
Table 28 - Top PP classifying adjectives
The adjectives are not flowery and the prose is not purple - but an effect of
competentprofessionalismis producedby their use,with specific adjectives
becoming almost talismanic. In this particular nexus, international, for
to
example, can come equal good and our category "classifying adjective" has
becomeambiguous.
We have designed programmesworth over ECU 300 million for international agencies
over the last five years.
We have carried out a wide range of strategic, policy and analytical studies for leading
International agencies.
We are currently managing projectsworth ECU 42 million on behalf of international
agencies.
Objective 2 Set the criteria for both the international and local technical assistance team
specialists and assist in their recruitment and selection.
About half of the activities of XXX Internationalare implementedin consortia with
Europeanorganisationsand with private international consultancyfirms.
Some of the recent and present International activities are listed below.
Task D6: PromotionalEvents 3.46 The XXX has recently drawn International attention to
its activities by hosting an OECD Conferenceon Foreign Investmentfor Small
and Medium Sized Enterprisesin XXX.
Promotionalactivities such as these have considerablevalue in raising national and
International awarenessabout investmentopportunitiesin Bulgaria in additionto
the immediate benefitsof the events themselves.
All texts from PP Corpus (XXX indicates anon misation

33.10 Viewed purely syntagmatically this quality may not appearobvious. It is
when international is seenparadigmatically in its relation with other
"positive" adjectivesthat the positive force it takes on in this setting becomes
clearer (seeParagraph53.3 below for a more extendeddiscussion)21 Such a
phenomenoncan be seenas a local exploitation of the potential semantic
prosody of a particular word. The term was proposedby John Sinclair in 1988
(Louw B 1993:158) and refers to a mechanismwhereby the meaning of a
is
word "coloured" by the companythat it keepsacrosslarge numbersof
instances. While such an effect will not be perceivablein a single text, if
many instancescan be viewed (as in a KWIC concordanceof a large corpus)
the semanticprosody of an item becomesimmediately apparent.
33.11 Accepting the existenceof such a phenomenon,I would contendthat a
significant aspectof genre formation is the in

way which semanticprosodies
are exploited locally. When international is reviewed in a large corpus,
although it does not always take on the specifically positive prosody we have
noted above,that tendencyis apparent. Given below are the results of a search
acrossthe BNC taking 50 random samplesfrom 22,215 instances.
id-1980s. HL4 2965 Major international affiliations: ECOWAS; ICO;

ages between vast numbers of international and transnational actors.
tional (0624 821212), Albany International Assurance (0624 823262) an
las Information System Ltd's International Banking system: the PRO-IV
also provide vital access to international capital and credit markets
ed in the 1990 Wine Magazine International Challenge. CBX 1607 L1
ent. ARS 520 To gain the International Champion title, it is nece
rimarily under the impact of international competition on its motor v
ey awaited the outcome of an international conference which met at Ge
the prospects for peaceful international cooperation will become st
training began with a major international cosmetics company, and he
perators is co-ordinating an international effort to improve operatin
800 Unix line. CR9 2488 International equity offers are booming.
onal feature, is now such an international feature that it has led to
L 2365 &lsgbFor extension of international force presence in Turkey t
ich is illustrated in Leaf v International Galleries 2 Pag
21 1owe this insight into the interpretationof semantic prosodyto ProfessorMichael Hoey. The
clarificationwas offered during the viva of this PhD. thesis.

eep faith with England youth international goalkeeper Ian Walker when
ethical rules into line with international guidance where a former pa
high priority is creating an international hospitality and tourism fi
ment of monopoly capital and international imperialism. CS5 69 En
England had probably lost in international importance during the fift
volunteers have also exerted international influence in recent years.
the substantial barriers to international integration, prices have n
the fruitful development of international law in the control of forc
pt outof a rule of customary international law inter se , they cannot
t odds with the realities of international law which was prepared to
9 As would be expected in an international market, product life does
telock, who is a lecturer in International Marketing at Salford have
allenge. CBX 1607 Lloyds International Money Market Fund(0481 724
he Almeida, while the London International Opera Festival brought Udo
rly January aid agencies and international organizations warned that
rate. G37 413 But I'm an international performer in an internatio
Chairman of Stoddard Sekers International PLC, praised the efforts o
as taken by the regional and international press in the course of the
had been able to circumvent international regulations and build or e
ozloduy and bring them up to international safety standards. HBM
on the ground that they gave international sanction to an undemocrati
general allow that war is an international sphere. CHC 853 The th
nternational performer in an international sport on an international
an international sport on an international stage. GV5 1386 The wo
ision status. ANX 952 An international team of astronomers estima
the country of origin and an international ticket in two of the other
ference of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Specie
Id have a monopoly of Polish international trade. BPF 1373 Marque
n staff at the new Ramenskoe International Training School in Moscow.
mber States has an effect on international transactions in that withi
s of a Convention regulating international transactions. EEL 818
(Source: BNC)
Table 30 - international (BNC)
33.12 In this sample,the main potential of "international" (although there are
exceptionsto this tendency)doesappearto be positive to neutral e.g.:
" "the prospectsfor peaceful international cooperationwill become..."
brings UK ethical rules into line with international guidance..."

....
" "But I'm an international performer in an international sport on an
international stage."
Given the existenceof this phenomenon,we can begin to explain the
cumulative effect of the large number of attributive adjectives identified in the
PP Corpus: in the context of PPs,the potential positive semanticprosody of
"international" has been exploited so that the use of an apparentlyneutral
classifying adjective provides the writer with a form of warrant. By stressing
the international aspectof an organisation'sexperienceand connections,the

proposal writer is able to the

represent organisationas "good" without making
unallowable claims to that effect.
34. Nominalisations
34.1 Nominalisations are the secondmost prominent feature distinguishing the PP
Corpus from its neighbours- 69.4 countsper thousandand 57.01% more
frequent than the highest neighbouring mean (thesecounts having been
to
obtainedwith an algorithm able mimic the results for RomFict in Biber
1988with good accuracy- 8.50 Biber / 8.91 Tribble). Biber reports that
nominalisations "tend to co-occur with passiveconstructionsand prepositions
and thus interprets their function as conveying highly abstract (as opposed to
situated) information" (Biber 1988: 227). This view is supported by Halliday's
account of the reasons why nominalisations tend to be so numerous in formal
written texts, ascribing their high frequency to the need that writers have for a
concise and economical way of getting abstract entities into informationally
key regions of texts - theme and grammatical subject position.
"... In other words, even things that are not expressedas nouns
have to behave like nouns in order to gain their appropriate
statusin the thematic and information structure." (Halliday
1989:74)
34.2 As the PP Corpus is not tree-parsed,it is impossible to identify grammatical
subjectsand themesautomatically. It is, however, possible to get an
indication of the numbersof nominalisations which occur in situations where
they have a high likelihood of being grammatical subjectsor themes- i. e.
immediately after clauselimiting punctuation and/or immediately before a
A
verb. searchof the corpus using thesecriteria producesthe following
results:

34.2.1 immediatelypreceded by clause limiting punctuation: 513 instances(6.26% of
all nominalisations)
" Analysis: Many of theseexamplesare sectiontitles. This could explain one
of the reasonsfor the higher nominalisation counts in PP when comparedwith
the neighbouring genres. Section titles are an important means for ensuring
"readermanagement",and also serveto make the text as explicitly and
transparentlyorganisedas possible.Also, they are often an implicit
requirementof the Terms of Referencefor the proposal as bidding
organisationsare requestedto ensurethat specific topics are addressedand
that certain headingsare usedas a rubric.
N : [: ] Information [NN1] and [CC] Research (NN1] 37 [MC] [. ] Sele

.
1 [: ] Implement (NN1] the (AT] Worker [NN1] Protection [NN1] Progr
2 Employment [NP1] and [CC] Social [JJ] Protection (NN1] (. ]
.
3 (. ] Institutions [NN2] and [CC] their [APPGE] organisational [JJ
4 complementarity [NN1] and [CC] the (AT] respective [JJ] role
5 Community [NNJ] and [CC] environment [NN1] " ["] 65 [MC]
,] ,[
6 : [: ] Organisation [NNJ] and [CC] method [NN1] ( [(] Annex [NN1] B
7 equipment (NN1] and [CC] a [AT1] small [JJ] research [NN1] f
8 coordination [NN1] and (CC] liaison [NN1] between [II] team
9 (, ] equipment [NN1] and [CC) training [NN1] [. ] - (-] Instrume
, .
10 organisation (NN1] and [CC] experience [NN1] of [I0] these [
11 cooperation [NN1] and [CC] full [JJ] partnership (NN1] of [I
12 [: ] Organisation [NNJ] and (CC] method [NN1] I (MC1] I [PPIS1] S
13 management [NN] and [CC] control [NN1] and [CC] strategic [J
14 ) [)] ORGANISATION [NNJ] AND [CC] METHOD (NN1] 1.2.1 (MC] BACKGROU
15 (, ] commitment [NN1] and [CC] continuity [NN1] offered [VVN] by
,
Table 31 - Nominalisations: punctuation
34.2.2 Followed by a finite verb within two words: 818 instances (9.98% of all
nominalisations)
" Analysis: This set is more unambiguously implicated in grammatical subject /
theme riles. The sampleof output from a concordanceof the PP Corpus also
showsthat nominalisations are not predominantly involved in passive
structures.There is a maximum of 263 instances(32% of nominalisations+
verb) in the corpus of nominalisations as subjectsin passiveclauses(i. e.

Nominalisation + Verb BE within an horizon of 5 strings to the right) - though
not all of theseare passivesas the searchalgorithm used to identify these
strings cannot automatically disambiguatepassivesfrom copula usesof BE.
In most instancesthe nominalisation is the subject of an active verb: e.g. "This
combination will bring ... Theseorganisations emerged... " (the lexical verbs
which associatewith thesenominalisationsare an interesting set in themselves
and will be studied in more detail in subsequentchapters).
hich (DDQ] a [AT1] regional [JJ] business [NN1] centre [NN1] might
(NN1] 9401 [MC] [. ] This [DD1] combination [NN1] will [VM] bring
.
J) interest [NN1] - [-) an [AT1] administration (NN] that [CST] has
eds [NN2] [. ] In [II] the [AT] section [NN1] which [DDQ] follows
.
N1] - [-] the [AT] economic [JJ] situation [NN1] is [VBZ] difficult
from [II] the [AT] regional (JJ] administration (NN] and [CC] made
(AT1] important [JJ] early [JJ] question [NN1] will [VM] be [VBI]
Z] , [, ] the [AT] regional [JJ] government [NN] works [WZ] to [TO
rivate [JJ] sector (NN1] of [I0] business [NN1] services [NN2] is [
system [NN1] face [NN1] by [II] business [NN1] is [VBZ] complete [
gives [WZ] us [PPI02) the [AT] opportunity (NN1] to (TO] take [W
w [RGQ) favourable (JJ] the (AT) conditions [NN2] are [VBR] in [II]
Europe [NP1] [, ] similar [JJ] conditions [NN2] have [VHO] been [
,
] trusts (NN2] [. ] These [DD2] organisations [NN2] emerged [WD]
.
A (AT1) separation [NN1] of (I0] functions [NN2] could [VM] be (VBI
Table 32 - Nominalisations: verbs following
34.3 Although the informational role of the nominalisationsin the PP Corpus
cannot always be identified, the semanticsetsthey encompassgive a strong
indication of the overall tenor and emphasisof the PP Corpus. The full set of
nominalisation types and their counts are given in Appendix 25 - the top 20
are given in the table below:
business 414 administration 131 studies 69

education 389 university 118 preparation 66
implementation 225 quality 106 addition 64
information 187 countries 102 section 63
activities 172 agencies 90 operation 62
organisation 165 inception 85 opportunities 62
evaluation 132 companies 71
Table 33 -Top 20 nominalisations
34.4 It is possible to begin to group these nominalisations into distinct sets: e.g.
" directly implicated in the themesof the proposals- (business,education)

9 languagethat is used in associationwith the elaboration and managementof
projects per se (preparation, inception, implementation, activities, evaluation)
" languageassociatedwith the internal organisationof the proposal (section)
and in so doing, to begin to identify key lexis for different aspectsof PPs,
...
in
not only the context that is specific to the proposalsin the corpus, but also
in proposalsthat have beenwritten for different kinds of project and for
different agencies. By identifying prominent aspectsof the lexicogrammar, it
is possible to identify salient aspectsof the lexis of the texts in question. This
has implications for pedagogywhich will be discussedin the final chaptersof
this thesis.
35. Phrasal coordination
35.1 Phrasalcoordination involves the symmetrical pairing of grammatical
equivalents e.g. adjective & adjective / verb & verb / adverb & adverb. It is
positioned in Factor 3 Explicit versusSituation DependentReferenceand is
accountedfor in Biber 1988 as having an integrative function and being used
for ideasexpansion(Biber D 1988:245). In the LOB+ corpus there is a
relatively wide range of variation acrossthe meansof the genres,with some
genreshaving zero instances. In the PP Corpus, although the range and
standarddeviation give higher values, no text has a lower count that 12.9 per
1000- abovethe maximum for LOB+. The algorithm + corpus markup I have
used on the test genre RomFict do give a higher count for phrasal coordination
than the results in Biber 1988 (Biber 3.20 per 1000/ Tribble 5.27 per 1000) so
there may be a needto adjust my results, but if this were done it is improbable
that there would be a major reduction in the overall count for the PP Corpus

Linguistic LOB Corp Corp Range Corp PP PP PP Range PP

feature Mean Min Max S/D Mean Min Max S/D
phrasal 3.4 0.0 12.0 12.0 2.7 21.9 12.9 28.7 15.8 4.5
coordination
35.2 In the PP Corpusthe patternsfor this structureare - in order of frequency:
NN* AND NN* 1923

JJ* AND JJ* 452
V* AND V* 175
R* AND R* 11
35.3 Although the least frequent, the adverbshave a certain appeal- demonstrating
as they do the writers' attemptsto persuadethe readerof the quality and extent
of their technical approach. This phenomenonis not unique to a single
particularly keen-to-persuadeauthor, the examplesbeing spreadacrossseven
different proposalsfrom the three different organisationswho provided texts
for the corpus.
n (MC] years (NNT2] ago [RA] and [CC] now [RT] employing [VVG] 50 [MC
lp [WI] build [NN1] on [RP] and (CC] further [RRR] develop [WO] exp
ssessed (VVN] regularly [RR] and [CC] continuously [RR] improved (VVN
[TO] act [WI] quickly [RR] and [CC] decisively (RR] on (II] potenti
ation [NN1] efficiently [RR] and [CC] effectively (RR] [. ] Our (APP
VBI] met [VVN] promptly [RR] and [CC] efficiently [RR] [. ] However
vices [NN2] effectively [RR] and [CC] efficiently [RR] the (AT]
used [VVN] effectively [RR] and [CC] efficiently [RR] through [II] t
[RR] , (, ] economically [RR] and [CC] financially [RR] sound [WO]
.
y [RR] , [, ] nationally [RR] and [CC] horizontally (RR] across [II] t
being [VBG] financially (RR] and [CC] technically [RR] self-sustainin
Table 34 - coordination: adverb
35.4 Verb coordination gives a different insight into the developmentof the
rhetoric of the PPs. Most instancesonly occur once, but in many casesthey
are part of a pattern which emphasiseseither the managementprocesseswhich
will be required by the project under discussionor the management
competenciesof the bidding agency. A full concordancefor this set is
provided in the appendices(Appendix 35), but the samplebelow illustrates the
tendency:

(Grammarand Style) Chapter5: page 141
N2] have [VHO] been [VBN] adapted [VVN] and [CC] published [VVN] by
be (VBI] speedily [RR] addressed [VVN] and [CC] resolved [VVN]
.[
volved [JJ] in [II] administering [VVG] and [CC] monitoring (VVG] s
[CC] Austria [NP1] - [-] advised [WD] and [CC] signed [WD] a [AT
esponsible [JJ] for [IF] agreeing [VVG] and [CC] reviewing [WG] th
nsultants (NN2] and [CC] analysed [WD] and (CC] worked [WD] on [R
N2] required [WD) to [TO] assess [WI] and (CC] improve (WI) perf
oordinator [NN1] will [VM) assist [WI] and [CC] strengthen [WI) c
[)] that [CST] both [DB2] attract [W0] and [CC] deter [WO] foreig
I resources [NN2] to [TO] attract [WI] and (CC] retain [WI) high
delivery [NN1] of [I0] briefing [WG] and [CC] training [VVG] to
] This [DD1] experience [NN1] can [VM] and [CC] will [VM] be [VBI]
(RR] longer [RRR] to [TO] change [WI] and (CC] are [VBR] dependen
orientation [NN1] may [VM] change [WI] and (CC] develop [WI] quit
articularly [RR] in [II] coaching [VVG] and [CC] mentoring [WG] sk
PHS2] will [VM] be [VBI] collated [WN] and (CC] produced [VVN) by
[I0] data [NN] is [VBZ] collected [VVN] and [CC] analysed [WN] :[
es (NN2) , [, ) to [TO] commission [WI] and [CC] manage [WI] a (AT
se (NN1] I [ZZ1] to [TO] consider [WI] and [CC] agree [WI] a [AT1
eted [VVN) to [II] : [: ] consider [WO] and [CC] evaluate [WO] the
s [NN2] : [: ] to [TO] consolidate [WI] and (CC] develop (WI] exis
2] will [VM] be [VBI] constructed [VVN] and (CC] incorporated [VVN]
RR] be [VBI] self [NN1] contained [VVN] and [CC] written [VVN] in [
mination (NN1] will [VM] continue [WI] and [CC] intensify [WI] be
ed [JJ] bodies [NN2] coordinating [WG] and (CC] implementing [VVG]
N] involved (JJ] in (II) defining [WG] and [CC] implementing [VVG]
[, ] and [CC] is [VBZ] delivered [VVN] and [CC] facilitated [VVN]
] have [VHO] been [VBN] described [VVN] and (CC] explained [VVN] in
[MC] years [NNT2] to [TO] design [WI] and [CC] establish [WI) na
[MC) years [NNT2] to [TO] design [WI) and [CC] establish [WI] na
] to (TO) FNP (NP] to [TO] design [WI) and [CC] implement [WI) an
opean [JJ] countries [NN2] design [WO] and [CC] write (W0] up (RP
(NN1] will [VM] be [VBI] designed [VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] by
2) We [PPIS2] have (VHO] designed [WN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] tr
S2] have [VHO] also (RR] designed [WN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] a
ertaking [NN1] has [VHZ] designed [VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] sp
[NN1] will [VM] be [VBI] designed (VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] du
We [PPIS2] have (VHO] designed [VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] a
.]
S2] have [VHO] also [RR) designed [VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] a
1] We [PPIS2] have [VHO] designed [VVN] and [CC] delivered [VVN] tr
tion [NN1] systems [NN2] designed [VVN] and [CC] established [VVN]
Table 35 - coordination: verb
35.4.1 The verb coordinationswith more than one count also focus on this
managerialfunction; they are:
design and establish

designing and delivering
develop and design
develop and pilot
develop and implement
giving and managing
identify and exploit
meet and be
reporting and monitoring

35.5 Unlike Verb & Verb combinations,Adjective & Adjective coordination
exhibits a striking level of repetition of particular strings, Of a total of 465
counts, 149 are relatedto geographicallocations or institutional titles e.g.
[NN2] (. ] Work (NN1] in (II] central [JJ] and [CC] eastern [JJ] Eur
.
) Hungary [NP1] and [CC] the [AT] Czech [JJ) and [CC] Slovak [JJ] Rep2
tish [JJ] Council [NNJ] in [II] eastern [JJ] and [CC] central [JJ] Eur
[I0] assisting [VVG] both (RR] Italian [JJ) and [CC] foreign [JJ] comp
the (AT) Ministry (NNJ] of (I0] Labour [JJ] and [CC] Social [JJ] Welfa
aining [NN1] needs [NN2] of (I0) Polish (JJ) and [CC] Hungarian [JJ] m
with the remaining pairs appearingto fulfil a range of purposes,although the
largest groupsare either implicated in condensedaccountsof previous
professionalexperienceor forward plans, or in reinforcing the impression of
the "quality" of the proposal.
Ni] in (II] addressing [VVG] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical (JJ]
[NN2] including (II] the [AT] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJ]
he (AT] projects [NN2] in (II] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJ]
(JJ] of [I0] supporting [VVG] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJ]
ical [JJ] skills [NN2) in [II] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJ]
] CCC (MC] - [-] regional (JJ] economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJ]
ng (VVG] ever (RR] more [RGR] effective [JJ) and [CC] efficient [JJ]
to [TO] ensure [WI) an [AT1] effective [JJ] and [CC) efficient (JJ]
are [VBR) not (XX) only [RR] effective [JJ) but [CCB] efficient [JJ]
31] relation (1132) to (1133) effective [JJ] and [CC] efficient [JJ]
MU [NN1] to (TO] ensure [WI) effective [JJ) and [CC) efficient [JJ]
35.5.1 As we have already noted, adjective phrasecoordinations are a much larger set
than Adverb or Verb coordination with 452 individual instances. One of the
implications of this relatively high frequency is that it permits a doubling
effect of many of the instancesof classifying predicative adjectivesmentioned
above (paragraph33.3 ff) as most of the coordinatedadjectives are
classificatory. In addition, if one examinesthe context of combinationswhich
are not collected by the algorithms used in Biber 1988 (Adjective + and +
Adjective) a much large set of doubled classifying adjectives can be found,
including Noun + and + Adjective (sometimesthe result of failures in
CLAWS tagging) and other asymmetric but neverthelessclause-coordinating

combinations such as "in [II] Enterprise [NN1] and [CC] Economic [JJ]
Development [NN1]" - e.g.:
r [IF] primary [JJI education [NN1] and [CC] vocational (JJ] education [NN1]
Environmental (JJ] Education [NN1] and [CC] public [JJ] awareness [NN1] rai
Environmental [JJ] Education [NN1] and [CC] Public [JJ] Awareness [NN1] Cli
] to (II] the [AT] Employment (NN1] and [CC] Social (JJ] Development (NN1]
0] enhancing [WG] employment [NN1] and [CC] human [JJ] resources [NN2] deve
of (10] the [AT] employment [NN1] and (CC) social [JJ] development [NN1] p
] to [II] the [AT] Employment (NN1] and [CC] Social [JJ] Development [NN1]
0] enhancing (WG] employment [NN1) and (CC] human [JJ] resources (NN2] deve
0] enhancing (VVG] employment (NN1] and [CC] human [JJI resources [NN2] deve
0] enhancing [VVG] employment [NN1] and [CC] human [JJI resources [NN2] deve
] of [I0] the [AT] employment [NN1] and [CC] social [JJ] development [NN1] p
TECs [NN2) in [II] Enterprise (NN1] and [CC] Economic [JJ] Development [NN1]
on [II) the [AT] environment [NN1] and [CC] public [JJI relations [NN2] [
on (II] the [AT] environment [NN1] and [CC] public [JJI relations [NN2] [
evels [NN2] of [I0) expertise [NN1] and [CC] international [JJ] experience [
[, ] including [II] Finance [NN1] and [CC] Civil (JJ] Service [NN1] Admini
, (NN1]
ithin [II] this [DD1] General (NN1] and [CC) Technical (JJ] appendix ,
ithin (II] this (DD1] General [NN1] and [CC] Technical [JJ] appendix [NN1] ,
21 , [, ] Economic [JJI Growth [NN1] and [CC) Public [JJI Policy (NN1] and [C
2] (, J Economic [JJ] Growth [NN1] and [CC] Public [JJI Policy [NN1] and (C
,
ccountancy (NN1] [, ] health [NN1] and (CC] English [JJI language [NN1] tra
,
rengthen (WI] the [AT] human [NN1] and (CC] technical [JJI resources [NN2]
rengthen [WI) the [AT] human (NN1] and [CC] technical [JJI resources [NN2]
] management (NN) information [NN1] and (CC] financial [JJ] control [NN1] sy
2] at [II] primary [JJI level (NN1] and [CC] technical (JJ] and (CC] vocatio
21 at [II] primary [JJI level (NN1) and [CC] technical [JJ] and [CC] vocatio
Centres (NN2] for [IF] Local [NN1] and [CC] Regional [JJ] Authorities [NN2]
Table 36 - Doubling effect
35.5.2 If we acceptthat one of the rhetorical impacts of the high level of classifying
adjectives (paragraphs33.9 ff) is the establishmentand maintenanceof a tone
of professional authority we are the oneswho know how to classify these
complex phenomena)this effect appearsto be reinforced by examplessuch as
those above. Not only is phrasal coordination exceptionally pronouncedin
PPswhen it is identified by meansof the Biber algorithms, it is, in fact, even
more pervasive acrossthe corpus than appearsto be the caseat first sight.
35.6 Noun coordination is the largest componentof this set and has a close affinity
with Verb & Verb coordination in that many of the instancesin the PP Corpus
are associatedwith either the internal organisation of the proposals,or with
their specific ideational content. Thus amongstthose combinationswhich
occur with high frequency "organisation and method" is a section heading

usedacrossnearly all the proposals,but "businessand innovation" only occurs
in one text and is specific to that single proposal. A summary of the
distribution of the top thirty items is given below instancesare categorised

-
on the basis of whether a string occurs in one text only (1), in 2 only, or in 3 or
more cases(>3).
Noun coordination # dist.

organisation and method 28 >3
business and innovation 18 1
design and implementation 17 >3
techniques and skills 16 1
trade and industry 16 >3
aims and objectives 13 >3
education and training 13 >3
safety and health 13 >3
science and technology 13 >3
assessment and analysis 12 >3
strategy and business 12 1
development and implementation 11 >3
managers and staff 11 1
research and development 10 >3
design and delivery 9 >3
health and safety 9 >3
strengths and weaknesses 9 2
introduction and summary 8 >3
knowledge and skills 8 >3
provisions and terms 8 >3
reconstruction and development 8 >3
training and consultancy 8 2
background and experience 7 >3
development and delivery 7 >3
knowledge and experience 7 >3
PCU and ITC 7 1
review and evaluation 7 1
training and development 7 >3
advice and support 6 >3
design and development 6 >3
Total 324
35.7 If thesecombinationsare consideredin contextswhere they are the objects of
immediately precedingverbs e.g.:

[-] To [TO] achieve [WI] status [NN1) and [CC) security [NN1] and
.)-
they (PPHS2] acquire [WO] competence [NN1] and [CC) confidence [NN1] wi
evitably [RR) cause [WO] dislocation [NN1] and [CC] underuse [NN1] of [
[NN2] to [TO] develop [WI) awareness [NN1] and [CC) appreciation (NN1]
to [TO] contain [WI] inconsistencies [NN2] and [CC] contradictions [NN2
[VVN] to [TO] combine [WI] knowledge (NN1] and [CC] experience [NN1] of
VVN] to (TO) develop [WI] confidence [NN1] and [CC] self-reliance [NN1]
NP] have [VHO] developed [VVN] skills [NN2) and [CC) knowledge [NN1] to
s [NN2) will [VM) dictate [WI] roles [NN2] and [CC] priorities (NN2] fo
e [VBI] to [TO] enable [WI] managers (NN2] and [CC] staff [NN] of CIO]
it begins to be possible to identify a listing of key verbs associatedwith
momentswhere stressand emphasisare being given through the use of
coordination. Such a listing is given in the table below. This list was arrived
at by listing all Noun & Noun combinationswith a precedingverb and then
reducing lemmas to the stem.
achieve acquire cause change combine

comprise contain continue cover develop
dictate enable encourage ensure establish
exchange fund gain handle identify
include increase indicate link maintain
meet monitor need obtain offer
operate plan promote propose provide
research screen supply sustain train
transfer transmit trial use visit
Table 37 - Verbpreceding noun coordination
35.8 Such lists of verbs associatedwith frequent patternsacrossa set of exemplars
of a genre have a potential pedagogicvalue and - along with the insights
obtained vis-ä-vis the noun combinations themselves- provide a meansfor
exploiting the linguistic information accumulatedabout this genre in teaching
settings.
36. Predictive modals
36.1 Predictive modals provide the least interesting set of featuresin this first group
largely becauseit was highly predictable that they would be common in

-
texts which are making proposalsabout future action. There is a normalised
count of 13.47 per thousandwords for the mean of PPs- as opposedto a

maximum of 11.9 and a minimum of 3 in the'neighbouring' texts. The point
of interest which arisesfrom this doesnot come from the fact there is a high
frequency of predictive modals in the PP corpus,but rather from the words
associatedwith thesemodals. This is particularly the casewith "will", by far
and away - and again, predictably - the most frequently used of the two
predictive modals in the Biber set (will: 1347 / would: 69)
36.2 Identifying grammatical subjectsassociatedwith predictive modals was
achievedby the use of the cluster feature in the WordSmith wordlist program
to identify all two word clustersin the corpus, and then to reversesort this list
so that one can identify all instances"word + will" with a frequency greater
than two. Such a list clearly showsthe elementsin the text which are given
theme roles in relation to predictive modal "will". They are:
which will 68 it will 64 this will 59 they will 58

team will 55 we will 55 and will 41 who will 31
leader will 28 programme will 26 project will 26 consultants will 22
participants will 18 consultant will 16 these will 16 adviser will 15
he will 15 manager will 13 {company} will 13 specialists will 13
experts will 12 council will 11 report will 11 reports will 11
(company) will 11 there will 11 training will 11 staff will 9
stage will 9 that will 9 approach will 8 activities will 7
materials will 7 teams will 7 trainers will 7 workshop will 7
plan will 6 PMU will 6 she will 6 strategy will 6
work will 6 assistance will 5 B will 5 group will 5
information will 5 teachers will 5 Warsaw will 5 consortium will 4
course will 4 ii will 4 ministry will 4 modules will 4
objective will 4 office will 4 requirements will 4 seminars will 4
task will 4 tasks will 4 visits will 4 workshops will 4
advisers will 3 advisor will 3 aim will 3 coordinator will 3
education will 3 factors will 3 (company) will 3 (company) will 3
incubators will 3 inputs will 3 manual will 3 {company} will 3
plans will 3 success will 3 support will 3 systems will 3
trialling will 3 two will 3 activity will 2 attention will 2
Bulgaria will 2 (company) will 2 capacity will 2 centres will 2
cluster will 2 courses will 2 criteria will 2 curriculum will 2
details will 2 development will 2 English will 2 exercise will 2
fund will 2 {company} will 2 hand will 2 identification will 2
initiative will 2 input will 2 leaders will 2 management will 2
meeting will 2 negotiations will 2 (company) will 2 output will 2
partners will 2 phase will 2 review will 2 secondments will 2
services will 2 specialist will 2 (company) will 2 supervisor will 2
three will 2 tutor will 2 UK will 2 workbooks will 2
(company) will 2 (company) will 2
Table 38 -predictive "will"

36.3 One immediate (and, for me, unexpected) result of this searchis the
identification of deictic and relative pronounsas the most frequent
grammatical subject/ theme in the context of "will". There are 185 instances
of "it" / "this" and "which" + will - with 76 of thesebeing sentenceinitial (It:
32 / This: 44) and 20 clauseinitial (it: 6/ this: 2/ which: 12). 1had expected
that grammatical subjectsof "will" clauseswould include a large number of
abstractor institutional categories,along with the institutional first person
plural. I had not expectedthat relatives and deictics would occupy the top
positions. The effect of this predominancecan be seenin the following extract
where "this + will" servesthe function of summarisingthe previous argument
or representingthe processesand stagesinvolved in the elaboration of the
projects in question as semi-autonomous and necessary. In citation 1, for
example, the precise referent of "this" is ambiguous- it is the BusinessNeeds
Analysis as a whole and the Consortium's 'pinpointing' activities and the
conclusionswhich are reachedregarding the challengesfaced by local
businessleadersand the areaswhere they are seeking support. (SeeAppendix
37 for a full listing):
1. Business Needs Analysis: each Consortiumwill identify ways of pinpointingthe challengeswhich

business leaders feel they are currentlyfacing and in what areas they are potentiallyseeking external
developmentsupport. This will further clarify the specific training and consultancyneeds of local
industry.
2. A further de-briefingmeetingwill take place on the completionof Phase 4 where each of the plans and
frameworksfor delivery will be presented.Ibis will be the point at which final adjustmentscan be
made to ensure Polish 'ownership' and the full integrity of the whole.
3. The review team will be invited to comment on the action plan and in particular on the proposed
structure and content of the resources both of the teachers' handbook and the students' resources
through a consultationworkshop.This will give feedback to the consultantsat an early stage of the
project
4. The idea is to build on existing activities and to make them more effective by working closely with BFIA
staff. This will involve practical measuresto increase awarenessand promote Bulgaria's attractionsto
foreign investors.
Table 39 - this + predictive "will"
36.4 The other aspectof theme organisationwhich is brought out by this listing is
the very narrow range of lexical items which take thematic statusin most

instances in these predictive statements. Lemmatising the list to show those
word forms with the highest frequencies gives the results (excluding 'this', 'it'
and'which') shown in Table 40. The proposals are texts in which institutions
and roles (company name, teams, consultants, leaders, participants, advisers,
specialists, managers) and processes (programme, project, training, activity,
work) play the dominant roles in what will happen.
team 62 they 58
{company name} 56 we 55
consultant 38 who 31
leader 30 programme 26
project 26 adviser 21
participant 18 he 15
specialist 15 manager 13
expert 12 training 11
activity 9 work 6
Table 40 - words in Theme
36.5 Considering the predictive modals from the point of view of the verbs
associatedwith them (Table 41 - will + verb), WordSmith Wordlist can be
used to identify all two word or three word clusterswith will at the head. This
provides further corroboration of the in is

way which predictive will strongly
implicated in predictions about the managementof the project process.
will provide 61 will work 36

will have 35 will include 29
will involve 23 will assist 22
will need 22 will take 22
will ensure 20 will deliver 16
will be developed 15 will focus 15
will be undertaken 13 will form 12
will identify 12 will participate 12
will advise 11 will be able 11
will be based 11 will be led 11
will be provided 11
Table 41 - will + verb
37. Low frequency items
37.1 As we noted above (para. 32.1) the set of linguistic featureswhich have
strikingly low frequency in PP is:

adverbs total 17.49 60.8 43.7 59.98

third person pronouns 5.62 33.6 8.7 35.40
private verbs 3.46 17.1 7.8 55.64
The algorithms usedto identify thesefeaturesalso appearto be safe scores

-
for RomFict and check-RomFict being:
Linguistic feature RomFict check-RomFict

adverbs total 78.40 75.83
private verbs 24.20 22.09
third personpronouns 78.50 79.50
38. Adverbs
38.1 The words studied in this set exclude "all those adverbscounted as instances
of hedgers,amplifiers, downtoners,place adverbialsand time adverbials". In
order to seehow the few adverbsthat are in PP are used, it has proved useful
to comparethem with those in RomFict. A set of the most frequent adverbsin
both corpora is given below (Table 42).
PP RomFict
particularly 57 really 28
currently 46 suddenly 14
closely 29 quickly 13
mainly 22 obviously 12
effectively 20 probably 12
monthly 20 quietly 11
quarterly 20 certainly 10
specifically 20 gently 9
clearly 17 surely 7
directly 17 deeply 6
rimaril 15 finally 6
TOTAL 283 TOTAL 128
Table 42 - adverbs in PP and Romfict
38.2 The most striking aspectof the contrastbetweenPP and RomFict is that while
there is such a large distancebetweenthe normalised counts for adverbsin PP
(17.49) and RomFict (75.83), the top 14 PP adverbscounts for 15.61%of the
2030 instancesin PP, while in the caseof RomFict this set only accountsfor

5.98% of the 2358 instancesin this text collection. In other words there is a
much greaterratio of types to tokens for this particular word class in RomFict
than in PP. When it comesto the specific adverbsthat are used,there are also
major differencesbetweenPP and RomFict (Table 43 and Table 44 below).
Specifically, if adverbsof time are discounted(their use as discourse
organisersis obvious) the adverbsin PP are used as a meansof organising the
argument;they signal how and why things will be done. In RomFict, with its
necessaryfocus on human interactions,the majority of the adverbsare about
how people seemand how they behave(with the odd infelicitous exception
such as the damaskdeeply lace-edgedcloth... ), along with the (over) frequent
use of "really" as an intensifier in dialogue.
any in its inception phase, must clearly take account of existing developme
e years of operation. The work is closely integrated with a local enterprise
onsultancy activities relate very closely to these areas of specialism. Its
ion institutions. They also work closely with government departments, profe
Development Plans will be written directly based on the outputs from Phase 3
and consultancy markets, who will directly compete for client work. Analysis
familiar with and use these tools effectively prepare tailored in-compan
Financial resources can be used effectively and efficiently through this h
sector experience at working effectively with institutional partners, b
45. At present REEC 's act mainly as information points and as a focu
each part of the project, made up mainly of practising teachers. The teams w
ucation. The review teams will be mainly ordinary practising teachers. T
been contracted by other clients, mainly overseas governments and developmen
spective on the Polish situation, particularly for the Enterprise Developmen
ence. The Polish consultants, particularly from PBLCA, will brief the EU
est in the field. It is therefore particularly important to develop pilot pr
Trade and Industry. The project. particularly in its inception phase, must
nd develop the project with them, particularly in the inception phase. They
nds critically on innovation, and particularly on effectiveness in exploitin
ncrease in the private sector and particularly the growth of new small priva
ironmental Policy of Poland. More particularly, the programme aims to establ
taff in CSFR municipalities. More particularly, the project developed, imple
manager and business development primarily through a portfolio of open lear
se has been developed since 1991, primarily through KHF funding, and involvi
ther since the foundation of WBS, primarily within the terms and funding of
pproach is to establish an agency specifically to: attract foreign d
roject. These have been developed specifically for the Polish market accordi
nable in-company programmes to be specifically tailored to identified needs
Table 43 - Adverbs in PP
e caused the accident? There was certainly a strange tension in the air. " You
face was as white as the damask deeply lace-edged cloth spread over the refec
etray shim. He loved Sandra too deeply to ruin her future happiness. Had ever
to marry and obviously loved so deeply. He doubted that Philip would betray h
ssed that I care for you - very deeply. I 've loved you ever since you were a
like Alice in Wonderland, " Doc gently mocked her, " and I 'm glad you 're be
he previous evening. Yet it was probably no more than gossip that Mrs Henders
e, not even to Fergus, Diana ran quietly across the hall to the garden-room an
ou had guessed, Rob? " she asked quietly. He smiled into the darkness. " Yes,

you allow me to choose for you a really French meal? "" Of course. " As she g
n to work now, had n't we? It 's really only a few personal letters. ""I 'm
!a new-style Sir Lancelot! - 's really terribly funny when you think about it
of buttered scones to Gregory. " Really, we do n't see much of her at all thes
Table 44 - Adverbs in RomFict
38.3 The differentiation betweenthe two extremes- PP and RomFict - appearsto
arise from the strongly contrasting agendasof the writers. The writers in PP
are aiming for a style which has minimum affect - hencethe minimal use of
adverbs,their preferencefor nouns over verbs, and the high frequencyof
nominalisations in subjectposition. Where they feel a needto add rhetorical
emphasis,this tone is maskedby the favouring of adjectival modification and
clausecoordination rather than adverbial qualification -a choice which is also
to someextent imposed as it is a corollary of the high noun to verb ratio across
the PP corpus (seeTable 45 for the counts of normalised meansof verbs and
in
nouns the two corpora).
Linguistic feature Pp mean FictRom

present-tense verbs 57.10 65.80
past tense verbs 6.12 83.70
perfect aspect verbs 5.66 13.60
total verbs 68.88 163.1
nouns 282.93 146.80
Table 45 - verb:noun
When there are so many more nounsthan verbs in a text, changesin emphasis
and orientation are necessarilygoing to occur in noun phrasesmore than in
verb phrases.By the sametoken, the writers of more explicit fictions have
recourseto the adverb as their preferred meansof meaning modification.
39. Third person pronouns
39.1 Once again, it is not surprising that third person pronouns - PP Mean 5.62 /
Ref Max 33.6 / Ref Min 8.7 / per cent difference 35.40% have low frequency
in PP. They are consideredto be indicators of whether a text has
predominantly narrative or non-narrative style (Biber D 225)

1988: and PPs

clearly fall into the lessnarrative oriented group. In the PP Corpus,third
person pronouns are most frequently used in moments when past experience is
being referred to - this is often in statements of technical competence or

-
when future responsibilities are being outlined. The majority of third person
pronouns are plural in PP (426: 2 10), although many instances of "their" refer
anaphorically to single individuals or single institutional referents (see Table
47 - their). One aspectof third personpronounsthat is of someinterest arises
from the insight they offer into the genderbalanceamongstkey staff involved
in project managementand consultancyin this sector (although bearing in
mind that CVs have not been included in the PP Corpus). The counts for
masculine/feminine pronouns is given in Table 46 male/female pronouns. In

-
this set at least,the singular boys seemto have a 2: 1 advantage!
he 118 she 47
him/himself 3 her/herself 11
his 27
Total 148 Total 58
Table 46 - male/femalepronouns
1. companies looking for Bulgarian companies that can supply materials and
...
components or undertake sub-contract manufacture on their behalf.
2. (company name) have been chosenfor the recruitment team becauseof
...
their breadth of experiencein recruitment both within the ESNRO and in
other UK organisations.
3. demonstratesfull commitment to their BusinessSchool and is a fluent
...
communicator in English Formation of Faculty Teams
4. focusedon businessperformanceimprovement and thereby of direct
...
practical benefit to the individual and their business.
5. assisting local businessto identify land for the expansionof their
...
business.
6. Each AS and MPS participant will have a personaltutor (who may be their
class teacher) with whom they will have monthly 30 minute tutorials.
Table 47 - their
40. Private verbs
40.1 Private verbs offer a more interesting set of absences(PP 3.46, REF Max17.1,
Ref Min 7.8, percentdifference 55.64%). They belong to the set of

FACTUAL verbs designatedin Quirk et al 1985:1180 as describing "factual or
propositional information" - i. e. making statements- and differ from Public
Verbs in that they refer to states"that are not observable: a personmay be
observedto assert that God exists,but not to believe that God exists. Belief is
in this sense'private'." (Quirk et at 1985:1181). The function of private verbs
as a meansof indicating the statusof information and the thought processesof
individuals is clearly exemplified from the conversationaland narrative
contexts in Romantic Fiction given below in Table 48.
Gavin on the terrace could hardly

believe that she was the same girl, m
French, a very well believe.
known model I She only arrived today. That
really. "" Dull? believe
" She could n't it. Self-deprecation was not
or a burial? " she asked, believing
hardly he could be serious. " Sure
ood irresolute for a moment, half
decided to go back and join Lilyan an
ould simply blow a feather, decided,
" she rather envying the gentleman
ss-roads was unsettling, decided.
she also One felt as though one had n
on the seat by early October, Di decided, as she collected her various
know for certain and told you, I doubt if you would be able to catch u
Table 48 - private verbs - RomFict
40.2 Given the very different social function of PPs,the overall low count for these
verbs in this corpus is not surprising. However, the way in which the verbs
are actually used in this contrasting context is interesting as it gives an
important insight into someof the strategiesfor "reader management"that are
available to writers in formal settings. There are 71 private verbs given in
Quirk et al 1985:1180 (seeAppendix 39 for a full listing), 26 of which occur
in one form or anotherin the PP corpus22(Table 49 - PP private verbs).
know 61 estimate 8
see 36 hearing 8
show 35 assume 7
anticipate 31 feel 6
indicate 28 realise 6
22 One comment needs to be made at this point regarding the accuracy of CLAWS tagging for this set
of verbs. A manual analysis of the concordances for know and means has revealed that many
instances of these have been counted as verbs when they are in fact being used nominally in the text.
This problem is not restricted to these two items as it also 'infects' the results for other items. Thus the
count for Private verbs in the PP corpus is even more markedly lower than the count for neighbouring
texts. This observed inaccuracy for PP (in spite of the attempt to weed out nominal uses by
incorporating [V* POS tags in the search algorithm) also raises questions over the accuracy of the
original counts in Biber 1988.

recognise 26 decide 5
believe 25 learn 5
determine 25 hope 4
find 25 assure 3
demonstrate 21 conclude 3
mean 21 prove 3
understand 21 remember 2
think 11 implies 1
Table 49 - PP private verbs
40.3 Private verbs in PP appearto be implicated in three major functions which are
not specifically addressedin Biber 1988or Quirk et al 1985- the signalling of
vagueness,(e.g. anticipate/ assume/ estimate/ hope),professional integrity
(believe / demonstrate/ recognise/ think / understand)and reader guidance
(indicate / see/ shown). All of thesesetsare interesting from a pedagogic
standpointas they occur acrossall 14 texts in the PP corpus.The examplesof
instancesrelated to vaguenessgiven below (Table 50 - vagueness)show the
prevalent use of we and dummy subject it in theserhetorical moments.The
commitmentexamples(Table 51 - integrity) show, amongstother features,
how think can be used as a way for the writer to nail his or her organisation's
professional colours to the mast (the we subject is critical in these instances).
stable in both Republics we can anticipate a considerable increase whe

the middle of Month Two, and we anticipate that FNP will review it ov
erm specialists is available. We anticipate a need for short-term expe
ntation from their home base. We anticipate that the whole inception p
e strength, depth and breadth we anticipate for the Delivery Stage.
gues in other departments. It is anticipated that this will involve cl
ommunicator in English It is anticipated that each individual will
events. UK Placements: It is anticipated that senior trainers ' sk
s] available for purchase. It is anticipated that each Consortium will
they will be interwoven; and we assume assistance will be more intensi
5 Method of work We assume in this account that the proje
in Bulgaria in recent years. We assume there is at least some basic d
plus the inception phase. It is assumed that month 1 of the project w
in detail the production process assumed and the investments plan
planned consultancy days used to estimate the cost of the project.
By the end of the project it is estimated that at least 200 primary s
lation - completeness of estimated costs and exactness of thei
cuments; a bar chart showing estimated duration and timing of assi
iled SWOT analysis (Task A6), we hope to undertake these studies joint
ocal experts in this work and we hope that several members of BFIA 's
Table 50 - vagueness

the terms of reference, and believe that they are sensible. In particular
and there is no reason to believe that inspectors in the NLI will embra
,
situation outlined above we believe the support should consist of: -
As we set out above, we believe that refinement of the implementation
e long-term advisor; We believe that it is essential that the HRDF PM
each will focus on, but we believe that it is important they work togeth
earning Resource Centre. We believe it is essential that the local person
mples of project experience demonstrate not only a strong background in r
s of projects which we feel demonstrate our combined capability to undert
vided as are further CVs to demonstrate the strength, depth and breadth w
ources. The intention is to demonstrate good practice and an approach tha
e likely to be necessary to demonstrate this to regional organisations an
tion phase. In addition, we recognise that working closely with counterpa
the local conditions We recognise the importance of being responsive
re procedures; While we recognise the need for speedy and effective I
and the media. It has also recognised that adults need a clear understan
e, however, that it is also recognised that the scope of the work will ch
possible suspicion, must be recognised from the outset, and taken into ac
of knowledge. This has been recognised in the recent policy statement of
orting arrangements are, we think it equally important that the Implement
es be linked together as we think exchange of information, periodicals, s
part in this project but we think it premature to define their role at th
d be provided in-country we think that the opportunity to participate in
then supported delivery. We think this approach is necessary for this cou
e staff. It is important to understand at the outset the expectations tha
ur view, it is important to understand clearly the particular requirement
ure of the BFIA in order to understand the constraints within which a bus
1. The second enables us to understand the way in which businesses and th
e in schools, we 34 understand that teachers are given considerab
s to Manage the HRDF We understand that the process of recruiting the
tract inward investment. We understand than some industrial sector work h
: Supporting the PMU We understand that the PIP PMU seeks support fro
Table 51 - integrity
41. Conclusion
41.1 In our discussionso far we have consideredin somedetail the stylistic impact
of the high and low levels of use of sevenlinguistic featuresout of over
seventy(Table 52 - linguistic features). Six of thesefeatureshave been
strongly implicated in the positioning of the PP Corpus at the extreme of the
range of distribution of text types in the three key text dimensionsidentified in
Biber & Finegan 1989 as significant in a classification of written texts along a
"spoken" to "written" cline. One feature (predictive modals) was also highly
in
significant pushing PP texts away from the profile of texts with which it
was otherwise a "neighbour" (Dimension 4: Overt Expressionof Persuasion).
What conclusionscan we then come to?

above mean below mean

Dirnen. I attributive adjectives Dirnen. 3 adverbs total
Dirnen. 3 nominalisations Dirnen. 2 third person pronouns
Dirnen.3 phrasal coordination Dirnen. 1 private verbs
Dirnen. 4 predictive modals
Table 52 - linguistic features
41.2 First, it has to be rememberedthat we have been dealing here with prominent
featuresin the PP corpus. If a teacherwishes to give studentsinsights into the
linguistic difference betweenspokenand written production, all of the features
in the three key dimensions(1/3/5) will be worth considering. Once learners
have becomeaware of how texts in generalcan vary in terms of their relative
"writtennessand "oralness",those featureswhich are particularly prominent in
a genrecan becomethe focus of pedagogy. One way of using the Biber study
is, therefore, immediately available for teachersand studentswith an interest
in the linguistic constructionof different kinds of text production - and this
without any prior analysisof a corpus of examples.
41.3 Secondly,if one has an interest in gaining a detailed insight into the ways in
which a particular genreis realised linguistically, Biber doesoffer a useful
framework for analysis. Although it requirespainstaking coding and counting,
Biber 1988 can be usedto begin to seenot only how the structureof a set of
exemplarsof a written genrediffers from that of other comparablewritten
genres. Information gained in such a study can be

also used to develop an
understandingof a much wider range of phenomenathan the grammar of a
text. Thus the insights we have gained into the role of coordinating
conjunctions and the kinds of local semanticprosodiesthat exist in PP have
only been possible becauseof the analytic framework that Biber 1988 offers.
41.4 From the point of view of practical pedagogy,however, there is a question as
to whether many teacherswould ever have the time to do the kind of study

that I have reported in this chapter. My experiencetells me that they would
It
not. remains, therefore, to seeif there are any alternativesto Biber;
alternativeswhich may not give us such a detailed picture of the languageof
our difficult texts, but which will, nevertheless,allow us to make useful
pedagogic generalisations.
Chris Tribble - PhD Manuscript (this doe: January7,1999)

(Lexical dimensions)Chapter6: page 158
SECTION TWO: AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEXTS
Chapter 6: Lexical dimensions

Caution is the key word.
(example for "key word" from the British National Corpus)
42. Introduction
42.1 A starting point for the discussionwhich follows can be found in two recent
festschrifts for scholarswith contrastingprofessionalinterests:J McH Sinclair,
long establishedas an empirical linguist, and HG Widdowson, an applied
linguist whose reputation is more closely associatedwith pedagogy,stylistics
and the profession of languageeducation(Baker M, G Francis &E Tognini-
Bonelli eds. 1993; Cook G& Seidlhofer G, 1995). Both thesecollections
contain paperswhich contribute to the argumentof an earlier chapter in this
presentwriting. The first of these(Louw B, 1993) introducesthe notion of
semanticprosody. The later paper (StubbsM, 1995) goeson to develop this
idea. That both thesecollections contain contributions which interconnect so
closely gives rise to a moment of reflection on an unexpectedconvergenceof
in
opinions the study of texts. More significantly, from my point of view,
thesearticles also point to the need for greaterprecision when accounting for
the range of phenomenawhich are often describedunder the single term
"collocation".
42.2 The thrust of a large part of Louw's and Stubbs'argumentis that, although the
ideasbrought together under collocation have long proven valuable in studies
of vocabulary, the term is best restricted to an account of the lexical co-
occurrenceof words - what Sinclair refers to as the idiom principal (Sinclair
J, 1991:110-115). In such a view, collocation should be no more and no less

than an account of "the occurrenceof two or more words within a short space
of eachother in a text" (Sinclair 1991:170). Other categoriesof co-occurrence
require their own frames of analysis.
42.3 Following these two papers (and a later expansion of the idea in Stubbs 1996
in which the notion of semanticprosody is contrastedwith that of collocation),
Hoey (1997a) has proposeda more comprehensiveframework for the analysis
of words in texts - and has gone on to elaboratethis idea in Hoey M 1997b.
Hoey 1997aproposesthe following set of questionsto be used in the study of
words in texts:
"There are a number of questionsthat we needto ask of any set

of concordancelines. Many of them are questionswhich we
to
are used routinely asking, but there is still somevalue in
articulating them:
1. What lexical patternsis the word part of?

2. Does the word regularly associatewith particular other meanings?
3. What structure(s)doesit appearin?
4. Is there any correlation betweenthe word's uses/ meaningsand the
in
structures which it participates?
5. Is the word associatedwith (any positions in any) textual
organisation?" (Hoey M 1997a:1)
42.4 Thesequestionswill require further specification before they can be applied to
the set of texts which are the focus of this presentdiscussion.They can,
however, be taken as a starting point for the elaboration of a framework of
analysisto complementBiber 1988. Their main restriction at presentis that
they only provide a starting point for the study of words in texts in generalas
they do not provide a rational basis for deciding which words you are going to
study. What is required as a first step is somemeansto help studentsmake
this decision.

43. Is frequency enough?
43.1 1 have outlined elsewherea simple pedagogicmethodology for exploiting
electronic texts (Tribble C&G Jones 1997:36), proposing that the most
effective starting point in understandingthe overall orientation of a text or text
collection is a frequency sorted wordlist. Frequencysorted lists of this kind
have long beentools for lexicographersand linguists - "Anyone studying a
text is likely to need to know how often each different word-form occurs in it. "
(Sinclair J, 1991:30) - and they can provide insights into where a text is
'coming from'. Table 53 - "PP / Guardian Wordlists" contains such lists. The
first showsthe 30 most frequent words in the 112,000word PP Corpus.This
list has predictable features,but also holds some surprises. In order to
interpret it, it is useful to compareit with a list for a larger corpus-
comparisonremaining one of the most helpful ways of making senseof this
sort of data (Stubbs M 1996). Column two in the sametable contains the first
30 words from a much larger (95 million word) Guardian newspaperdata set
(wordlist provided by Mike Scott -
http://www. liv. ac.uk/-ms2928/homepage.html).
Table 53 - "PP /Guardian Wordlists"
*= lexical item
PP Corpus Wordlist Guardian Corpus Wordlist
(112,000 words) (95 million words)
word freq. % word freq. %
the 7,817 6.83 the 6,065,747 6.38
and 5,359 4.68 of 2,718,004 2.86
of 5,249 4.58 to 2,443,312 2.57
in 3,299 2.88 a 2,176,851 2.29
to 2,717 2.37 and 2,115,496 2.23
a 1,767 1.54 in 1,863,642 1.96
for 1,666 1.46 is 980,542 1.03
will 1,347 1.18 for 913,570 0.96
training 1* 1,148 1.00 that 877,191 0.92
be 1,002 0.88 on 704,719 0.74
with 866 0.76 was 701,712 0.74
is 824 0.72 it 701,199 0.74
project 2* 811 0.71 with 613,691 0.65
development 3* 806 0.70 he 574,604 0.60

(Lexical dimensions) Chapter6: page 161
on 707 0.62 as 569,463 0.60

this 659 0.58 by 546,409 0.57
management4* 628 0.55 be 534,556 0.56
programme 5* 609 0.53 at 519,039 0.55
as 601 0.52 but 473,281 0.50
by 600 0.52 his 457,268 0.48
we 536 0.47 have 445,852 0.47
has 521 0.46 are 426,059 0.45
that 467 0.41 from 420,488 0.44
are 453 0.40 has 400,174 0.42
team 6* 437 0.38 an 344,534 0.36
which 426 0.37 this 340,598 0.36
staff 7* 425 0.37 they 339,982 0.36
have 416 0.36 I 331,052 0.35
business 8* 414 0.36 which 321,877 0.34
an 412 0.36 had 307,887 0.32
43.2 The most immediately striking difference betweenthe two lists is the
occurrenceof a relatively large number of lexical items in the PP list (8:50)
and the complete absenceof lexical items in the top 30 words of the Guardian.
While this difference is not surprising to those with someexperienceof corpus
study - word lists for large corpora of mixed texts consistently show a larger
number of types of high frequency non-lexical items than specialisedcorpora
- it can be revealing to learnerscoming to this sort of analysis for the first
time. Being able to ask learnersto identify the lexical items in wordlists
derived from individual texts or small, specialisttext collections which have
someimportance for those learners,already constitutesa leap in the sorts of
independentanalysis that learnerscan begin to make. Thus the top 30 (or top
50, top 100 etc.) words in a researchcorpus can be used to produce wordlists
for "most frequent content words" -a starting point for the investigation of
lexical patterning.
43.3 However, while easy accessto frequency wordlists representsa major step
forward in text analysis,it raises almost as many questionsas it answers.
Although the lexical items in a wordlist appearto provide a starting point for a
study of the researchcorpus, many of the other words in the lists are much
more difficult to come to grips with, even though they may have a significant

(Lexical dimensions)Chapter 6: page 162
contribution to make to our understandingof a text. Thus, while someof the
non-lexical items - e.g. and and will (PP: and - #2; will - #8 / Guardianand -
#5; will - #31) appearto be interesting, especially in the light of the work
basedon the Biber framework and discussedabove, a frequency sorted
wordlist doesnot, of itself, provide a reasonfor singling out theseitems for
specific study. Neither doesthe list tell us the whole story about the other less
frequent, but possibly important, lexical and non-lexical items in the texts in
question. The frequency sorted list cannot provide a way of identifying the
key words in the texts we are studying. In order to start using Hoey's 'Five
Questions'as a framework for further analysiswe needa better meansfor
identifying which words in a text "matter".
44. Keywords
44.1 Drawing on the 20 volume Oxford English Dictionary, Williams introduced
the notion of keywordsas a "critical areaof the vocabulary" (Williams R
1976:23), taking as his starting point 110 words which he consideredhad
specific cultural or social significance. This study had its limitations. As
Stubbs(Stubbs M 1996:166-168)has pointed out, not only was Williams
working with the paper (as opposedto the CD-ROM) version of the
dictionary, he also had no corpus basedfrequency data to draw on, and no
computerisedmeansof dealing with the multiple ambiguities of many of the
words he was analysing (e.g. class). William's work was, however, important
in indicating the roles that certain words take on within a culture, and has been
used in other studieswith similar intent - notably the developmentof the idea
of keywords in StubbsM 1996,where he concludes: "The study of recurrent
wordings is therefore of central importance in the study of languageand

ideology, and can provide empirical evidenceof how the culture is expressed
in lexical patterns." (Stubbs M, 1996:169). Stubbsgoeson to exemplify the
potential of this interpretation of keywords in a detailed study of one of the
words in William's original list: WORK. His basic methodology involves the
analysisof the collocation relations and semanticprosody (following Louw B,
1993) of WORK, using corpus data from the COBUILD data bank at
Birmingham University.
44.2 From the perspectiveof my own needs,although both Williams and Stubbs
offer interesting approachesto the study of words in cultural contexts,neither
are interestedin solving the problem which I have outlined above. They are
be for in
not asking which words should selected study an analysis of the ways
in which particular writers word particular texts. When Stubbsgoeson to
a
outline possible Dictionary of Keywords in British Culture he does not
presentstatistically warrantedor textually driven criteria for those items which
should, or should not, be included in the dictionary's headword list. Instead,
he proposesstarting with the Williams list of 110 keywords, a list basedon
cultural and historical insights rather than on any quantitative study of which
words get used in which contexts.
44.3 By adopting a radically different approachto deciding which words might be
revealing of a text's or text collection's orientation, Scott MR 1997adoes
provide a meansfor choosing the words to focus on. The basis of this
difference is that, unlike the studiesof lexis mentioned above, Scott starts
from the position that texts are central categoriesfor linguistic study. For
Scott (Scott M R, 1997c:234), therefore, key words are neither:
" entities intuited in relation to a specific cultural context;

" nor are they 'key' in the sensethat has becomecommon in corpus linguistics,
i. e. the KWIC (Key Word In Context) 80 or 110 characterprintout which is
the default display for computer concordancingsoftware
" nor are they 'key' in terms of the two-words-to-the-left / two-words-to-the-
right definition of collocation proposedby Sinclair and usedin StubbsM
1996.
44.4 For Scott, keywords are key in relation to a whole text, and are identified by
making comparisonsbetweenone text or collection of texts, and other, larger
text collections. Although taking the text as a central category for analysis
presentsproblems if one wishes to use any of the large, publicly available
corpora, which for reasonsof copyright or principle are usually composedof
text fragments(Sinclair 1987; GarsideR, Leech G&G Sampson,1987), it has
immediate and significant advantagesfor anyonewith an interest in genres
and the whole areaof languagein social context. By developing the Keyword
program in WordSmith Tools (Scott M R, 1996), Scott has provided an
adequateand robust meansfor identifying statistically prominent words in a
text (or collection of texts). In my opinion, this tool, in combination with
Hoey's five questions,will provide a valuable way of coming to an
understandingof the lexical dimension of a text or set of texts.
44.5 The way in which the Keyword program operatescan be summarisedas
follows:
9 frequency sorted wordlists are generatedfor a referencecorpus (a collection
that is larger than the individual text or collection of texts which will be
studied), and for the research text or texts.

" eachword in the researchtext is comparedwith its equivalent in the reference
text and the program makesjudgement as to whether or not there is a
statistically significant difference betweenthe frequenciesof the word in the
different corpora: The statistical test evaluatesthe difference betweencounts
per token and total words in eachtext and can be basedeither on a chi-square
test for outstandingnessor on a log-likelihood procedure(Scott MR 1996,
WordSmith Keywords Help File)
" the wordlist for the researchcorpus is reorderedin terms of the keynessof
eachword.
Although criticisms of chi-squarestatisticshave beenmade by StubbsM,
1996 and Dunning T, 1993, Scott arguesthat:
"Technically there is no reasonwhy one cannotuse chi-square

to relate the frequency of a word in one text to its frequency in
a corpus as long as one is consideringthe sameword in each
It
case. all depends on what one is trying to claim on the basis
of the chi-square procedure. The misgivings have to do with
the skewednature of types in a corpus and the very high
frequency of singleton items [and because] very rare
..... ...
items will not be spreadaround all possible corpora very very
thinly but will crop up occasionally in relation to some sort
....
of topicality or stylistic factor." (Scott M R, 1997a: 243)
44.6 As "topicality and stylistic factors" are precisely what we are interestedin, the
methodology which Scott proposesseemsreasonableand appropriate.
However, bearing in mind the epigraph for this chapter,we will continue to
exercisecaution while reviewing the results obtained from the use of this
software.

45. Finding keywords
45.1 Unlike a frequency sortedwordlist in which the counts of eachword type are
absolutefor a given text or set of texts, a keyword list is the result of a
comparativeprocess,and it is likely that there will be somevariation between
two lists of keywords generatedfor a single corpus in comparisonwith two
different referencewordlists. Given this likelihood, before commenting in
detail on the keywords in the PP corpusI will comment on two keyword lists
derived from comparisonswith different referencewordlists the Guardian

-
newspaperlist already mentioned above,and a wordlist for the written data set
from the "core" BNC collection. My purposehere is twofold. First, I want to
seewhat sort of impact the different referencelists have on the keyword lists
generated.Second,I want to test the usefulnessof the texts in the "core" BNC
which will eventually be distributed on the BNC SamplerCD-ROM. This
collection will contain a representative88 subsetof written texts (1 million
words) and 300 or so transcripts of spokentexts (1 million words) taken from
the British National Corpus. Although it has beendue for publication since
May 1996, it has been delayedfor technical and financial reasons(October,
1997). However, it is likely to be a widely available resource,and could be
used in any studieswhich attempt to replicate or extend this presentstudy. I
feel, therefore, that it will be helpful to evaluatehow effective a wordlist based
on the 1 million word written data set can be in comparisonwith one basedon
a much larger but not generally available referencecorpus (e.g. Mike Scott's
Guardian corpus). In the following section I shall comparethe two keyword
lists (henceforwardPPBNC and PP/Guardian)and discussany similarities
and differences betweenthem. After this comparisonhas been made, I shall go

on to comment on how keyword lists can be used in a lexical specification of a
particular genre.
45.2 Keyword lists contain two main categories:
positive keywords are those which are unusually frequent in the target corpus
in comparisonwith the referencecorpus
" negative keywords are unusually infrequent in the target corpus.
45.3 The complete printouts of PPBNC and PP/Guardiankeyword lists are
provided in Appendices23 and 24. PP/BNC contains 401 words (334 positive
/ 67 negative),and PP/Guardian563 (484 positive / 79 negative). The lists
were generatedwith the WordSmith Tools Keyword Program using the "Log
likelihood" method for keyword identification (Scott M 1997b:69) with the p
value23set at 0.00000000000001in order to reducethe size of the keyword
list.
45.4 The extractsbelow (Table 54 - PP/BNC Keywords, Table SS- PP/Guardian
Keywords) show how keyword lists appearafter WordSmith Tools has carried
out the necessarycalculations- eachword is accompaniedby frequency and
percentageinformation for the target corpus (columns 2 and 3) and the
referencecorpus (columns 4 and 5). Column 6 gives the score for keyness
which the program allocatesto each wordstring - the scorebeing a function of
its frequency in eachcorpus and the number of words in eachcorpus.
23 A gloss of the meaning of the "p" value is that it is:

"... used in standard chi-square and other statistical tests. This value ranges from 0 to 1. A value of .01
suggests a 1% danger of being wrong in claiming a relationship, .05 would give a 5% danger of error. In
the social sciences a 5% risk is usually considered acceptable. In the case of key words analyses,
where the notion of risk is less importantthan that of selectivity,you may often wish to set a
comparativelylow p value threshold such as 0.000001 (one in 1 million) so as to obtain fewer key
words. (Scott M 1997b:70)

45.5 I shall focus on the first 30 keywords in the PPBNC and PP/Guardian
keyword lists and in the frequency list for PP. This will enable us to compare
the usefulness of the two reference corpora for keyword list generation, and
the value of keyword lists in relation to the initial analysis of frequency sorted
lists (section 43 above). I shall also consider the 10 most negative keywords
in each list as, although it is unlikely that they will provide starting points for
investigations of secondary patterns (absences do not create strong
collocational or colligational traces in texts), they do provide a means for
evaluating earlier observations in the Biber framework sections of this
dissertation.
PPIBNC
123456
WORD FREQ. PP% FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS
TRAINING 1,148 1.00 154 0.01 4478.9
PROJECT 811 0.71 111 0.01 3153.0
DEVELOPMENT 806 0.70 296 0.03 2562.2
MANAGEMENT 628 0.55 140 0.01 2247.2
PROGRAMME 609 0.53 187 0.02 2028.8
WILL 1,347 1.18 3,123 0.29 1483.8
TEAM 437 0.38 172 0.02 1360.6
AND 5,359 4.68 28,900 2.68 1284.8
EXPERIENCE 389 0.34 143 0.01 1235.1
EDUCATION 389 0.34 167 0.02 1179.6
POLAND 300 0.26 44 1153.5
TECHNICAL 270 0.24 45 1017.6
BUSINESS 414 0.36 325 0.03 994.6
STAFF 425 0.37 366 0.03 976.1
IMPLEMENTATION 225 0.20 12 963.1
PMU 193 0.17 0 905.5
POLISH 228 0.20 34 874.4
ENVIRONMENTAL 243 0.21 54 869.4
PROJECTS 232 0.20 46 848.3
PROGRAMMES 256 0.22 82 843.1
SUPPORT 364 0.32 310 0.03 840.5
PHARE 178 0.16 0 835.1
(CONSULTANTNAME) 185 0.16 5 822.7
ASSISTANCE 223 0.19 45 812.8
PHASE 206 0.18 39 759.6
OF 5,249 4.58 32,656 3.02 734.7
EU 155 0.14 0 727.2
(CONSULTANTNAME) 150 0.13 0 703.7
CONSULTANTS 161 0.14 13 665.5
SKILLS 202 0.18 11 76 11636.9
Table 54 - PP/BNC Keywords

PPIGuardian
123456
WORD FREQ PP % FREQ. Guardian % KEYNESS
TRAINING 1,148 1.00 15,773 0.02 7091.7
PROJECT 811 0.71 9,950 0.01 5181.6
DEVELOPMENT 806 0.70 16,687 0.02 4348.1
MANAGEMENT 628 0.55 16,497 0.02 3102.5
PROGRAMME 609 0.53 22,584 0.02 2611.0
PMU 193 0.17 17 2477.4
AND 5,359 4.68 2,115,496 2.23 2415.1
PHARE 178 0.16 11 2309.8
POLAND 300 0.26 3,022 2027.2
(CONSULTANT NAME) 150 0.13 38 1828.0
IMPLEMENTATION 225 0.20 1,153 1802.0
EXPERIENCE 389 0.34 15,811 0.02 1600.0
WILL 1,347 1.18 297,237 0.31 1597.5
(CONSULTANTNAME) 185 0.16 743 1562.6
TECHNICAL 270 0.24 4,580 1557.8
STAFF 425 0.37 23,412 0.02 1507.2
POLISH 228 0.20 2,788 1457.0
ASSISTANCE 223 0.19 2,867 1403.9
PHASE 206 0.18 2,344 1344.5
TEAM 437 0.38 32,513 0.03 1309.4
PROJECTS 232 0.20 5,201 1215.3
EDUCATION 389 0.34 27,842 0.03 1192.7
PROGRAMMES 256 0.22 8,301 1161.7
ENVIRONMENTAL 243 0.21 6,959 1159.9
EVALUATION 132 0.12 482 1137.1
BFIA 83 0.07 0 1116.1
OF 5,249 4.58 2,718,004 2.86 1040.4
BUSINESS 414 0.36 40,474 0.04 1038.8
CONSULTANTS 161 0.14 2,115 1006.9
SUPPORT 364 0.32 1132,418 0.03 973.1
Table 55 - PP/Guardian Keywords
46. Does the reference corpus matter?
46.1 An edited list of the top 30 positive keywords in PP is given below (Table 56 -
BNC / Guardian Keywords - PP Frequency)along with the top 30 words from
the original PP frequency list (column 3).
1. PPIBNC keywords 2. PP/Guardian keywords 3. PP frequency

e= non-lexical item C= non-lexical item *= lexical item
TRAINING TRAINING the
PROJECT PROJECT and
DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT of
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT in
PROGRAMME PROGRAMME to
AND C1 AND C1 a
ASSISTANCE ASSISTANCE for
(CONSULTANT NAME) BFIA x will
BUSINESS (CONSULTANTNAME) training 1*
CONSULTANTS BUSINESS be
EDUCATION CONSULTANTS with

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION is
EU x ENVIRONMENTAL project 2*
EXPERIENCE EVALUATION x development3*
IMPLEMENTATION EXPERIENCE on
OF S2 IMPLEMENTATION this
PHARE OFe2 management4*
PHASE PHARE programme5*
PMU PHASE as
POLAND PMU by
POLISH POLAND we
PROGRAMMES POLISH has
PROJECTS PROGRAMMES that
(CONSULTANT NAME) PROJECTS are
SKILLS x (CONSULTANT NAME) team 6*
STAFF STAFF which
SUPPORT SUPPORT staff 7*
TEAM TEAM have
TECHNICAL TECHNICAL business 8*
WILL e3 WILL E43 an
Table 56 - BNC / Guardian Keywords PP Frequency
-
46.2 The first feature you notice when comparingkeyword lists with a simple
frequency list for the samedata is that they are usually markedly different
from one another.Thus while PP Frequency(Column 3) only contains 8
lexical items, both PP/BNC and PP/Guardiancontain 27. Similarly, while the
top 5 keywords are all nouns (three of them being nominalisations), the top
five in PP Frequencyare the definite article, a conjunction and prepositions.
However, it is also interesting that all 8 nouns/ nominalisations which occur
in PP Frequency also appear in a similar sequence in the keyword lists i. e.

-
the top five words in the keyword lists are identical to the top five lexical
items in the frequency list. On the evidenceof this count the most frequent
lexical items in a text would seemto stand in somerelationship with
keywords. The problem with a frequency list, however, is that it only reveals
a small number of the potential keywords in any particular text or genre,and
doesnot group those that it finds in a "user-friendly" way.
46.3 Focusing specifically on the keyword lists, what is striking here is that the top
five words in eachare identical, and are in the samefrequency order. In order

to seewhat the similarities betweenthe two lists might be in the secondrank
of words, the remaining twenty five items in columns one and two in Table 56
- BNC / Guardian Keywords - PP Frequencyhave been re-sortedinto
alphabeticalorder (the original sequencecan be found in Table 54 - PPBNC
Keywords and Table 55 - PP/GuardianKeywords). What the re-sortedlists
show is that there is very little difference betweenthe two setsof most
frequent keywords generatedby using core BNC asthe referencecorpus
(40,431 word types / 1,080,072tokens), as opposedto the much larger
Guardian list (206,439 word types / 95,075,856tokens). Each keyword top 30
list only containstwo words that are not included in the other (marked x):
" BNC basedkeyword list: EU (at position 41 in Guardiankeyword list) and
skill (not included in the Guardian keyword list)
" Guardianbasedkeyword list: evaluation (at 48 in BNC keyword list) and
BFIA (65 in BNC keyword list)
This small degreeof difference appearsto be maintainedthrough the list - re-
sorting demonstratingthat many of the items which show up in the BNC based
keyword list are also included in the Guardian keyword list. There are simply
more items in the Guardian list. This provides a first indication that there is
little advantagein using the relatively large Guardian wordlist to identify
keywords in a small target corpus (112,000 word for PP). There may, in fact,
be advantagesin future studiesif small specialisedcorpora such as PP are
consistently referencedagainst a standardcorpus such as BNC Core as this
will make possible more reliable cross genrecomparisons.
Chris Tribble " PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)

46.4 The situation is similar for the most negativekeywords - i. e. there is a close
match betweenthe results obtainedby using the BNC and Guardian
collections as referencecorpora. (Table 59 - PPBNC/Guardian Negative
Keywords). This addsto the evidencethat there is little to choosebetweenthe
keyword list derived through comparisonwith a 95 million word corpus and
that derived from a1 million word data set (part of speechinformation has
beenedited in by hand and will be used in later analysis).
NEGATIVE Keywords: PPBNC

123456
WORD FREQ PP% FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS
HER (pers. pron. ) 11 2,468 0.23 408.3
HE (pers. pron. ) 120 0.10 4,995 0.46 432.9
NOT (negative) 82 0.07 4,454 0.41 462.6
BUT (conj) 66 0.06 4,360 0.40 503.2
SAID (verb) 1 2,615 0.24 514.5
HAD (verb) 14 0.01 3,663 0.34 620.9
HIS (pers. pron.) 28 0.02 4,090 0.38 621.5
YOU (pers. pron.) 11 4,161 0.39 738.9
(pers. pron.) 91 0.08 6,315 0.58 747.0
WAS (verb) 113 0.10 118,362 0.77 1019.5
Table 57- PP/BNC: negative keywords
NEGATIVE Keywords: PP/Guardian

123456
WORD FREQ PP% FREQ. Guardian % KEYNESS
I (pers. pron.) 91 0.08 331,052 0.35 347.0
IT (pronoun) 351 0.31 701,199 0.74 372.3
THAT (conj. / det. ) 467 0.41 877,191 0.92 418.9
NOT (negative) 82 0.07 391,934 0.41 493.8
HAD (verb) 14 0.01 307,887 0.32 622.5
SAID (verb) 1 263,949 0.28 622.7
BUT (conj) 66 0.06 473,281 0.50 725.0
HE (pers. pron.) 120 0.10 574,604 0.60 725.7
HIS (pers. pron.) 28 0.02 457,268 0.48 880.3
WAS (verb) 113 0.10 701,712 0.74 1013.2
Table 58 - PP/Guardian: negative keywords

*= common to both lists

PP/BNC PP/Guardian
BUT (conj) * BUT (conj)
HAD (verb) * HAD (verb) *
HE (pers. pron.) * HE (pers. pron.) *
HER (pers. pron. ) HIS (pers. pron. )
HIS (pers. pron.) * I (pers. pron.)
I (pers. pron. ) * IT (pronoun)
NOT (negative) * NOT (negative)
SAID (verb) * SAID (verb) *
WAS (verb) * THAT (conj. / det. )
YOU (pers. pron. ) WAS verb
Table 59 - PP/BNC/Guardian Negative Keywords
47. Keywords in stylistic profiling
47.1 Before moving to a more detailed analysisof the keywords in PP, I want to
make a brief diversion to discussan exciting implication of this capacity of
WordSmith Tools to identify positive and negative keywords. The procedure
derived from Biber 1988to typify texts is lengthy and complex, and requires
carefully marked up corpora. WordSmith Tools, in is

contrast, able to give a
pedagogically useful profiling of unmarked-uptexts on the basisof positive
and negative keywords alone. In essence,this meansthat the program can not
only be used to identify the "aboutness"of texts; it also has the potential to
provide important stylistic information. While this potential will be
immediately recognisedby studentsof literature, it may, perhaps,be less
obvious to languageteachersand students. It is for this reasonthat I am
including an analysis of the top ten positive keywords and the five negative
keywords that WordSmith Keywords identified from the Romantic Fiction
(RomFict) set in the LOB corpus (already used for purposesof comparisonin
earlier chapters)in this chapter. It offers an illustration of how relatively
straightforward such an analysis can be, and how much information can be
gained about different genres.It also provides a useful introduction to the
main analysis which follows.

POSITIVE Keywords: RomFict

WORD FREQ. RomFict % FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS
SHE 566 1.83 2,505 0.23 1266.8
HER 559 1.80 2,468 0.23 1253.2
656 2.12 6,315 0.58 712.1
HE 575 1.86 4,995 0.46 705.3
YOU 512 1.65 4,161 0.39 675.9
N'T 266 0.86 1,787 0.17 423.9
HAD 373 1.20 3,663 0.34 393.0
HIM 180 0.58 1,199 0.11 288.8
WAS 530 1.71 8,362 0.77 253.2
NIGEL 45 0.15 16 253.0
Table 60 - RomFict: positive keywords
47.2 In contrastwith PP, the top keywords in RomFict are personalpronouns,the
past forms had and was, the negativeparticle 0 and, last but not least,Nigel.
First and secondpersonpronounsare associatedwith factor #1 "Involved
versusInformational Production" -a high factor scoreindicating emphasison
relationship building rather than on factual information -a typical feature of
spokenlanguageuse.Third personpronouns,synthetic negation and pasttense
verbs are all associatedwith the Biber text dimension #2 "Involved versus
Informational Production". Although Biber & Finegan 1989ado not make use
of this dimension in their classification of texts on a literate 4 oral cline, it is
relevant here given the large amountsof dialogue or reported speechwhich
occur in RomFict. With a sufficiently extensivebasis for comparison, it is
probable that evidence from the positive keyword counts would indicate that,
along two text dimensions,RomFict is significantly unlike many other written
texts - sharing more featureswith spokencommunication.
47.3 The findings we can obtain from negative keywords in RomFict are in some
senseseven more revealing. We will deal with the two biggest surprises- the
and of.

Negative Keywords: RomFict

N WORD FREQ. RomFict % FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS
48. IN 394 1.27 21,184 1.96 85.2
49. BY 52 0.17 5,908 0.55 110.2
50. IS 120 0.39 9,954 0.92 121.1
51. OF 533 1.72 32,656 3.02 206.6
52. THE 1,258 4.06 67,075 6.21 271.0
Table 61 - RomFict: negative keywords
47.4 When compared with BNC, the most negative (i. e. the most prominently
infrequent) keyword in RomFict is the. As the definite article is usually the
most frequent word in any generaltext corpus, it is strongly counter-intuitive
to find it occupying this position in the keyword list for a genre. One possible
explanation for why this should be is that there is a significantly smaller
proportion of nouns in RomFict than in BNC. We have already seenfrom our
discussionof positive keywords that RomFict appearsto be more "oral" than
"literate" (and this is supportedby the position that it occupiesin the results of
the Biber study where it is consistentlypositioned alongsidespokenor
informal epistolary texts). If, therefore, RomFict is more "oral" than many
other kinds of writing, we would expect it to have a relatively low proportion
of common nouns (Halliday 1989)- and this, allied with large numbersof
proper nouns and personalpronouns could well result in a relatively low
frequency of definite articles.
47.5 Such a view is supportedby making a keyword list for the 1 million word
SpokenComponentof Core BNC referencedagainstthe 95 million word
Guardian corpus. In this list of 1286keywords, the is also the most negative
keyword - and, interestingly, the doesnot appearat all in the keyword list
resulting from a comparisonof the Written Componentof Core BNC with the
samecorpus. The most negative keywords in this instancebeing source,
Guardian, date,page andpounds.

47.6 The other surprising negative keyword is of. We already have an indication
that RomFict is different from generaltext populations from a frequency
sorted wordlist derived from the corpus (Table 62 - Romfict: frequency).
Rather than occupying the secondor third position, as is the casein general
collections of written texts, in this instanceof is #9 and only represents1.72%
of the total words in the corpus.
N Word Freq. %
1 THE 1,258 4.06
2 TO 927 2.99
3 AND 805 2.60
4 I 656 2.12
5 A 633 2.04
6 HE 575 1.86
7 SHE 566 1.83
8 HER 559 1.80
9 OF 533 1.72
10 WAS 530 1.71
Table 62 - Romfict: frequency
47.7 According to Sinclair of is typically more than 2% of the words in a corpus
"regardlessof the kind of text involved" Sinclair J, 1991:84, so there is
something odd going on in RomFict (1.72%). Again, the relatively low
frequency could be to do with the large amountsof dialogue or indirect speech
in
which occur romantic fiction. Two random extracts from the original text
of RomFict and the PP corpus demonstratehow this contrastmight arise.
Postmodifying usesare marked thus: of; other usesare marked of.

"There were few passengers on the plane and Gavin was

quickly through the customs. 'Gay! Gavin! ' The girl and her
luggage had disappeared and they were alone together. The
porter brought Gavin's bag out to the taxi. 'Just a moment,
darling, ' Gavin pressed her hand and smiled. 'I want to check up
on the flights back. ' Gay went out to the waiting taxi, and then
found that in the excitement of meeting Gavin she had left her
sun-glasses on the veranda. She went quickly back to fetch
them. Gavin and the girl who had got off the plane with him
were talking. He was writing something in his pocket-book,
with a sick feeling of despair Gay knew that it
of course was
her address. Gavin joined her and at once dispelled her fears.
'That little bit you saw me talking to, her father is a big land
agent, she says that he sometimes has farms for lease... you
know that's what I want, Gay, a farm and you! "'
169 words: LOB Romantic Fiction Collection
"This first if theseexamplesis particularly significant as it is

an almost exactly parallel project to the one proposedfor the
xxx. The Latvian DevelopmentAgency was establishedwith
assistance from xxx. Over the last two years, we have
supported the planning and development its main activities,
-of
attracting inward investment and encouraging export
development, we have assisted its promotional programme,
undertaken a series Qf action-orientated industrial sector studies
and provided a programme 9 training activities for key staff.
The scale, terms 9f reference and work undertaken by xxx in
Latvia are very similar to those proposed for xxx, in a country
at a similar stage 9f economic, social and political development
and undergoing the same fundamental transition from a
centrally planned command economy to an open market
economy. Xxx therefore has current and directly comparable
experience to bring to this project in Bulgaria. "
145 words. SQ-BULG. FMT PP Corpus (xxx indicates a proper
noun which has been substitutedto maintain confidentiality. )
47.8 In the RomFict extract there are only three instancesof of and of theseone (of
is
course) an idiom. All instancesoccur outside the dialogue and are
associatedwith the elaboration of the description of the emotions of the actors
(excitement if meeting, sick feeling Qf despair). In the PP there are 6
instancesin a slightly shorter passage.All of theseare postmodifying
qualifications of relatively general superordinateterms - first / development*
/ series / programme* / terms / stage- two of which (marked *) are

keywords in PP. It is also of interest that of is itself a positive keyword in the
PP corpus. Sinclair 1991 argues that of can be thought of as a partitive or
quantifier rather than a preposition (Sinclair J, 1991: 87). In this role it is
frequently used in Ni + of + N2 patterns, where N2 is best interpreted as the
headword of the nominal group as it is the "principal reference point to the
physical world" (ibid: 87). What we are possibly seeing in the contrasting
frequencies of occurrence of of in RomFict and PP is a contrast between texts
in which there are proportionately fewer nouns and where there is a low
-
level of need to elaborate their meanings - and informationally dense texts
which use such meaning elaboration in the noun phrase in achieving their
effect. Again, further confirmation is provided by the fact that is

of the second
most negative keyword in the Spoken BNC list (referenced against Scott's
Guardian corpus).
47.9 This brief review of major positive and negative keywords in RomFict gives
an indication of the WordSmith program's potential value in genre analysis.
While Biber's approach to genre differentiation remains the most
comprehensiveavailable (although in need of further refinement), it would be
unrealistic to assumethat a teacheror studentwould undertakea similar study
in order to come to grips with an unfamiliar genre. WordSmith Tools, by
contrast,does appearto offer teachersand studentsa way into a text or text
collection. It also seemsto have the potential to help teachersand learnersstart
to come to conclusionsabout how lexis, grammar and communicative purpose
are interacting in specific genresin a way which no other easily available
software can do. While theseresults are not definitive, they do indicate that

there will be a benefit in using the Keyword program in the analysisof spoken
/ written differencesand the stylistic typification of specific genres.
48. Interpreting the PP keyword lists
48.1 In paragraph42.3,1 introduced five questionswhich Hoey 1997 suggestswe
needto ask about words in texts if we want to have a reasonableappreciation
of how those words interact with their textual environment. I then went on to
consider how to establishwhich words we should be studying in a given
corpus, as the proposedframework for the analysisof lexis did not provide a
solution for this A

problem. possible answerto this question has been found in
Scott'snotion of keywords. This provides us with a rational basis for selecting
which words to considerwhen attempting to provide a lexical specification of
genre.
48.2 Hoey's five questionsare a little cryptic when quoted out of the context of the
original article and require some glossing. To this end, they are repeated
below, but this time with an explanation for each.
9 What lexical patterns is the word part of? The lexical patternsreferred to
here will be kept to the narrow definition of collocation referred to above
(paragraph42.2) - in effect the sort of pattern which can be identified within a
spanof five words around a "node" word.
9 Does the word regularly associate with particular other meanings? Here
Hoey is referring to the idea of semanticprosody already discussedin the
earlier chapter in this dissertation,"Grammar and Style". However, he
extendsthis notion (introduced in Louw 1993) in line with Stubbs 1996who
shows how causeand happen are associatedwith negative events, and

Campanelli and Channell's(1994) study of train as a which is seenashaving
semanticprosody with occupation. Hoey proposes,therefore,that semantic
prosody should be taken to answerthe question: "Does the word regularly
associatewith other meanings?" (Hoey M 1997a:2) where meaning doesnot
only entail the positive or negative associationsidentified for a word like
international in the chapter"Grammar and Style", but can also entail
categories like occupation or negative events.
" What structure(s) does it appear in? Hoey introduces colligation to
describethis form of relationship. Drawing on earlier usesof the term in Firth
(Firth JR, 1957:13) and Halliday (Halliday MAK 1959:46), Hoey 1997a
summariseswhat is meanthere as follows:
".... colligation can be defined as the grammatical companya

word keeps. Just as a lexical item may have a strong tendency
to co-occur with anotherlexical item, so also that lexical item
may have an equally strong tendency to occur in a particular
position or (a separatepoint) to co-occur with a particular
grammatical category of items. " (Hoey M, 1997a: 4)
Hoey goes on to exemplify this by a considerationof the lexical item reason
(in the sense of cause) showing how (in a large newspaper corpus) it takes on
a strong colligational relation with deictics, and in particular that "whatever is
5 times more likely than what, that this.only occurs with reason if precededby
for, and that that is thirteen times more common than this if reasonis
accompaniedby an adjective." (Hoey M, 1997a:5)
" Is there any correlation between the word's uses / meanings and the
structures in which it participates? The argumenthere is that when a word
has two or more clearly differentiated meanings(e.g. reasonqua reasoning
faculty, and reasonqua cause)it is frequently the casethat thesewords will be

found in contrastinglinguistic environments. This may well be of more
importancefor lexicographersthan for those with an interest in the elaboration
of written texts, but we will retain the question for the moment.
" Is the word associated with (any positions in any) textual organisation?
This question,on the other hand, has a very strong relevancefor investigations
of text organisationand patterning. Hoey M (1997b) provides a persuasive
example of the ways in which particular categoriesof lexical item (e.g. names
of people, the phraseas a when sentenceinitial) are found in paragraphinitial
positions, and how this kind of knowledge of the behaviour of words is used
by subjects in a text paragraphing experiment. Given that the principal
motivation for this presentstudy is to identify possible pathwaysinto difficult
texts for debutantewriters, the relationship betweenlexis and text organisation
is likely to be a fruitful areafor investigation.
48.3 The rest of this chapterwill be devotedto an investigation of keywords in the
PP Corpus. In order to make this investigation comparablewith possible
future investigations I will work with the keyword list createdwith reference
to the written componentof the BNC Core. As this chapter is concernedboth
with the elaboration of a lexical specification of the PP genre,and with
modelling possible approachesto the analysis of the genre specific corpora, in
the first instance,I shall restrict detailed analysisto the thirty most prominent
positive and ten most prominent negative keywords for PP.
49. Positive keywords
49.1 Five main word classescan be found in the top 30 words in the PP keyword
list. They are:

nouns common nouns n

proper nouns np
nominalisations nm
derived adjectives ad'
conjunction con'
of of
predictive modal pm
Table 63 - Positive keywords(word class)
This breaksdown as follows:
AND conj 1 ASSISTANCE nm 6

ENVIRONMENTAL adj 3 DEVELOPMENT nm
POLISH adj EDUCATION nm
TECHNICAL adj IMPLEMENTATION nm
WILL m 1 MANAGEMENT nm
BUSINESS n 11 TRAINING nm
CONSULTANTS n (CONSULTANTNAME) np 6
EXPERIENCE n (CONSULTANT NAME) np
PHASE n EU np
PROGRAMME n PHARE np
PROGRAMMES n PMU np
PROJECT n POLAND np
PROJECTS n OF of 1
SKILLS n
STAFF n
SUPPORT n
TEAM n
Table 64 - Positive keywords
49.2 As Scott comments,a useful function of Keywords is that they "usually give a
to the text is "

about. (Scott 67).
1997: It doesthis
reasonablygood clue what
by revealing the lexical items which are outstandingly frequent in the target
In
text. the caseof PP the nouns in the first 30 keywords give an immediate
insight into six aspectsof the corpus:
" the institutions and organisations which are important in the PP corpus-
(CONSULTANT NAME), EU, PHARE24,PMU25
9 the social areas in which PPs are involved - BUSINESS, MANAGEMENT,
TRAINING, EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT
24 PHARE: An acronym (now obscure) used to refer to the European Union programme which
administers development aid to the former communist countries of central Europe.
25 PMU: Project ManagementUnit - usually in a Ministry.

" the kinds of approach and methodologybeing proposedby theseorganisations
- PROGRAMME, PROGRAMMES, PROJECT,PROJECTS,TEAM,
IMPLEMENTATION, TRAINING
" the professional groups who will be involved in carrying out this work -
CONSULTANTS, STAFF, TEAM
" the geographical areasin which theseactivities take place - POLAND
" the qualities associatedwith theseactivities or those carrying them out -
EXPERIENCE.
49.3 The adjectives in the list consolidatethis picture (ENVIRONMENTAL,
POLISH, TECHNICAL), but the three other words / word classesare more
problematic. The future modal will has already been discussedin "Grammar
and style", where we have seenits role in establishingthe future orientation of
the proposalsin the PP corpus. Its appearancein the top 30 keywords is not,
therefore, a great surprise,although it is interesting that its use in PPs is so
outstandingand demonstrates
the way in which a keyword list can give
indications of the stylistic specificity of a genre. and would be much more
difficult to interpret without the earlier discussionof phrasal co-ordination, but
its statusas a keyword must be accountedfor through its associationwith this
prominent textual feature. of, on the other hand, was not identified as a
separatefeature in the Biber framework, and this may indicate a limitation of
the "preposition" categoryBiber decidedto work with. We discussedabove
(paragraphs47.6 - 47.8) the reasonsfor treating of as a separatecase,and the
preliminary findings from the keyword lists for RomFict and BNC Spoken

Core indicate that it may well be an important stylistic discriminator. Further
analysisof of in the PP corpus, and comparisonwith the environmentsin
which it is usedhere with the environmentsin which it is found in other texts,
could be rewarding.
50. Negative keywords
50.1 Although it may be inappropriate to use Hoey's questions as a basis for the
analysis of negative keywords (patterns of absence are of a different kind from
) I
patterns of presence? will, nevertheless, discuss them briefly here as a
balance to what has just been said about positive keywords. I will initially
discuss the lists generated with reference to both the BNC corpus and the
Guardian (Table 57 - PPBNC: negative keywords and Table 58 -
PP/Guardian: negative keywords) as they provide a way in to an appreciation
of the significance of the negative keywords.
50.2 Two featuresstand out when the keyword lists for PP are reviewed. The first
is the designationof someitems as negative keywords when they are, in terms
of the PP Corpus, relatively high frequency items (though not all in the top
thirty in both lists). The top ten negativekeyword list referencedagainstthe
Guardian contains it (ranked 35/5493 by frequency in PP) and that (ranked
23/5493 by frequency). Theseseemsurprising given their position on the
frequency wordlist for PP, but their statusas negative keywords is confirmed
in the BNC basedlist where they appearat position 12 (it) and 15 (that).
Although not so "negative" as it and that, the relatively high frequency items
he (ranked 131/5493by frequency) and was (ranked 138/5493by frequency)
also occur in both of the negative keyword lists (BNC and Guardian).

50.3 The secondfeature of note in the PP negativekeyword wordlist is the actual
word classeswhich occur at its extremeend:
BUT conj
NOT negative
HER pers. pron.
HE pers. pron.
HIS pers. pron.
YOU pers. pron.
I pers. pron.
SAID verb
HAD verb
WAS verb
Table 65 - Negative KW." word class
50.4 The fact that personalpronounsand the verbs said, had and was are negative
keywords in the PP corpus confirms the profile for the genreprovided by the
Biber framework (high distance,denseinformation, low past orientation, low
affect). The statusof it and that as negativekeywords in the PP/Guardianlist
(positions 12 and 15 in PP/BNC) gives further confirmation. Biber reports that
a high use of it is implicated in texts with high levels of generalisationand
inexplicit lexical content, low usagebeing associatedwith texts at the opposite
end of the spectrum(Biber D, 1988:

226). that is more difficult to interpret as
we are not sure if it is being used as a relative pronoun (associatedwith
informal, orally oriented texts) or as a verb or adjective complement
(associatedwith more literate texts). However, the various forms of that are
all positive factors in Biber's "Abstract versusNon-abstract", so - put crudely
-a comparatively low incidence of that in a text will contribute to positioning
that text at the non-abstractend of this text dimension. This interpretation is
supportedin the caseof PP, as the evidencefrom the detailed analysis of text
features(seeTable 66 - "that" in the PP Corpus) is that when PP is compared
with near analoguesand againstthe LOB+ mean, it doespresentan overall
lower incidence of structurescontaining that both in verb complementation

-

is
and relative structures,and at the mean for THAT adjective
complementation.
Abstract versus Non-abstract

Information
Linguistic feature LOB PP Press Press Relig. Off Ac Let
Mean Mean Rep Rev Doc Prose Prof
THAT verb complements 3.3 1.1 3.30 1.80 4.30 1.40 3.20 4.30
THAT ad'. complements 0.3 0.3 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.40 0.50
THAT relatives: ob' position 0.8 0.2 0.80 0.90 0.60 0.70 0.80 1.10
Table 66 - "that" in the PP Corpus
51. Looking at but
51.1 The fact that not is a negativekeyword is again confirmation of the Biber
profiling. Analytic is
negation a componentof Dimension 1: Involved versus
Informational Production, and a low incidence of not is associatedwith
written, information oriented production. but presentsa problem as it was not
included in Biber's original study26(along with or) - so we cannot use the
Biber framework as a basis for assessingbuys salience.However, by treating
but in the sameway as the raw counts for factors in the Biber study - i. e. to
to
work with scoresnormalised counts per thousand,it is possible to identify
contrastsbetweenthe data setsthat are available to me. We will now enter
another small detour, as an analysis of this problem provides a further useful
exemplification of the in
way which the combination of keyword analysis and
Hoey's five questionscan be usedto find out interesting things about what
might appearto be rather uninteresting words.
26 In an illuminatingcomment on the way in which research models often develop, Biber reports
(personal communication)that there was no specific reason for this omission: "BUT -I don't remember
what all went into my thinking there -I notice that I also did not include OR, but again I don't know why.
It would be interestingto know whether BUT patterns more like co-ordinationor more like adverbial
subordinators?1" (Personalcommunicationfrom Doug Biber)

(Lexical dimensions) Chapter 6: page 18
Corpus Item Count Normalised Score Total words
Romfict (LOB) but 191 6.14 31,096

PP but 66 0.59 111,114
BNC Spoken Core but 6529 6.04 1,080,072
BNC Written Core but 4324 4.12 1,050,344
I lhlr li-- but
512 The counts in Table 67 but summarise the marked contrast between RomFict
-
and I'll, and a smaller but parallel difference between the counts for BNC
Written and Spoken core. Because of the structure of the BNC Core data I
currently hold, it is not practicable to separate out the different genres, so the
data set counted here includes the full range in the corpus - from highly
literate to highly conversational texts. Table 68 - X2 test indicates that the
difference between RomFict and PP is statistically significant, while the
difference between the counts for but in BNC Spoken and Written Core is not
(a indicates that an item scores 025 or better and is unlikely to be the result
.
of chance differences). Nevertheless there is a noticeable contrast between the
two counts for these two corpora and a more detailed study of keyword lists
for individual written genre in BNC, referenced against the full spoken set,
could form the basis for a revealing study of spoken / written differences.
Probabilities
1(1/)/(,O- test
.1
51.33 Why hirt should be so much less common in PP than in Romfict or BNC
Spoken is another question. It is distributed reasonably evenly across the 14
texts in the corpus (Table 69 - But: counts), although two texts (SG-CHER and

BC-MID) have high scoresin relation to the number of words in the texts, and
two contain no instancesat all. Its presencedoesnot, however, seemto be the
result of a strong bias in any one text.
SQ-VLAD. FMT 18 1.56 11566

SQ-CHER. FMT 6 1.38 4343
BC-TERM. FMT 12 0.89 13543
BC-MID.FMT 6 0.72 8308
BC-ENV.FMT 7 0.53 13091
BC-SCI.FMT 5 0.48 10372
SQ-BULG. FMT 4 0.31 12729
BK-182.FMT 1 0.31 3260
BK-11.FMT 3 0.28 10865
BK-162.FMT 2 0.27 7278
BK-65.FMT 1 0.20 5014
BK-178.FMT 1 0.16 6313
BC-LAB. FMT 0.00 2861
BK-47. FMT 0.00 2738
Table 69 - But: counts
51.4 Looking more closely at but, and using the Hoey questionsmentionedabove,
it is possible to seea marked contrast in the patternsof use of this word
betweenPPandRomFict.Giventhe restricteddatasetbeingused,sucha
study cannot be conclusive. It is, however, suggestiveof some of the reasons
for the low incidence of but in theseformal written texts when comparedwith
literary "dialogue rich" production.
51.5 As I have said, the number of instancesof but in our two text samplesis not
sufficiently large to provide the quantity of information required to say
anything definitive about any differences that there may be betweenthe ways
in which the word used in the one set of texts or the other. However, the brief
study reported here (basedon the five Hoey questions) indicates that there are
some interesting contrastsbetween the two corpora, and that further
investigation with larger data setsof could be fruitful - particularly a
contrastive study of spokenand written data. It may appearperverseto be

asking questionsoriginally designedfor an analysis of lexis about a
grammatical item. However, the results below seemto justify this adaptation
of the approach.Theseresults are summarisedin the following discussion;
complete tables of all the data for but can be found in Appendix 4- But
analysis.
51.6 Q1. What lexical patterns is the word part or.
Q3. What structure(s) does it appear in? As we are already dealing with
a non-lexical item, and will, in many instances,find ourselvesconsideringthe
relations that it entersinto with other non-lexical items, I have decidedto
bring together Hoey's question 1 and question 3. Any patterning that we
identify in the use of but is likely to involve both collocational and
colligational features,willy nilly. The relatively low frequenciesof but and its
role in discourseas a contrastive conjunction reducethe range of possible
collocations it takes on. Most instancesof but in the two text collections are in
clauseinitial positions and this reducesthe left context collocations and three
word clusters in which it can appear. In PP there are only two such potential
collocations independentbut complementaryand limited but carefully

vo.
targeted,but therearetoo few of theseinstancesto constituteany form of
patterning. RomFict contains no such adjective + but + adjective patterns.
51.7 The form of patterning which is most important in both corpora involves two
word clusters27.Thesecombinationsare more colligational than collocational,
and there is a strong difference in the pattern of use in the two corpora. This
contrast betweenthe structural associationsof but digraphs is given in the
27 Clusters are words which are found repeatedlyin each others' company.They
representa tighter
relationshipthan collocates, more like groups or phrases (but I call them clusters becausethese terms
already have uses in grammar) - Concord Help Text - Scott 1997

tables below. Thesesummarisethe major part of speechassociationsfor but +
word in the two corpora and demonstratethe clear contrastbetweenthe
corpora.
PP count %
adverb / addition 13 19.70
pronoun 10 15.15
adjective 8 12.12
verb 6 9.09
time 3 4.55
verb modal 3 4.55
general adverb 1 1.52
Table 70 - PP But colligation
Romfict count %
pronoun 69 36.13
general adverb 13 6.81
verb 11 5.76
proper noun 10 5.24
question 10 5.24
verb nonfinite 4 2.09
verb modal 2 1.05
adjective 1 0.52
Table 71 - RomFict But colligation
51.8 The table below showsthe two word clusters in PP and Romfict which contain
but (WordSmith Cluster settings- words in cluster: 2/ minimum frequency:
3). The implications of this patterning will be commentedon in the following
paragraphs.
PP Romfict
cluster Freq. cluster Freq.
but also 12 but I 22
but the 5 but she 18
but we 5 but it 16
but he 14
but you 10
but the 6
Table 72 - but (2 word clusters)
51.9 Q2. Does the word regularly associatewith particular other meanings?
Apart from the obvious difference betweenthe frequenciesof occurrenceof
two word clusters in the two corpora, what standsout immediately here is the
contrast betweenthe company but keepsin the two data sets. In PP, it is most
strongly linked in the digraph "but also" (and in most cases,with a preceding

"not only" - seeAppendix 26: Not only but.) Here the role of but in the
...
unfolding of the discourseis primarily additive. Rather than signalling a
simple contrast -a change in the direction of the argument - but is used to
introduce a professionally warranted commentary or extension to the
argument. Surprisingly, when the six but the pairs are investigated, it emerges
that they too are found in a similar type of structure. A statement is made
which either includes a broad generalisation or a statement of some form of
problem, and this is immediately restricted by a comment introduced by but.
1 This is a pre-condition for economic transformation,and in all countries, it

has been essentiall spontaneous.B the degreeand the speedof
developmentof the SME sector,has dependedon the extent to which people
in eachcountry have had businessand other
......
2 It will be difficult to separateout the impact of this project from other
economic changesand new initiatives, but the starting point is to have an
agreed framework within which inputs and throughputs can be measured,
progressassessedand changesproposed.
3 The main functions of the Employment Service are placing people into jobs
and the payment of unemployment benefits, but the ESNRO has promoted
numerousefforts and initiatives to combat unemployment, in various forms.
4 Theseprojects are largely funded by multilateral and bilateral agencies,but
the XXX XXXX also managesprojects on a collaborative funding basis with
Polish institutions. Field managementis provided by a project uni....
5 There will, of course,be local variations but the principle will remain the
same. The development of highly skilled trainers and consultants will follow
the linear progressionrequired to e.g. t......
51.10 This additive comment involving but has a particular local semanticprosody
in the PP Corpus. Through such commenting clausesthe writers are able to
demonstratetheir awarenessof the various constraintsand pitfalls which
might lie in wait, and are also able to demonstratetheir professional capacity
to deal with thesepotential problems. Similarly, though it is part of a different
pattern, but we is also used in suasion. This time the writer is using a polite
but professional qualification of a preceding argument- You the client may
wish X, but we respectfully submit Y....

spects of economic transformation, but we would also emphasise that th

in an early stage of development. But we would expect to find some in
an important part in this project but we think it premature to define
s who wish to study each language, but we suggest that those staff who
ly which areas each will focus on, but we believe that it is important
Table 73 - "but we"
51.11 In RomFict, the picture is very different. There is only one instanceof "but
also": "Grant obviously had not only beenthe notorious jewel thief b-ut had
a murderedGreta"), and none of the six instancesof but the in RomFict
have this additive quality. but in Romfict is usedin its default contrastiverole,
usually signalling a closure:
"Don't go on, Steve! Oh, don't think I don't like you, and I supposeI should say thank
you for - for wanting to marry me. Ji it's quite impossible - it always will be
impossible!""
A romance can do no harm to our publicity at the moment, bnt marriage must wait.
Don't you agree?"
51.12 Q4. Is there any correlation between the word's uses / meanings and
the structures in which it participates? This question has been answered to
some extent in the earlier part of this discussion. But is a contrasting
conjunction, and is restricted to a small number of roles in English - most
commonly in clauseco-ordination, and to someextent adjective or adverb co-
ordination. The interesting result to arise from this investigation has beenthat
one aspectof but - its capacity to add an enhancing contrastto an earlier
statementhas beenused almost to the exclusion of others in PP, and that this
use is not evidencedin RomFict. The suasivelanguageof PP exploits one of
the potentials of a very common word, the narrative purposeof RomFict
draws on another.
51.13 Q6. Is the word associatedwith (any positions in any) textual
organisation? As we have mentioned above, but tends to occupy an initial
position in the secondclauseof a co-ordinatedpair. Its use in sentenceinitial

is
position still frowned upon in prescriptive grammars(seecomment in
Sinclair et al 1990: 376). As neither the PP nor RomFict corpora are held in
parsedform or are marked up for clauseboundaries,the only way of
identifying the role of but in text organisationwas through searchingon
punctuation. While this was not an ideal solution, it doesindicate some
contrasts (paragraph boundary information was not available for RomFict).
The results of this survey are given in Table 74 - "hut "positions. The counts
for eachof the categorieswere convertedto percentagesof the total instances
of but in to
eachcorpus collection so as provide a better basis for comparison.
PP Romfict
Sentenceinitial 9.09 22.51
Sentenceinitial in direct speech (indicatedby ") 0.00 12.04
Clause punctuation (, ;) 50.00 52.36
Paragraph initial 00.00
Table 74 - "but"positions
* unaccountablefor given the mark-up of the RomFict corpus
51.14 Of course, it has to be rememberedthat alternativesto but are available -
notably however. When this word is consideredin the two text collections,
another kind of contrastemerges:there are many more instancesof however in
PP. This can be accountedfor by the preferencefor however as a contrasting
sentence conjunction in written communication.
HOWEVER PP Romfict
total 36 total 4*
Sentence initial 25 0
Sentence initial in direct speech (indicated by ") 00
Clause punctuation (, ;)83
Paragraph initial 3
Table 75 - However
*one instance: non-coordinating use

The PP / RomFict contrastis matchedby the counts for the sameitems in
BNC Core (Table 76 - BNC Core - however/but),where there are 37 times
more instancesof however in the 1 million word written set.
however but % total

Written Set 632 4,360 0.4992
Spoken Set 71 6,529 0.66
Table 76 - BNC Core - however/but
51.15 Conclusions - Although this discussionof but has involved us in another
small detour, it has beeninstructive from my point of view in that it has
demonstrated:
" the usefulnessof the negative keyword list in identifying potentially
significant differencesbetweensmall genrespecific corpora
9 the importance of looking at "boring" (i.

words e. high frequency non-lexical
items) as the combinationswhich they enter are often more important for the
developmentof a particular style or set towards the readerthan many of the
more sexy in
words texts.
9 the usefulnessof Hoey's five for

questions the developmentof a rounded
appreciation of how a word works acrossparticular setsof texts.
51.16 After this sidetracking around but, we will now return to the main substanceof
this chapterand considerhow Hoey's five questionscan help us better
understandthe functions of the positive and negative keywords in the PP
corpus.

52. What lexical patterns is the word part of?
52.1 Restrictions of spaceand time will limit the number of keywords in PP which
we can analyse. I shall begin, therefore, by considering what Scott calls key-
keywords(Scott M, 1997a:237) that is keywords in a corpus which occur in

-
all, or most, of the texts which make up the corpus you are studying. The
table below containsthe 7 most prominent key-keywords in PP. Training and
project occur in all 14 texts, followed by the others in the sequencegiven. As
it is in some sensesthe least obvious of the seven(which are all to do with
what happensin I
projects), shall chooseto look at experience.
N WORD OF 14
1 TRAINING 14
2 PROJECT 14
3 MANAGEMENT 12
4 DEVELOPMENT 12
5 PROGRAMME 12
6 EXPERIENCE 11
7 IMPLEMENTATION 11
Table 77 - PP key-keywords
52.2 In considering the collocational patterning of the keywords in PP, we will use
the following simple definition. "Collocates are the words which occur in the
neighbourhoodof your searchword" (Scott help

1996: text). For practical
purposeswe will set the limits of our current enquiry to items within four
words to the left or right of the searchword (following Sinclair 1991:106, and
focusing mainly on words occurring within two words to the left of the right).
Apart from 'traditional' collocational information basedon thesecriteria, we
will use two other categoriesof collocation information (available within the
WordSmith Tools suite):
" clusters
definition: "Clusters are words which are found repeatedlyin eachothers'

company. They representa tighter relationship than collocates,more like
groups or phrases." (Scott 1996:Help text)
" patterns
definition: patterns"show the words adjacentto the searchword, organisedin
terms of frequency within eachcolumn" (Scott 1996:Help text)
The significance of thesedifferent views of collocational relationshipswill
becomeclearer as we develop our accountof experience.
53. Lexical patterns: collocates
53.1 A collocatestable for experiencegives us a number of different views of the
company this word keeps. By sorting the data in different columns it is
to
possible get contrastingperspectiveson the in
ways which a word keeps
company28.The table below shows collocating lexical and non-lexical items
10
of experiencewhich occur or more times. The table has initially been
sorted by the overall frequency of words in the table. Thus, is

experience the
most frequent word, followed by of, in, the, and etc.
WORD TOTAL LEFT RIGHT L2 L1 R1 R2

EXPERIENCE 389 0 0 0 0 389 0 0
OF 185 35 150 19 16 0 148 2
IN 109 10 99 10 0 0 94 5
THE 87 18 69 6 12 0 4 65
AND 76 53 23 15 38 0 20 3
HAS 62 57 5 33 24 0 1 4
HAVE 27 26 1 19 7 0 0 1
CONSIDERABLE 25 25 0 2 23 0 0 0
OUR 22 21 1 0 21 0 0 1
TRAINING 21 5 16 3 2 0 0 16
YEARS 21 21 0 4 17 0 0 0
TO 20 2 18 1 1 0 10 8
EXTENSIVE 18 18 0 3 15 0 0 0
RELEVANT 17 6 11 2 4 0 7 4
28 The table also shows words (e.g. of, in) which will have to be treated when we come to consider
colligates. In this part of the argumentwe will consider non-lexicalwords in so far as they contributeto
the broader contexts/ phrases in which the node word is found. In the section in which we deal
specificallywith colligates,these words will be treated along with others in the same part of speech
category.

PROJECT 15 11 4 1 10 0 0 4
INTERNATIONAL 15 14 1 0 14 0 0 1
WITH 14 12 2 6 6 0 2 0
ELSEWHERE 13 0 13 0 0 0 12 1
THIS 13 9 4 3 6 0 1 3
AS 13 6 7 4 2 0 6 1
WIDE 12 12 0 1 11 0 0 0
PRACTICAL 12 11 1 0 11 0 0 1
WORKING 11 2 9 0 2 0 0 9
EU 11 7 4 0 7 0 0 4
HE 10 9 1 9 0 0 1 0
ON 10 9 1 5 4 0 0 1
Table 78 - experiencecollocates
53.2 This visualisation of collocation can be of mixed usefulness- especially as it
includes so many non-lexical items. Some,such as the are distracting - it
appearson the table becauseit occurs 65 times at R2 - i. e. where it is the
determiner of anotherword and not directly associatedwith experience, of
and in, however, will be interesting, particularly for the learner, as they
provide immediate and relevant exemplification of the ways in which these
two prepositional colligates of experiencediffer or are interchangeable.And,
be
will also revealing, as we have here a confirmation of the tendencytowards
non-phrasalco-ordination which emergedin the study basedon the Biber
framework. We will return to this in our considerationof colligational
patterning. Outside thesetop two, the lexical collocations of experienceare
more predictably located in either the left or right contexts. Further sorting
makesthe picture clearer.
53.3 Sorting on column L1 showsthe main categoriesof left collocate for
experience. Of the 18 words that are left 15

collocates. are lexical items
(although has and have may be delexicalised). Predictably, the majority of
theselexical items are adjectives (6) CONSIDERABLE / EXTENSIVE /
INTERNATIONAL / PRACTICAL / RELEVANT / WIDE, followed by
nouns (5) EU / PROJECT / TRAINING / WORKING / YEARS.
Chris Tribble " PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)


AND 76 53 23 15 38 0 20 3
HAS 62 57 5 33 24 0 1 4
CONSIDERABLE 25 25 0 2 23 0 0 0
OUR 22 21 1 0 21 0 0 1
YEARS 21 21 0 4 17 0 0 0
OF 185 35 150 19 16 0 148 2
EXTENSIVE 18 18 0 3 15 0 0 0
THE 87 18 69 6 12 0 4 65
WIDE 12 12 0 1 11 0 0 0
PRACTICAL 12 11 1 0 11 0 0 1
PROJECT 15 11 4 1 10 0 0 4
HAVE 27 26 1 19 7 0 0 1
EU 11 7 4 0 7 0 0 4
WITH 14 12 2 6 6 0 2 0
THIS 13 9 4 3 6 0 1 3
RELEVANT 17 6 11 2 4 0 7 4
ON 10 9 1 5 4 0 0 1
AS 13 6 7 4 2 0 6 1
TRAINING 21 5 16 3 2 0 0 16
WORKING 11 2 9 0 2 0 0 9
TO 20 2 18 1 1 0 10 8
IN 109 10 99 10 0 0 94 5
ELSEWHERE 13 0 13 0 0 0 12 1
HE 10 9 1 9 0 0 1 0
EXPERIENCE 389 0 0 0 0 389 0 0
Table 79 - experience:left sort
53.4 This view of the left collocatesof a key-keyword in PP gives immediate
accessto a range of information that is of great importance for writers in L2.
In a simple grid, a learner is now able to seehow proposal writers make
statementsabout their experience. Whether experienceis extensive,wide or
practical, it is somethingthat the consultantsor companieshave. It is a
property, part of their stock in trade. This grid also confirms the earlier
observationwe had made about the elevation of international to a strong
collocate of experience (equating with good) in Project Proposals (Chapter 5:
Grammar and Style), as well as confirming the importance of noun / noun
modification in the corpus. It is pedagogically important to note that this type
of pattern (e.g. EU experience/project experience)is much less common in
learner writing than in expert texts (Granger S&C Tribble 1998), and a
review of the collocates of keywords provides an excellent basis for the
developmentof learner languageawarenessin this area.

53.5 The right sortedcollocatesoffer information that is perhapsless obviously rich
but which is still important.

OF 185 35 150 19 16 0 148 2
IN 109 10 99 10 0 0 94 5
AND 76 53 23 15 38 0 20 3
ELSEWHERE 13 0 13 0 0 0 12 1
TO 20 2 18 1 1 0 10 8
RELEVANT 17 6 11 2 4 0 7 4
AS 13 6 7 4 2 0 6' 1
THE 87 18 69 6 12 0 4 65
WITH 14 12 2 6 6 0 2 0
HAS 62 57 5 33 24 0 1 4
THIS 13 9 4 3 6 0 1 3
HE 10 9 1 9 0 0 1 0
CONSIDERABLE 25 25 0 2 23 0 0 0
OUR 22 21 1 0 21 0 0 1
YEARS 21 21 0 4 17 0 0 0
EXTENSIVE 18 18 0 3 15 0 0 0
WIDE 12 12 0 1 11 0 0 0
PRACTICAL 12 11 1 0 11 0 0 1
PROJECT 15 11 4 1 10 0 0 4
HAVE 27 26 1 19 7 0 0 1
EU 11 7 4 0 7 0 0 4
ON 10 9 1 5 4 0 0 1
TRAINING 21 5 16 3 2 0 0 16
WORKING 11 2 9 0 2 0 0 9
EXPERIENCE 389 0 0 0 0 389 0 0
Table 80 - experience:right sort
53.6 The point to comment on is that experienceis not often used on its own. In
242 out of 389 instances(62.21%), experienceis post-modified by a
preposition (either of or in). What the nature of that experienceis, is not
immediately apparentfrom this two left / two right collocation grid and will
have to be reviewed when we come to considerthe clusters in which
experienceparticipates (although training and working are in fact membersof
three word clusterswith experienceand either of or in). Of the other
immediate right collocates,only two are lexical items - elsewhereand
relevant.
53.7 Elsewhereis interesting as it benefits from the samepositive semanticprosody
as international. One of the problems that the proposal writer has is to
demonstratethat the experiencetheir organisationhas gained in delivering

(Lexical dimensions)Chapter6: page200
other projects is applicableto the project for which they are now bidding.
Although not wanting to pre-empt later discussion,it is relevant to note here
how a concordancefor experienceelsewherealso revealshow the digraph is
implicated in an important rhetorical ploy. In all but two of the instancesin
the PP corpus, experienceelsewherehas either beenplaced in the first clause
of the sentenceby meansof a fronted prepositional phrase,or is sentence
initial by default as it is the grammatical subject of main clause- either as is,
or with a first personplural pronoun determiner. Experienceelsewhere,like
international, is called upon by thesewriters as a meansof sanctioningwhat
would otherwise be an unsupportedopinion. This is not to say that a
subterfugeis being used,as it is often the casethat you can only analyseone
situation by referenceto near analogues. It is interesting to note, however,
how this keyword is used in the developmentof the argument.
Our input will be to draw on successful experience elsewhere and help local staf
operate within an open market economy. Experience elsewhere has shown us that t
dy Follow-Up Programme 3.52 Our experience elsewhere has demonstrated th
hem. These are discussed below. But our experience elsewhere in Russia, and in t
at are their skills and motivation. Our experience elsewhere is that starting wi
ion and CSME as well as with TACIS. Our experience elsewhere strongly reinforces
are responsible for signing contracts. Experience elsewhere suggests that an or
er, comment on the basis of substantial experience elsewhere that the region app
- private consultants. 2.13 Experience elsewhere would suggest that
ise four criteria that, on the basis of experience elsewhere, can be regarded as
y to be incomplete. On the basis of our experience elsewhere, we would also expe
the Board of Directors. On the basis of experience elsewhere, we know that it is
Table 81 - experience elsewhere
53.8 experiencerelevant is a more explicit way of connectingwork done with work
to do. Of interest for the learner is the fact that the structure in play here is
experiencerelevantto..... To whatthe experienceis relevantcannotbe seen

(Lexical dimensions)Chapter 6: page201
54. Lexical patterns: clusters
54.1 Cluster information gives us anotherview of collocation, providing insights
into the frequently occurring combinationsinto which a particular word enters.
This can be especially useful for the apprenticewriter, as it offers accessto the
lexical / phrasal resourceswhich experiencedwriters draw on (through
intertextual awareness)when developing new texts. (Selzer G, 1993:173, De
Cock S, et al 1998:67). For the purposesof this analysiswe will look at 5,4
and 3 word clusters associatedwith experience. The full results of this survey
are provided in Appendix 12: Experience_Clusters:I will summarisemain
findings only here.
54.2 We noted in the precedingsectionthat of and in appearedfrequently in the
immediate right context for experiencebut that the 2+2 collocation
information gave little information on the lexical items with which experience
collocated beyond that threshold. Clustersprovides this information in a
highly visible way. Below is a table which combinesdata for 3,4 and 5 word
clusters for experience+ of or in (Table 82 - experienceclusters). The table
doesnot indicate absolutefrequency as there is a significant number of
duplicates- e.g. the three instancesof the 5 word cluster experienceof
assistingPMUs implement subsumethe three instancesof experienceof
assisting PMUs, (although they do not accountfor one of the four instancesof
experienceof assisting). However, the table doesdemonstratethe ways in
which the analysis of clusters can be usedto gain accessto information on
phrasal collocations. This information could be particularly valuable as it is
not entirely restricted to the content areaswhich the texts in PP address(e.g.
Poland, PMUs) but gives insights into patternswhich could be used in a wide

rangeof analogoustexts (e.g. experiencein theprovision of). Thesemore
extendedcollocations of experienceare more clearly visible when non-lexical
items are stripped out (seeTable 83 - experiencelexical collocates(clusters).
cluster Freq.
experiencein central and eastern 3
experience in Poland 6
experience in the provision 3
experience in the provisionof 3
experience in the uk 3
experience of assisting 4
experienceof assisting PMUs 3
experience of assisting PMUs implement 3
experienceof designing 4
experienceof designingprogrammes 3
experienceof designing programmesfor 3
experienceof environmentaleducation 3
experienceof EU best practice 3
experienceof managing 6
experienceof project implementation 3
experienceof tenderer and subcontractors 4
experience of the design 3
experience of the design and 3
experienceof the development 3
experience of the PHARE 4
experienceof the PHARE programme 4
experience of training 12
experienceof training in 3
experience of work 5
experienceof work in 4
experienceof working 7
experience of working in 3
experienceof working with 4
experience relevantto 7
experience relevant to this 5
experience relevantto this assignment 5
project experience in Poland 3
Table 82 - experienceclusters
experience xx xx design
experience xx xx development
experience xx xx PHARE
experience xx xx provision
experience xx xx uk
experience xx assisting
experience xx central and eastern
experience xx designing
experience xx environmentaleducation
experience xx EU best practice
experience xx managing
experience xx Poland
experience xx project implementation
experience xx tenderer and subcontractors
experience xx training
experience xx work
experience xx working
experience relevant xx
experience relevant xx xx assignment
project experience xx Poland
Table 83 - experiencelexical collocates (clusters)

54.3 A "cluster" view of collocation is valuable as it gives an insight into the kinds
of predictable structure which expert writers are able to draw on during text
composition. We must also remember that we are at present only considering
one key-keyword out of 333 positive keywords in PP, yet this keyword enters
into a significant number of repeated relationships with other words (and
keywords such as considerable and relevant). The value for writing
instruction of this kind of analysis is significant as it provides learnerswith
direct accessto the kinds of languagesystemknowledge mentionedin Chapter
2: Teaching Writing.
55. Lexical patterns: patterns
55.1 A pattern table gives accessto other sorts of information. As Scott explains,
when you are looking at a "patterns" list in WordSmith Tools, you see "the
words adjacentto the searchword, organisedin terms of frequency within
each column. That is, the top in

word eachcolumn is the word most frequently
found in that position. The secondword is the secondmost frequent, etc."
(Scott 1996: PatternsHelp Text). Table 84 - experience:patterns showsthe
most frequent patternsfor experiencein PP. Columns L1 and R1 show the
most frequently occurring words to the left and right of the centre-
summarising in some senses

what we have said earlier about immediate
collocation. The whole matrix can also be seenas a summary of the
combinatorial potential of experiencein the context of a given genrein this
casePP. Reading from left to right, it is to

possible generatea huge variety of
three or four word combinations- and even to go up to sevenword
combinationssuchas"their expertiseand experienceis in management

...
" or
"hehasconsiderableexperienceelsewherein development".

L3 L2 LI centre RI R2 R3
and has and experience of the and
the of has experience in training in
has have considerable experience and working training
we and our experience elsewhere to with
over in years experience to Poland the
of he of experience relevant that PHARE
in the extensive experience as management of
consultant with international experience is in development
to on the experience the work this
their expertise wide experience over has has
as as practical experience with expertise to
he years project experience has relevant management
on training their experience work project project
with this have experiencethis EU that
training development EU experience he we work
have extensive this experience we consultant eu
Table 84 - experience:patterns
55.2 By way of contrast,the following table showsthe most frequent patternsfor
experiencein the SPORTSdata set in a 250,000 word corpus of Independent
Newspaper articles (MicroConcord Text Collections, OUP 1992).
L3 L2 LI centre RI R2 R3
was his the experience of the and
the the vast experience for in by
of wealth racing experience the his will
his another and experience in was but
from by of experience to we the
with is his experience he at in
vast had good experience another gained has
Table 85 - Independenttexts- experience:patterns
This extract demonstratesboth the different set of relations (with lexical and
non-lexical items) that experienceentersinto in this different genre,and
indicatesthe relative paucity of non-unique instancesin this 250,000 data set
when it is compared with PP.
56. Lexical patterns: conclusion
56.1 By investigating the collocations of a single keyword from thesethree
we
perspectives haveseenthat it is possibleto developa detailed
understandingof how the word operatesin a particular genre. In the caseof
experiencewe have not only identified the specific lexical items with which it
strongly collocates (a different set from its collocatesin other genresor

domains),but have also begun to identify other patternsof associationwhich
we will deal with in following sections.
57. Does the word regularly associate with particular other meanings?
57.1 If Hoey's secondquestion is askedof a word as it is used in general,we gain
insights into what we will call its global lexical prosody. Hoey 1997agives
the example of a study of consequence(in its meaning of 'effect' as opposedto
'importance') in a large generalcorpus. Hoey identifies four semantic
prosodiesfor consequence:
is the logic of underlying processes- 56% (inevitable, inexorable, likely,
probable ... )
" the badnessof an outcome- 15% (dire, appalling, regrettable ... )
" the seriousnessof an outcome 11% (important, decisive ... )
" the expectednessor otherwise of an outcome- 9% (unintended,odd ... )
(Hoey M 1997a:3)
A similar study by Stubbs(StubbsM, 1995:247) identified a predominantly
negative semanticprosody for the verb CAUSE (e.g. causean accident,
cancer, death,pain etc.)
57.2 While acceptingthe usefulnessof this notion, Hoey arguesthat it should be
extendedso that it not only covers broad categoriessuch as 'unpleasant'

or
'positive' but also includes more specific prosodiessuch as e.g. "occupation".
Hoey justifies this by drawing attention to a phrasesuch as train as a which
not only occurs with common collocates such as teacher, nurse, or lawyer, but

is also found in rare combinationse.g. sathin, boxing second,kamikazepilot
(Hoey 1997a:2). Theselatter would never be thrown up as obvious collocates
of train as a, but they are, nevertheless,strongly implicated in a semantic
prosody: PROFESSION.
57.3 For the lexicographer or studentof lexis theseinsights are important. For our
presentpurpose,however, although a knowledge of a word's global semantic
prosody will be important, it may be more useful in developing an
understandingof our difficult text to find out about the local semanticprosody
of the word under scrutiny. I gavethe example of the positive semantic
prosody taken on by international in PPsin Chapter 5: Grammar and Style,
and proposedthat words in certain genresmay establishlocal semantic
prosodieswhich only occur in thesegenres,or analoguesof thesegenres.
57.4 The question I will ask in this section is, therefore: "Does the word regularly
associatewith other particular meaningsin this context?" I am not assuming
that all keywords in a text will have specific local semanticprosodies,but I am
proposing that this is an aspectof languageuse worth considering as it will
constitute important local knowledge for writers in a specific genre. What I
have found interesting in the caseof experienceis that there do appearto be
identifiable differencesbetweenthe meaning with which experienceis
associatedin PP and its meaning in a generalpopulation of texts. This was not
somethingthat I had predicted,but the findings I presentbelow make a strong
casefor this being so.
57.5 The local semanticprosody of experiencein PP results from the predominant
associationsit takes on in this environment - and theseassociationsare
common to all the proposalsin the PP corpus as experienceis a key-keyword.

Table 79 - experience:left sort and Table 80 - experience:right sort provide
clear examplesof the collocatesof experiencein PP. The typical contextsof
use are:
Preceded by # % Preceded by # %
and 38 9.77 EU 7 1.80
has 24 6.17 have 7 1.80
considerable 23 5.91 their 7 1.80
Our 21 5.40 This 6 1.54
years 17 4.37 with 6 1.54
16 4.11 direct 5 1.29
of 16 4.11 substantial 5 1.29
15 3.86 ) 4 1.03
extensive 15 3.86 broad 4 1.03
International 14 3.60 on 4 1.03
the 12 3.08 relevant 4 1.03
practical 11 2.83 consultancy 3 0.77
wide 11 2.83 depth 3 0.77
Project 10 2.57 His 3 0.77
7 1.80 professional 3 0.77
Table 86 - PP experienceleft context (82.53% of all instances)
Followed by # % Followed by # %
of 148 38.05 is 5 1.29
in 94 24.16 from 4 1.03
and 20 5.14 consultantname 3 0.77
elsewhere 12 3.08 both 2 0.51
to 10 2.57 for 2 0.51
9 2.31 includes 2 0.51
7 1.80 over 2 0.51
relevant 7 1.80 which 2 0.51
as 6 1.54 with 2 0.51
Table 87 - PP experienceright context (86.6% of all instances)
57.6 The overall picture of experiencein the context of PP is that it is:
" frequently linked to anothernoun with and
9 frequently associatedwith the verb have
" frequently qualified by a noun or adjective (considerable,extensive,
international, practical, relevant, wide, EU, project, training, working, years)
which emphasisesthe superior quality of the experience
" frequently followed by further specification of the kinds of experiencein
question (postmodifying prepositional phraseintroduced by of or in - 62.2%
of all right context words).

57.7 An interpretation of experiencein the context of PPscan be summarisedby a
COBUILD dictionary style definition (my apologiesto professional
lexicographers!!):
DEFINITION: Experienceis a form of professionalcapital which can be used

to warrant opinions or recommendationsand establishthe authority of one
consulting or managementagencyover and abovethat of others.
EXAMPLE: companyname has gatheredextensiveknowledge and
experiencein transferring and adapting ...
The wider knowledge and experienceof managementtraining...
...
Our input will be to draw on successfulexperienceelsewhereand help local
...
staff...... These examplesof project experience demonstratenot only a strong
DHV has accumulatedthe knowledge and experienceto assistinstitutions...
57.8 Such a definition standsin contrast(quality of defining style apart) with those
provided by,the COBUILD dictionary itself:
Experience is knowledge or skill in a particular job which you

have gainedbecauseyou have worked at the job for a long
time.
EXAMPLE: I had no military experience...
in my experienceas a teacher...
...
...experienceof working with children...
He was senior to me in experience...
Experience is the stateor processof feeling somethingor

being affected by it.
EXAMPLE: The experienceof colour is wholly subjective...
the experienceof fear.
...
Experience is all the events,knowledge, and feelings that

make up an individual's life or the characterof a society.
EXAMPLE: Everyone learnsbest from his own experience...
speakingfrom personalexperience.
...
An experience is somethingthat happensto you or something

that you do, especially something important that affects you.
EXAMPLE: The funeral was a painful experience...
my later experiencesin the village.
...
(Sinclair et al, 1987)

57.9 While COBUILD Definition 1 doesin some sensesinclude the PP meaning of
the word, it has not beendesignedto accommodatethe specific local semantic
prosody which experiencegains in the PP environment. This is not a criticism
of the dictionary; rather, it is a comment on the way in which a particular
environment (co-texts, readership)colours the meaning of words. The spoken
subsetin BNC Core offers 100 instancesof experiencewhich do conform29,
more or less,to the sensesoffered in the COBUILD definitions. Examplesare
given in the table below.
Definition 1. Definition 3.
office experience my experienceis
work experience in your experience is it something that you talk...
skills experience personalexperience
I speak from experienceMadam Chairman
firsthand experience
Definition 2. Definition 4.
no instances depressingexperience
good experience
terrifying experience
horrifyingexperience
I had an experiencewith a bike
it was quite an experience
What an experience
One told me his experience,on the phone from Waco prison
Table 88 - BNC SpokenCorpus -Experience: semanticprosodies other than 'professional"
The spokencorpus also provides examplesof the sensein which I feel
experienceis used in PP.
at wherever possible, the expertise and experience of the Board will be

idea of building on past knowledge and experience. There 's
e is so much fund raising knowledge and experience amongst our volunte
is so I think Deutsch Aerospace had any experience in that at all did
o come up with these proposals have any experience in recruitment.
and er they have picked up considerable experience from that but, you
Table 89 - experience:BNC spokencorpus data
57.10 Significantly, these'professionalexperience'usesoccur in three particular
environments:
29 A full concordancelisting is in Appendix: Experience_BNC_Spoken

" non-phrasalco-ordination - already commentedon as significant in the formal
suasivewording of PPs (and paired with knowledge-a strong collocate of
experience in PPs)
" as the object of lexical verb to have + following preposition in - again, a
feature of experience in PPs
" qualified by considerable- once again, a strong collocation in PPs
The contrastbetweenexperiencein PPsand in SpokenBNC Core is now
clear: while SpokenBNC Core containsmost meaningsoffered by the
COBUILD lexicographers,PP contains no instancesof COBUILD Meanings
2,3 and 4, and the two isolated instancesof Meaning 1 are exceptionswhich
prove the rule. In example 1, "work experience"is part of the consultant's
earlier profile, but he has sincetaken on a much broader set of professional
interests. In example 2 "work experience"is what the professional provides
for other people...
"His education,and earlier work experience, was an industrial

chemist, but since 1988his main interest has been in SME
development.
selection; implications in training, work experience and

...
placement;sexual harassment... "(BNC SpokenCorpus data)
57.11 What we seein operation in PP is a local semanticprosody which has been
specific to this genre or to PPs and other analogousgenres. Experiencehas
not been given a new, technical in

meaning PPs. Rather, a local semantic
prosody (implicit in the COBUILD 1 definition), which may be unique to PPs
though intuitively I do not consider this to be the case has been similarly
- -
ChrisTribble - PhDManuscript(this doc:January7,1999)

exploited by writers in three different organisationsas part of the suasive
rhetoric of the proposals.
58. What structure(s) does it appear in?
58.1 In paragraph48.2 we madethe connectionbetweenthis question and the term
colligation, defining this as "the grammatical company a word keeps". Our
earlier considerationof experiencehas already introduced many of its main
colligates in PPs. Theseare summarisedfor PPsin Table 90 - BNC/PP
experience:left in
colligates, which, by way of contrast,the samedata is also
provided for colligations of experiencein BNC Spoken Core. This corpus has
again been chosenas a comparatoras there are insufficient instancesof
experiencein the RomFict collection we have used in earlier analysisto
provide a basis for useful comparison.
58.2 A complete accountof the immediate colligations of experiencein these
is
corpora provided in the Appendices (Excel 3:
Spreadsheet Experience
colligations (XL Experience_colligationand other data.

xls)). The two tables
below summariseinformation for the top 5 immediate colligates in eachtext
collection..
PP top 5 Ieft context BNC top 5 left context

30.88 adjective 23.00 adjective
13.12 noun 22.00 noun
9.77 coordinating"and" 20.00 phatic
7.97 verb have 13.00 coordinating"and"
6.68 determiner 4.00 verb have
73.42 percentageof total 87 percentageof total
Table 90 - BNGPP experience:left colligates (all counts are percents)
PP top 5 right context BNC top 5 right context

38.05 of 18.00 preposition
29.3 preposition 15.00 full stop
5.14 coordinating"and" 13.00 of
3.34 adverb 11.00 clause punctuation
3.1 adjective 6.00 coordinating"and"
83.93 percentage of total 68 percentage of total
Table 91 - BNC/PP experience:right colligates (all counts are percents)

58.3 Taking left colligations, there is a striking similarity betweenthe incidence of
the most frequent immediate colligates. Experienceis premodified by either
an adjective or noun in both corpora to almost exactly the sameextent: PP =
44% / BNC SpokenCore = 45% - though the balanceof adjectivesis greater
in PP. Likewise, coordinating and and verb have are both in the top five. The
only major point of contrast betweenthe two corpora arisesdirectly from their
different modes of production - the categoryphatic subsumingthe various
"mms", "hmms" and "ums" that arise in the BNC SpokenCore transcripts.
Immediate right colligates show a greatercontrastwith the striking
+
predominanceof of prepositions in PP (67.35% of all instances/ 31% in
BNC SpokenCore), reflecting this tendencyin PP as a whole.
58.4 To look in more detail at the colligational patterning in PP it was necessaryto
exploit the POS coding which had been addedto the corpus. Although
WordSmith makesit possibleto sort on individual codes,it doesnot permit
automatic counting of patterns.To do this it has been necessaryto transfer the
output from the concordancerto a spreadsheetwhere such computationscan
be made. Data is then available in a form which gives accessto three
colligates to the left and right of the centreword.
L3 L2 LI Centre R1 R2 R3
[NN1] of [1O] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] Central [JJ]

[,] From [II] our [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] Nizhny [NP1]
[WO] 31 [MC] Our [APPGE] Experience [NN1] in [II] Assisting [NP1]
[NP1] ; [;] Our [APPGE] experience [NNI] in [II] Hungary [NP1]
[TO] bear [VVI] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] from [II] elsewhere [RL]
[RR] [,] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] transferring [VVG]
Table 92 - Colligational information
58.5 The proceduredevelopedto obtain the data summarisedin the tables below is
reported in Appendix15 : Extracting colligation information from POS coded
text. Full data is given on the disk which accompaniesthis thesis (File Name:

XL Experience_colligationand other data.xls). Initial conclusionsabout the
colligational relations of experiencein PPsare summarisedin the table below:
Table 93 - PP vs BNC Colligation30which gives information on Left 1+
centre + Right 1 colligations. When interpreting this table it should be
rememberedthat R1 (NN1) representsthe POS tag for experience. L1 is the
position of the POS tag for the word immediately to the left of experience,and
R2 the position of the POS tag for the word immediately to the right of the
searchword.
PP totals % of BNC Spoken totals % of BNC Written totals % of

LI R1 R2 390.00 LI R1 R2 100.00 LI RI R2 124.00
[JJ] [NN1] [II] 46 11.83 [JJ] [NN1] [.] 6 6.00 [AT] [NN1] [IC] 6 4.84
[JJ] [NN1] [I0] 42 10.80 [AT] (NN1][I0] 4 4.00 [JJ] [NN1] (10] 6 4.84
[VHZ] [NN1] [I0] 20 5.14 [NN1] [NN1] [.] 4 4.00 [JJ] [NN11[,j 5 4.03
[CC] [NN11[I0] 16 4.11 [APPGE][NN1] [,] 3 3.00 [JJ] [NN1] [.] 5 4.03
[-] (NN1] [I0] 15 3.86 [APPGE] [NN1] [VBZ] 3 3.00 [JJ] (NN1] [II] 5 4.03
[NN1] [NN1] [II] 12 3.08 [APPGE] [NN1] [CC] 2 2.00 [CC] [NN1] [.] 4 3.23
[APPGE][NN1] (II] 11 2.83 [APPGE][NN1] [FU] 2 2.00 [JJ] [NN1] [CC] 4 3.23
[AT] [NN1] [I0] 10 2.57 [APPGE] [NN1] [II] 2 2.00 [JJ] [NN1] [VHZ] 4 3.23
[NNT2] (NN1] (II] 10 2.57 [AT] [NN1] [CC] 2 2.00 [II] [NNI] [,] 3 2.42
[.] [NN1] [I0] 7 1.80 [AT] [NN1] [CST] 2 2.00 [AT] [NN1] [CC] 2 1.61
percentageof total 48.59 percentageof total 30 percentageof 35.49
total
Table 93 - PP vs BNC Colligation
58.6 This table gives evidencefor the following colligational relations for
experience:
PP BNC Spoken I Written

1. top ten colligates in PP = 48.59% of total top ten Spoken = 30%
2. there is a greater concentrationof instances of top ten Written - 35.49%
colligation in a smaller number of types than in the
comparator corpora
3. as could be predicted from earlier comments all of only 2 out of Spoken top ten have a following
the top 10 colligates in PP have a following preposition (11)or "of" (10)
preposition (II) or "of' (10). 3 out of Written top ten have a following
preposition (II) or "of" (10)
4. the pattern Adjective + experience+ preposition/ no instances in Spoken top ten
of accountsfor 22.63% of all L1+R1+R2colligates 4.84% of LI+RI+R2 colligates in BNC
in PP - experiencesare frequently premodified Written
and further specified by of or prepositional phrase
5. Verb "has" + experience + of = 5.14% of no occurrences in top ten in Spoken or
instances in PP Written
30 If the reader is not familiar with the codes used in CLAWS POS mark-up they may wish to refer to
APPENDIX- CLAWS7 TAGLIST

Table 94 - Experience: colligates
58.7 Other three-word patternscan be identified by sorting and counting L2 + L1 +
RI and RI + R2 + R3 - see Table 95 PP Colligation (Left/Right). None of

-
these combinations has the same degree of patterning as L1 + RI + R2; the
highest incidence (10% of instances) being found in the right colligation
experience + of + present participle (e.g. experience of managing... ), although
this is worth noting as there is some evidence to suggest that it is a structure
which is not well known or used by foreign language learners31. Other larger
combinations are relatively rare (Table 96 - PP Colligations Left + Right
patterns),although again it is worth noting that there are 13 instancesof [JJ]
[NN 1] [10] [VVG] (i. e. considerableexperienceof managing..) and 7

...
instancesof [VHZ] [JJ] [NN 1] [10] [VVG] (i. e. has considerable
...
experienceof working ... ). It would seemthat the (possibly prefabricated)
chunks of text which writers of PPswork with can be quite large.
L2 LI RI totals 390.00 RI R2 R3 totals 390.00

[VHZ] [JJ] [NN1] 34 8.72 [NN1] [10] [VVG] 39 10.00
[NN1] [CC] (NNI] 22 5.64 [NNI] [II] [AT] 33 8.46
[VHO][JJ] [NN1] 19 4.87 [NN1] [I0] [NN1] 28 7.18
[MC] [NNT2] [NN1] 15 3.85 [NN1] [I0] [AT] 27 6.92
[NN1] [I0] [NN1] 12 3.08 [NN1] [IO] [JJ] 24 6.15
["] [-] [NN1] 11 2.82 [NNI] [II] [VVG] 16 4.10
[JJ] [NN1] [NN1] 10 2.56 [NN1] [II] [JJ] 15 3.85
[NN2] [CC] [NN1] 10 2.56 [NNI] [II] [NN1] 14 3.59
[PPHS1] [VHZ] [NN1] 10 2.56 [NN1] [II] [NPI] 11 2.82
[CC] [JJ] [NN1] 9 2.31 [NN1] [I0] [NN] 8 2.05
Table 95 - PP Colligation (Left/Right)
L1 RI R2 R3 totals 390.00 L2 LI RI R2 R3 totals 390.00

[JJ] [NN1] [10] [WG] 13 3.33 [VHZ] [JJ] [NN1] [10] [VVG] 7 1.79
[JJ] [NN1] [II] [AT] 12 3.08 [MC] [NNT2] [NN1] [II] [AT] 6 1.54
[JJ] [NN1] [II] [VVG] 12 3.08 [VHO][JJ] [NN1] [10] [NN1] 6 1.54
[JJ] [NN1] [I0] [NN1] 10 2.56 [VHZ] [JJ] [NNI] [II] [AT] 5 1.28
[JJ] [NN1] [I0] [AT] 9 2.31 [VHZ] [JJ] [NNI] [II] [VVG] 5 1.28
[JJ] [NN1] [II] [JJ] 8 2.05 [VHZ] [JJ] [NN1] [JJ] [II] 5 1.28
31 Of 183 instances of experience in a 400,000 word sample from the Longman Corpus
of Learners'
English there were only 8 instances of experience of *ing and four of these were direct quotations from
an essay with the title "Discuss your experience of learning a foreign language"I

[JJ] [NN1] [IO] [JJ] 7 1.79 [.] [-] [NN1] [10] [JJ] 4 1.03
[-][NN1][IO][WG] 6 1.54 [.] [-] [NNI] [I0] [VVG] 4 1.03
[NNT2] [NN1] [II] [AT] 6 1.54 [VHZ] [JJ] [NN1] [10] [AT] 4 1.03
[VHZ] [NN1] [10] [WG] 6 1.54 [DD1] [JJ] [NN1] [II] [AT] 3 0.77
Table 96 - PP Colligations Left + Right patterns
59. Is there any correlation between the word's uses / meanings and the
structures in which it participates?
59.1 In explanation of the possible implications of the relationship between
collocation, colligation and meaning, Hoey proposeswhat he calls the
"drinking problem"32hypothesis. Although the medium in which I am
working preventsme from replicating Hoey's graphic demonstrationof this
hypothesisat the time when it was first proposedat the Lodz Practical
Applications of Language Corpora Conferencein 1997- tipping a polystyrene
beakerof water onto the middle of the foreheadrather than into the mouth! -I
am able to offer Hoey's (less striking but no less clear) summary:
"- Where it can be shown that a common senseof a word

favours common colligations, then the rare senseof the word
will avoid thesecolligations.
- Where two sensesof a word are approximately as common

(or as rare) as eachother then both will avoid the colligational
patternsof the other.
- Where either a) or b) do not apply, the effect will be humour,

ambiguity (momentary or permanent)or a new meaning
combining the two senses." (Hoey M, 1997a: 6)
59.2 We have already seenthat BNC SpokenCore containsthree of the sensesof
experienceoffered in the COBUILD Dictionary (paragraph57.8) and I have
arguedabovethat the sense

of "experience is
asprofessionalwarrant" neither
fully coveredby the dictionary definitions nor frequently occurring in
32 Hoey was referring here to a joke in the film "Airplane" the joke depended on the potential
-
ambiguity in phrases such as "drinking problem"-a problem with alcohol? a problemwith getting liquid
into my mouth?

comparatorcorpora. A review of experiencein BNC Written Core (143
instances)revealsa similar pattern (seeAppendix 11: Experience- BNC
Written. doc). The only instanceswhere there may have been strongly similar
colligations in BNC Written and PP were for the [JJ] [NN1] [IO] (adjective +
experience+ of) pattern. When the actual contextswhich generatedthis result
are seen,there only proves to be one likely candidate- example 6 below. The
others are cancelledby the existenceof contradictory elementsin the extended
collocational contexts- e.g. "little" in 1., "my" in 2., "No" in 3., "single" in 4.,
and "My" in 5.
1y by users with little previous experience of computers. People who were

2 losest friend. Because my first experience of love was here, I have neve
3 iv Intra-party discord No long experience of membership of a constituen
4 as stopped dead, and the single experience of one coin being spun one ha
5 divl THE CLOUDS GATHER My first experience of service with HM forces was
6 ide opportunities for firsthand experience of work in the health service
Table 97 - "experienceof' in BNC Written
59.3 In other instances,the dominant colligational patternsfor experiencein PP -
adjective + experience+ preposition, adjective + experience+ of, verb "has" +
is
adjective experienceare absent,as the specific sensein which the word
+
is used in PP. A comparisonof the normalised counts (per thousand)for PP
and the BNC Core sets(Table 98 - experience:counts) confirms the relatively
high incidence of experiencein PP - although this difference in frequency of
occurrencewould not be its

sufficient on own to account for the different
colligationalandcollocational
relationsthat takes
experience on in the PP
Corpus. It would seem- as is predicted by the drinking problem hypothesis-
that a different meaning for a word requires different colligation and
collocations.
BNC Written BNC Spoken PP

Total 1,080,072.00 1,050,593.00 114,490.00
Experience Count 143.00 100.00 389.00

Normalised Count 0.13 0.10 3.40

Table 98 - experience:counts
60. Is the word associated with (any positions in any) textual organisation?
60.1 Hoey (1997a:10) reportedthat he found the word ago is twice as likely to
occur in paragraphinitial position, and 13% of all sentenceinitial instancesof
ago were text initial in the (largish) corpushe had to hand. Hoey (1997b) also
reports an experiment in which he demonstratesthe role that lexical clues play
in enabling subjectsto identify paragraphboundaries. In his 1997 study he
showedthat when certain word classes(e.g. namesof people) are sentence
initial, they also have a strong tendencyto be paragraphinitial:
"What appearsto be the caseis that the wording at the

beginning of the sentencedictateswhether we perceive it to be
a topic sentence. In other words, topic sentencesare the
product of micro-wording choices,they do not dictate such
choices." (Hoey M, 1997b:163)
A study of lexis seemsto have somethingto teach us about texts.
60.2 1 initially consideredtwo major positions that experiencecan occupy in PP:
sentenceinitial, and paragraph/ sentenceinitial. My test for sentenceinitial
was that the word (or noun phrasewhere experiencewas precededby a
determiner) occurred immediately after a preceding full stop (*. ) or a
paragraphstart code (<para> in PP Corpus -a paragraphwas defined as any
spanof text boundedby double hard returns: ¶¶). The first results indicated
that there are 85 instancesin PP where experienceis sentenceinitial. Closer
examination shows that this figure is misleading asthere is a significant
number of textual units in PP which are neither paragraphsnot sentences.I
proposeto use the categoriesheadingsand bullet points to accountfor these
categories.

60.3 Using thesecategories,experiencecan be found in PP in the text unit initial
positions listed below. (figures for BNC Core Written and the OUP /
IndependentNewspapercorpus are given for comparison)
Corpus # words instances of initial % % text initial

experience instances
PP -Paragraphs/ Sentences 114,490 389 85 21%
Sentence 29 7.4% 34% of text
initial
Paragraph 7 1.7% 8% of text initial
Bullet Point 15 3.9% 18% of text
initial
Heading 48 12.4% 56% of text
initial
BNC Core Written 1,080,072 142 5 3.5%
OUP / Independent 1,087,858 128 9 7.1%
Newspaper
Table 99 - PP sentenceinitial
60.4 The PP figure of 21% for experienceas text unit initial is strikingly high,
although looking at the sentenceinitial category on its own, it is important to
note that sentenceinitial experienceis only 7.4% of total instances-a similar
percentageto sentenceinitial experience(7.1% of 128) in the 1 million word
OUP Independenttext collection. The high incidence of text unit initial
is,
experience clearly, largely accountedfor by its use in headingsand bullet
points (74% of text initial experience).This demonstratesa conjunction of two
noteworthy aspectsof the PP corpus. The first has already been commented
on - the prominenceof certain key words. The secondis the pronounceduse
of a hierarchic structurewith numberedheadingsand subordinatebullet
points. This is a form which is not explicitly demandedby the Terms of
Referencethemselves(seeAppendix 33: PHARE Contract - TOR.doc),
although it is clearly encouragedby the way (e.g. Table 100 Document

-
in
structure) which the Terms of Referencethemselvesare structured:

WORK PROGRAMME
a2.2 The overall objective of this project is to help develop a successful an

sustainable RDA. The proposed approach is shown schematically in figure a2.1.
The following paragraphs describe briefly the main elements of each of the tasks
shown in figure a2.1.
Phase 1: initial review
Objective: to agree with the client the main training requirements and potentia
projects for further development and implementation in phase two, based on
realistic assessment of the area's needs and resource availability, and drawing
on best practice from elsewhere.
Task 1: review current activities and plans
a2.3 The first main task will involve a review of all current activities and plans of th
RDA. This will need to be undertaken in the light of the following factors, fo
which background information will be collected as part of this task:
the expectations and constraints of CCC
regional economic and physical development needs and priorities
financial resources
Table 100 - Documentstructure
60.5 Thesetext organisersare referred to as textual-mapping devices by Bhatia
who commentson their rapid developmentin legal English:
"Some fifty yearsago, thesetextual-mapping deviceswere

almost non-existent,but, in present-dayBritish legislation, they
are quite common." (Bhatia V 1993:142)
going on to comment on the way in which their use was much rarer in
...
other Commonwealth legislatures. Here is an example of the way in which
generic changesintroduced in one discoursecommunity are not necessarily
immediately incorporatedby analogouscommunities. Their use in PP, and the
intertextual resonancethey have for readers(PPs are more like thesetexts, less
like those), will be discussedin the final chapterin this section,
Chris Tribble - PhD.Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)

61. Conclusion
61.1 We beganthis chapterwith a discussionof some of the pedagogiclimitations
of the Biber framework for analysis,arguing that learnersnot only need
information about the stylistic and grammatical featuresof difficult texts, but
that it is also helpful for them to develop an understandingof the lexical
patterning of a target genre.This was followed by two short detours. The first
the
considered value of keyword analysisto show differences between genres.
The secondshowedhow a combination of keyword analysis and Hoey's "five
questions"provided a practical way of finding things out about the important
in
words a text. Thesetwo detourswere then followed by an extensiveaccount
of one of thesewords: experience.
61.2 The results we have obtained so far can be summarisedas follows:
9 It is possible to identify important words (keywords) in a text or set of genre
exemplars. Importance can be ascribedon the basis of significant presenceor
significantabsence.
" Software tools allow you to study hundredsof examplesof thesewords and to
identify their collocations, colligations, semanticprosodiesand roles in text
development.
" The results of such analysis give the learner accessto the phrasal collocations
of thesekeywords, along with an understandingof their roles in discourse
development.
61.3 The degreeof analysisto which experiencewas subjectedcould be considered
a cruel and unusual punishment, and would certainly not be required in order

(Lexical dimensions) Chapter 6: page221
to develop a pedagogically sufficient understandingof which words are
important in a difficult text and how thesewords behave. The analysis
undertakenabove does,however, offer a range of possible techniqueswhich a
teacheror learner could make use according to their particular needs. We will
consider how such an approachto the teaching of this sort of text could be
implemented in practical teaching contextsin a later chapter.

(Organisation) Chapter7: page222
SECTION TWO - AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEXTS
Chapter 7: Organisation
"You should be awarethat PHARE tender documentsare
highly standardisedand the form of the tender is very
prescriptive. Thus, 'salient common features'of the text are
highly probable." (correspondencefrom supplier of corpus
data May 1996)
62. Introduction
62.1 When I made my initial requestfor data to consultancygroups interestedin
winning the managementof PHARE Projects,I met with two main kinds of
reaction. The first was what I had expected- the documentsI wanted to study
had beendevelopedafter a significant investmentin time and money, and
could not be releasedbecausethey were commercially confidential. Another
group of correspondentshad a very different response. They were a little
surprisedthat I was interestedin the texts they wrote - the comment given at
the beginning of this chapterbeing fairly typical. Although writers in these
organisationsalso recognisedthat a large amount of effort and cost was
involved in the developmentof project proposals,they felt that - qua texts

-
therewasnot muchdifferencebetweentheproposalsthemselves,andthat I
would not find much of interest in their language. What really matteredin
their opinions was the CVs of the consultantsand the bottom lines in the
financial proposals. This was what won the contract.
62.2 1have argued in the chapter "Writing Difficult Texts" that one way of
accounting for difficulty in writing a text is in terms of a writer's unfamiliarity
with a given genre- and that this was the kind of difficulty on which I would
focus. In that chapter,I also said that as a result of the work undertakenin this
thesis, I hope to be able to offer "pedagogicpathways into unfamiliar texts so

that that which was difficult becauseit was unfamiliar becomesless strange,
and thereby easier". From such a perspective,if there are predictable
regularities acrossa particular genre,this doesnot constitute a disadvantage.
Rather, it makesthe genreeasierto approach,both for teachersand for
apprenticewriters - especially those working in their first or a second
language. In the chapters"Grammar and style" and "Lexical dimensions" I
have already noted severalnon-intuitive regularities which have potential
pedagogicvalue. In this chapterI will review the extent to which there are
other regularities above the clausecomplex and at whole text levels.
62.3 Bhatia (1993) suggestsa sevenstepapproachto genre analysis. This provides
a useful summary of much of what has been done up to and including this
chapter:
"1. Placing the given genre-text in a situational context

2. Surveying existing literature
3. Refining the situational/contextualanalysis
4. Selecting the corpus
5. Studying the institutional context
6. Levels of linguistic analysis
analysis of lexico-grammatical features
analysing the text-pattern or textualisation
structural interpretation of the text-genre
7. Specialist information in genreanalysis"
(Bhatia VJ 1993:22-34)
62.4 Steps 1-4 were largely accountedfor in "Writing difficult texts" and
"Approaching the data", and we addresseda number of the key issuesin step 6
in "Grammar and style" and "Lexical dimensions". The major stepsthat
remain are:
9a more detailed considerationof the institutional context
" the structural interpretation of the genre

" the collection of specialist information.
Specialist information and comments on the institutional context will be
presented in Chapter 8. In this present chapter I shall pay attention to aspects
of the structural interpretation of the genre, focusing on the organisation of
Project Proposals.
62.5 As I have already mentioned,practitioners do not appearto feel that there is
much of interest to discover in an analysis of the organisation of PPs. At first
sight this is, perhaps,true. So long as you read the TOR and the ITB carefully,
the overall structure of the proposal can be treated as given. I have found,
however, that an analysis of the texts in the corpus can reveal information and
insights of considerablepotential value to the learner. First, it showsthe
extent to which the TOR are not only a sourceof guidancewith regard to the
structure of the PP, but also a very valuable linguistic resource. Secondly, and
more importantly, the analysis indicates that the writers of the PPs in the
corpus shareremarkably similar to

approaches the organisation of their
argumentsat paragraphand section level.
62.6 This has a bearing on commentsthat I have made in earlier chaptersin this
thesis and offers good reasonsfor investing the time required to come to a
fuller understandingof the organisationof the genrein which you have an
interest. Thus, in Issue 2 at the end of Chapter2: Teaching Writing, I said that
in
studentsneedmultiple examplesof a genre order to have a reasonable
chanceof making appropriate generalisationsabout a difficult text they are
learning to write; and in Chapter 3: Approaching the data, I commentedthat it
would be important for learnersto review all of the sectionsof a new text if

they were going to give themselvesthe best chanceof successin writing into a
new genre. Although it will not help learnerscollect examplesof the target
genre,the kind of analysis that I presentin this chapterdoesoffer a way of
working with them once they have been collected!
62.7 In undertaking this analysisof the organisationof PPsI have adoptedtwo
approaches,eachoffering quite different perspectiveson what is going on in
thesetexts. PPscan be consideredto be reader-driventextspar excellence;
their highly structuredhierarchic heading systemslargely determinedby the
requirementsof the agencythat issuedthe TOR and ITB. The first analysis,
therefore,relatesto the macrostructureof PPs,focusingon the immediately
apparentorganisationalinformation that they all share- section headings. My
interest here is to seeif it really is the casethat the TOR have such a strongly
determining role in deciding the organisationof PPs.
62.8 The secondanalysiswas chosento complementthis first approach. My
overall conclusion regarding macro structure is that although there is much
that we can say about the language of sectionheadingsand the relationship
betweenthe TOR and the resultant PP, we cannot build a model of PP
organisation in general. Each proposal is very strongly linked to the TOR to
which it is responding. In this the quoted

sense, correspondent above is
correct: "PHARE tender documentsare highly standardisedand the form of
the tender is very prescriptive" - by implication, if you want an explanation of
a PPs macro organisation,go back to the TOR. What I felt I in

needed order to
complement the first analysiswas, therefore, something that would allow me
to look at units abovethe clause,and which would allow me to seeif there
were any significant patternings in PPsas discoursesthat were independentof

(Organisation)Chapter7: page 226
the TOR. Notions of minimal discoursesdevelopedby Winter and Hoey
(Hoey M 1983, Winter EO 1976,1977,1982, Hoey M&E Winter 1986)
offered such an analytic framework, and it hasproved to be very productive.
63. Macro structures
63.1 All of the texts in the PP Corpus have explicit organisationalfeatures. As a
minimum, thesetake the form of numberedmain headings(usually
conforming with ITB specifications) and numberedparagraphs. Some
consultancygroupshave opted for a more elaboratehierarchy of sections
headingsand subsectionheadings,using either automatic or manual systems
for number maintenance. Othershave usedrelatively complex systemsof
apparentheading and subheading,but thesehave been signalled
typographically rather than numerically, and often, in fact, prove to be
inconsistentacrossthe individual document.In order to ensurethat I was
making meaningful comparisonsbetweentexts in the corpus, it was necessary,
therefore, to edit the datato ensureconsistentheading and subheading
numbering acrossthe corpus. When the original texts were available as word
processorfiles, "sections" were identified on the basis of specific MS Word
heading number styles or on the basis of internally referencedtypographic
conventions(hierarchiesof font size, emboldeningand italicising). When
texts were scanned,internal paragraphand section numbershad to be
identified on the basis of typographic conventionsalone. In all instances,the
original documentshave beenreprocessedand section heading levels have
beenmade consistentso that a new "table of contents" can be generatedwith
an appropriatelevel of delicacy for the particular text. The most complex
section hierarchieshad four levels. The simplest had two. When I talk of

(Organisation)Chapter7: page 227
"levels" and "sections" below, it is, therefore, on the basis of theseexplicitly
signalled text organisationfeatures.
63.2 A first way of seeingif there is any overall structural similarity betweentexts
in the PP Corpus is to considerthe explicit headingsthat the writers ascribeto
sectionsof the proposals. The first level of analysis of this issuecan be purely
quantitative - how many labelled sectionsdo the texts have? The secondlevel
of analysiswill be concernedwith the wordings usedin the headings
themselves. In the sameway that Swales'comments

...
"The genrenamesinherited and producedby discourse

communities and imported by others constitute valuable
ethnographiccommunication,but typically needfurther
validation. " (SwalesJ 1990:58)
the namesof the headingsand subheadingsin PPsalso give insights into

...
the concernsand rhetorical purposesof this group of writers.
63.3 Three consultancy groups are representedin the PP Corpus- CGA, CGB,
CGC - and they have contributed fourteen texts in all - CGA (5), CGB (6),
CGC (3). Each containsa number of distinct "declared" sections- i. e.
explicit section headingswhich have been indicated as such either
typographically or numerically. Table 101 lists the number of declared
in
sections the 14 texts in the PP Corpus, and also gives information on the
number of words in the completetext, along with a normalised count for
declaredsectionsper thousandwords in order to provide a more useful basis
for comparisonthan the raw counts.

(Organisation) Chapter 7: page 228
consultancy group + proposal section total words normalised section count

identifier count (per 1000 words)
CGA I AB 29 2,861 1014
CGB BK182 20 2,873 6.96
CGB BK65 20 3,413 5.86
CGC BULG 68 12,879 5.28
CGA ENV 55 13,263 4.15
CGC CHEREPOV 17 4,345 3.91
CGA MIDEP 27 8,597 3.14
CGB BK47 16 5,171 3.09
CGB BK-178 16 6,458 2.48
CGC VLAD 28 11,703 2.39
CGB BK-162 15 7,434 2.02
CGA SCIT 20 10,510 1.90
CGB BK-11 13 10,867 1.20
CGA TERM 12 13,824 0.87
/"/)/c' 10/ ! 'l' (ni/nuv lore/ rau(I
- -
63.4 This analysis reveals a pronounced range in the use of section headings across
the PP corpus, both within consultancy groups and between individual
proposals, irrespective of the relative length of the particular documents.
Consultancy Group A (CGA) contributed one text with the highest level of
section elaboration (10.14 sections per 1000 words) as well as the lowest (0.87
sections per 1000 words). Similarly Consultancy Group B (CGB) provided
texts with the second highest (6.96 sections per 1000 words) and second
lowest levels of elaboration (1.20 sections per 1000 words). Why writers have
elected to use section headings in such different ways is not evident from the
texts themselves.
63.5 We have already said that the specific wording of the sections themselves
warrants t"urther consideration as there is a clear increase in diversity as one
moves down the hierarchy. A complete summary of the section headings used
in the corpus is given in Appendix 28: Organisation - Section Counts. When
this is analysed it reveals that there is a significant degree of common ground
in level I headings, and, predictably, much greater diversity at lower levels in
the hierarchic text structure. "Table 102 shows the counts for section headings
at each of the four text levels identified in PP Corpus texts. Table 103 shows
Chris "Tribble - I'hi) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

the increasing diversity in section labels at lower hierarchic levels. Section
I leading Level I has the lowest type: token ratio, while Section Heading
Levels 3 and 4 have the greatest diversity, with no duplication of types
evidenced.
section heading levels section heading count

Level 1 62
Level 2 151
Level 3 98
Level 4 45
Grand total 356
I ihlý I U' IIrýI IIH /, '1 ,/ (l)ids

-
section headings tokens types

Level 1 Count 62 40
Type / token = 0.645
Level 2 Count 151 123
Type / token = 0.814
Level 3 Count 98 98
Type I token = 1
Level 4 Count 45 45
Type / token = 1
l i1hli' l03- 1( "Iloll NN11pc. fo, 't'n

.
63.6 When I leading Level 1 headings are looked at in more detail, the way in
which they reflect the language in

and organisation used the Invitation to
"Fenderand the Terms of Reference issued by PHARE PMUs becomes
apparent. [,or example, the text in Table 104 is part of a PHARE Invitation to
Rid (1'!'13)and has been marked up (intuitively) to show the terms that are
conu1ionly found in such documents (the full text can be found in Appendix
31: NI IARI` Contract - Ffß). 'T'able 105 shows the different Heading level I
section headings in the PP Corpus. Reading the marked up ITB in conjunction
with Table 105 and the other heading levels exemplified in Appendix 31:
PI IARF Contract - ITB, provides an insight into how the terminology and
superficial organisation of the PP texts are indeed constrained as a result of the
"very prescriptive" nature of the form of the tender.

3. CONTENTOF TENDERS
The tender submitted by the Tenderer shall fully comply with the requirements set out in
the tender dossier and comprise:
N 3.1 A technical proposal consisting of:
3.1.1 Statements and Terms of Reference (future Annex A to the Contract):
O 3.1.2 A statement of Intention to provide the services in conformity with this tender dossier
E by the Tenderer or his duly authorised agent.
a) 3.1.3 The Terms of Reference for the services as they appear in the tender dossier, initialled
6 on each page by the Tenderer.
3.1.4 A copy of the first page of the General Conditions for Service Contracts financed from
O PHARE Funds, signed by the Tenderer.
U) 3.1.5 A statement concerning the sub-contracting envisaged for parts of the services, if sub-
B contracting is envisaged, signed by the Tenderer.
C- 3.1.6 A statement concerning the bank account to which payments may be made.
E 3.1.7 A signature by the Tenderer or his duly authorised agent
0 3.2 Organisation and Method (future Annex B to the Contract): This part shall cover in
V
particular:
a) Organisation of the project, method of work and experts proposed by the
- Tenderer as well as proposed human resources, sub-contractors and physical
means to be provided by the Tenderer for the prroiect implementation. This shall
cn include a descriptionin narrative and chart form of the consultant'sdistinctive
approach to the requirementsoutlined in ANNEX A. The criteria of evaluation should
take into considerationthe categorieswhich form the basis of the contractor'sinception
E report.
O b) A precise indication must be given concerning the total amount of man-day I man-
a) months I man-years proposed for each expert, and whether these experts are EC or
O local experts. The proposal must be coherent with the Terms of Reference. The
> tenderer should indicate that the candidates proposed and the quantity of services
offered; the number and the lob titles of the staff concerned will be provided, with a
description of the foundation and specific tasks assigned to the nominated team leader
8- and Individual experts, a bar chart indicating the professionals, showing periods on
N the duty station and in the home county, and estimates of total numbers of man-months
C required broken down by individual staff. The financial evaluation will consist in
comparing the global price of comparableoffers. With regard to human resources,the
Tenderer should note that the Terms of Referencebelong into one of the following
C categories,dependingon the nature of the project:
O- Fixed Term Expert Assignment (for instance for typical technical assistance
oriented projects): In this case manning requirements in quantity is clearly given in the
Terms of Reference and Tenderers must provide exactly the requested manning. The
0
technical evaluation will concentrateon the candidatesproposed by the Tenderer. The
financial evaluationwill consist in comparingthe global prices (total prices minus
reimbursables).
- Other composite services, where the Contracting Authority does not fix the inputs
needed in advance and the Tenderers themselves must evaluate (and justify) the
optimum manning needed. The technical evaluation will take into consideration both the
candidates proposed and the quantity of services offered. in this case, the number and
job titles of the staff concernedwill be provided,with a descriptionof the function and
E specific tasks assignedto the nominatedteam leader and individual expert, a bar chart
indicating the professionals, showing periods to be in duty station and in the home
O
country' and estimates of total numbers of man/months required broken down by
individual staff. The financial evaluation will consist in comparing the unit prices (total
prices minus reimbursables, divided by the number of offered working man-months of
EC experts).
W c) Logistics Plan: A description of the logistics planning foreseen for the whole
CD_ programme implementation. Particular attention should be paid to transport
arrangements, freight forwarding terms, and INCOTERMS in accordance with
PHARE procedures. Route maps for overland travelling should be included.
d) Risk Analysis: On the basis of Annex A's requirements,the contractorshould
provide a risk analysis outlining the probabilityof success in the time period and
_CO highlightingkey factors which have a bearing on the efficient and economic
c implementationof the project.
O
e) Time Schedule :The Tenderer must submit a workplan with envisagedspecific
reference to mobilisation of the team, submission of reports and documents, specific
0
meetings, and draft time to methods of accelerating the procurement and delivery of

goods without associated cost escalating factors.

f) Remarks, comments and suggestions which the Tenderer may consider it advisable
to raise.
g) A List of Staff; including Curriculum Vitae (future Annex C to the Contract) following
the standard model enclosed in the tender dossier should be included.
h) Furthermore, the following should be included:
-A signed commitment from each of the experts to accept the work proposed by the
Tenderer, if the Tenderer is awarded the contract,
-A document showing the firm's experience in the relevant field, and other information
such as the firm's structure and size or the firm's headquarter ability of back-
stopping the on-site operations (the same applies to the proposed sub-contractor(s), if
there is any).
l ahl, 104 -, v(i IL! no il PI I, I RI" iri
AND METHOD GENERALAPPROACH

LIST OF STAFF GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR SERVICE
CONTRACTS
STATEMENT AND TERMS OF INPUTS
REFERENCE
INTRODUCTION KEY ISSUES AND APPROACH
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY LIST OF STAFF + CVS
KEY ISSUES ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT
STATEMENTS AND TERMS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
REFERENCE
TECHNICAL RESPONSE PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND
STRUCTURE OF TEAM
TERMS OF REFERENCE PROPOSED APPROACH
WORK PROGRAMME PROPOSED PROJECT TEAM
WORKPLAN PROPOSED RESPONSE
ADVISERS QUALIFICATION OF TERMS OF
REFERENCE AND SCOPE OF WORK
ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES RATIONALE
BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE STAFF AND EXPERIENCE OF TEAM
COMMENTS ON THE TERMS OF STATEMENT OF INTENTION
REFERENCE
COMMITMENTS FROM EXPERTS STATEMENT OF UNDERTAKING
CURRICULA VITAE SUMMARY
CURRICULA VITAE OF PROFESSIONAL TECHNICAL APPROACH AND WORKPLAN
STAFF
EXPERIENCE OF TENDERER AND TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
SUBCONTRACTORS
EXPERTISE OF [Consultancy Group] 1& WORK PROGRAMME RESOURCES AND
l al, Ir III) - l. rrrl I lip udIIIQS
63.7 The apparent match between the language of the TOR sample and observed
language use in section headings was checked more objectively by creating a
list from the words and phrases which had been underlined in the extract from
the I'I'ß (this list contains 51 items), and then counting the words which occur
in both this list and the full listing of section headings. Details of this exercise
can he found in Appendix 28: Organisation: Section Counts. The final result
obtained shows that over 52% of the words and phrases informally identified
in the extract from a single ITB were also to be found in list of Section

(Organisation) Chapter7: page 232
Headingscollected from the whole PP Corpus. Such an approachproved
helpful as I was not able to apply an automaticprocedureto identify this kind
of phenomenon.In particular, the Scott style key-word list for an individual
ITB revealedno patterning connectedwith sectionheadings. The terms used
in headingsgain their significance through their position in the text, not as a
result of high frequency. This finding has a bearing on the issue of automatic
text analysis as it indicatesthat it is important not only to considerthe
frequency of words, but also to considerwhere words are used. Hoey has
already demonstratedhow "boring" words can become interesting as a result
of their in
position a text - e.g. the word "sixty" is sentenceinitial position in
71% of the instancesin which it appearsin a large newspapercorpus, and is
text initial in 14% of theseinstances(Hoey M 1997:21). By the sametoken, it
also appearsthat it can be instructive to account for the provenanceof the
languageused in obvious featureslike headingsand sub-headings. There can
be more to thesefeaturesthan meetsthe eye.
63.8 Two conclusionscan be drawn from theseinitial analyses,and both have
implications for pedagogy. The first is that the ITB and TOR constitute an
important resourcefor proposal writers. This may appearto be a truism for
expert writers, but is a fact that can easily be overlooked by apprentices. A
close reading of the demandsset by the ITB and TOR will usually provide
for
clear guidance writers about the overall structure the proposal should be
given, and the The

expectationsand motivations of potential readers33. other
conclusion is that ITBs and TORs are also valuable linguistic resourcesfor
writers approachingPPs for the first time. In particular, their terminology
33 For confirmationof this observation,see Chapter 8.

gives a clear indication of the expectations of the PMU or other organisation
which has issued the tender documents. Thus, they should be read carefully to
ensure that a) concepts have been understood, and b) terminology can be
adopted where appropriate. For example, in the extract from the ITB quoted
above, 'backstopping' is an interesting neologism which was echoed in a level
2 section heading: Backstopping, support and management.
63.9 Other issues arise for pedagogy when lower heading levels are considered.
One is that the proposals present considerable diversity with regard to the
number of levels of section headings that are used. This leads one to ask why
the writers have opted for high or low explicitness in the signalling of text
organisation. The second point is that it is often the case that relationships
between levels in the hierarchy are less than transparent. Again, what do
writers hope to achieve through their use of numbering schemes and section
headings, and to what extent are they aware of the impact of their use of these
schemes on the overall reader-friendliness of their texts? The interviews that
are reported in Chapter 8: Writing Project Proposals give some answers to
these questions - particularly regarding the importance of the ITB as a
for to
resource writers, and a lesserextent, the way in which the different
that
approaches to
consultancy groupsadopt planning and developing a
proposal determine the to

extent which they go beyond the levels of
organisation specified in the ITB. Further work on this aspectof PPsand
similarly tightly specified genrescould, however, be of interest.

64. Moves
64.1 If an analysis of explicit sectionheadingsgives us an indication of the
predictable macro structuresof PPs,are there other ways of coming to a
clearer understandingof how thesetexts work as discourses34

rather than as
formal text structures? One possible starting point is the idea of the move as
developedin Sinclair and Coulthard (1975). Drawing on the Hallidayan
categoriesof "structure, system,rank, level, delicacy, realization, marked,
unmarked" (Sinclair J&M Coulthard 1975:24), they proposeda five level
systemfor the analysis of classroomdiscourse(I. Lesson; II. Transaction; III.
Exchange;IV. Move; V. Act). There were five classesof move in Sinclair
and Coulthard's analysis of classroomlanguage:"Framing and Focusing
moves realise boundary exchangesand Opening,Answering and Follow-up
moves realise teaching exchanges." (Sinclair J&M Coulthard 1975:44).
Although thesecategorieswere developedwith a particular kind of interaction
in mind, Sinclair and Coulthard suggestedthat somemoves, e.g. Framing,
were probably typical of all spoken discourse(ibid: 44).
64.2 The notion of the move has since been applied to the analysis of written texts
by e.g. Swales(1981) who proposeda typical four move structurefor
introductions to researcharticle in the human, social and physical sciences:
Move 1: Establishing the research field

Move 2: Summarising previous research
Move 3: Preparing for present research
Move 4: Introducing the present research
34 I use discourse here in Widdowson's sense: "Discourse is a communicativeprocess by means of

interaction. Its situational outcome is a change in a state of affairs: informationis conveyed, intentions
made clear. Its linguistic product is text." (WiddowsonHG 1984:100). I find it clearer than those
definitions offered by, for example. Fairclough 1989 or Clark & Ivanio 1997,where it has been given a
"catch-all" status (Clarke R and R Ivanio 1997:14). Although it is narrowly cognitive, if one accepts that
all texts are mediated in social contexts of one form or another, it has the benefit of letting one focus on
how the text works as communication,rather than on how texts are produced.

64.3 Similarly, Bhatia discusses the "cognitive move structures" of Acts of
Parliament (Bhatia VJ 1993: 32), and Dudley-Evans discusses "move cycles"
in academic articles, raising the important questions:
".... first, how do we make decisions about the classification of

moves; and, second, how can we be confident of the validity of
the moves and the move cycles that are posited? " (Dudley-
I 'vans 1994:226)
For Dudley-Evans, practical answers to this question can he found in
approaches such as that taken by Crookes G (1986)35, or through recourse to
direct discussion with informants with a specialist background in the field
(Dudley-Evans T 1994:227).
64.4 When analysing classroom language or acts of parliament, a large part of the
analyst's task is necessarily concerned with identifying stretches of text which
have analogous communicative purposes and then establishing a classificatory
system lör the range of moves which the context requires. This kind of move
analysis has proved to be less valuable for PPs than it might be for texts which
have not been so explicitly labelled. On the basis of the 213 Level I and Level
2 headings that were discussed in paragraphs 63 ff. above, I have been able to
identify six potential classes of content element in PP (for details see
Appendix 27: Organisation - content elements). These are:
Administration 15
Context 12
Expertise of the Firm 14
Obligatory element 71
Project Team and Consultants 24
Optional element 77
Takle 106 - content elements
35 A group of informants were asked to apply a Swales 4 Move

model to the same article. Crookes was
able to obtain agreement at above 0.6, thereby demonstrating the general usefulness of the Swales
model (reported in Dudley-Evans T 1994: 227)

64.5 1 would not, however, be willing to call these moves in the sense proposed by
Sinclair and Coulthard or Swales. They certainly do not have the same kind of
predictive force as e.g. Methods / Results in laboratory reports (Dudley-Evans
F 1985). Rather, they appear to have little or no predictability, but result from
the interaction between the experience of earlier proposals prepared by the
team of writers in the bidding organisation and the Terms of Reference (TOR)
issued by the funding organisation. Thus, the content elements that I have
marked Administration, Context, and Obligatory element relate directly to the
requirements of the TOR which define the overall structure of the proposal.
Optional elements, on the other hand, appear to be specific to a proposal - or
even to the house style of the consultancy group involved in the bid (See
Chapter 8 for a discussion of this aspect of text organisation).
64.6 While it is possible to attempt a categorisation of some of these content
elements into discrete moves - e.g. AIM, METHODS and TEXT MAP within
Obligatory Content Elements (see Appendix 27: Organisation - content
elements).
laim 8
methods 52
text map 11
total rvý'' ý'
I ih/< /U ur obligatory content elements
such a set offers little explanatory value, and would offer no more
assistance to learners than would a close reading of the TOR they were
responding to. While this is not to claim that the idea of moves is of no

(Organisation) Chapter 7: page237
value36,the analysisI have attemptedof PPsindicatesthat the notion of moves
is less useful if the text in question is highly specified by its potential
readership.
65. Minimum Discourses
"It is not enough to identify problems. Our teams are

accustomed to finding solutions to the toughest of problems".
(quotation from Proposal BK178 in the PP Corpus)
65.1 If an attempt to analysemoves has not beenparticularly fruitful, an alternative
analysis of the organisationof PPs has, however, proved useful. This is
derived from the work of Winter (1977,1982), Hoey (1983), Hoey M&E
Winter (1986) on minimum discoursepatterns- notably Situation, Problem,
Response,Evaluation (SPRE) (Hoey 1983:34). Although in his 1983 study
Hoey (ibid: 31) stressesthat his choice of this particular pattern for close study
should not be taken as privileging it above other common patterns (e.g.
4 4
general particular, reason result), SPRE does appearto offer particularly
rich insights into the structure of PPs. It has proved possible to identify a
sequenceof SPRE'cycles in use acrossa number of randomly sampled
from
passages the Technical Componentof PPs and this has offered a useful
insight into the way in which PP writers organisetheir argument.
65.2 An individual example from CGA ENV is given in the following paragraphs.
This proposal, written by Consultancy Group A, offers an example of the way
in which a seriesof SPRE moves provides coherenceto text which might
otherwise be little more than a to-do list organisedaround a set of pre-
36 Continuing work on academic discourse (e. g. Thompson P 1997,1998) demonstrates that, although
problematic, move analysis can have powerful explanatory value, especially in settings where writers
are given little or no formal guidance regarding the requirements they must fulfil when writing into a
particular genre).

determinedsection headings.A four level Table of Contentsfor CGA ENV is
given in Appendix 5: CGA ENV - Table of contents.This confirms both the
way in which the ITB / TOR drive the overall organisation and how the
terminology of the section headings is driven by TOR language. In the first
instance, we will focus on two content elements under (III) General Approach:
Goal and Strategy.
65.3 In what is beginning to be an established tradition (Hoey M 1983) 1 tested my
own analysis of this text by offering it in jumbled form to seveninformants
(all either teachersor administratorsworking for the British Council in
Colombo, Sri Lanka; and all with educatednative-speakercommandof
English). The text of this exerciseis given below in Figure 18, the original
task and tabulatedresults are in Appendix 43: Text sequencingactivity)
Jumbled sequence
Strategy
It is acknowledged that the strengtheningof Environmental Education is an essentialelement

of reaching sustainabledevelopment in Poland. Teaching school-age children to care for
the environment is an investment in the future.
It is our understandingthat this project forms part of a programme of public awarenessand
curriculum development, building on existing educational activities and helping to create
an institutional framework for Environmental Education. We highlight below the factors
which we consider most important to maximise the impact and benefit of the technical
assistanceprogramme.
This project takes place in the context of a period of great change in Poland with the
emergenceof a modem advancedcountry taking its place in the European community of
nations. The environmental challenges facing the country are complex with industrial
and economic interests in the past being given precedenceover ecological interests.
A higher priority is now being given to environmental issues.
We acknowledge that changesare taking place rapidly in Poland and that development may
alter the picture of Environmental Education, Our plan and our consultants are highly
flexible and can respond to developmentsas they happen.
Figure 18 - Text sequencingexercise
65.4 Results from my sevenrespondentsare shown below. 4 out of 7 of the
respondentswere able to reconstructthe passageexactly (57%). More
interestingly, 86% were able to identify the opening and closing Situation /

l; valuation sections, with the Problem statement causing greatest confusion

-
although there was no consensus regarding the likely candidates for Problem.
one 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
two 3 4 2 1 1 1 1
three 2 1 1 2 2 2 2
four 4 2 4 4 4 4 4
1 86%
2 57%
3 71%
4 86%
65.5 By doing this very small study I was not attempting to add anything to the
argument around minimal discourse patterns; that case has been well made
elsewhere. What I was interested in was to check if my intuition about the
relevance of this pattern in this particular context was reasonable - and it
seems to have been. The original sequence of this extract is given in Figure 19
below. It will be noted that the Problem / Solution sequence were, in fact, in
the same numbered paragraph in the original text. It is certain that the re-
ordering would have been a great deal easier to do had the jumbled text been
offered as a three paragraph problem.
Chris "Tribble - I'hi) Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

A This project takes place in the context of a period of great change in Poland with the
mergence of a modem advanced country taking its place in the European community of
cations. The environmental challenges facing the country are complex with industrial and
conomic interests in the past being given precedence over ecological interests.
[5. A higher priority is now being given to environmental issues. It is acknowledged that
he strengthening of Environmental Education is an essential element of reaching sustainable
levelopment in Poland. Teaching school-age children to care for the environment is an
nvestment in the future. It is our understanding that this project forms part of a programme
)f public awareness and curriculum development, building on existing educational activities
nd helping to create an institutional framework for Environmental Education. We highlight
)elow the factors which we consider most important to maximise the impact and benefit of
he technical assistance programme.
16. We acknowledge that changes are taking place rapidly in Poland and that
levelopment may alter the picture of Environmental Education, Our plan and our consultants
are highly flexible and can respond to developments as they happen.
Figure 19 - ENV.,Text sample
65.6 The extract exemplifies a rhetorical strategythat appearsto be common to
many of the texts in the PP corpus. SITUATION and PROBLEM are given
elements,drawn directly from the TOR. As a result, in finite clausesin S/P
cycles the /
grammatical subject actor is associatedwith neutral, impersonal
subject noun phrases:
SITUATION: the project / environmentalchallenges/a higher priority

PROBLEM: it / the strengthening of environmental education / teaching school age
children
By contrast, responsibility in the RESPONSE/ EVALUATION cycle lies with
the consultancy group, and the grammatical subject / actor has, accordingly, a
very different reference:
RESPONSE: it (our understanding) / this project I we / we

EVALUATION: we / changes / development/ our plan / our consultants/ they
(developments)
Identifying this local phenomenonhas led me to make a more detailed study
of first personpronouns in the PP corpus, a study which has shed light both on
the extent to which SPRE is spreadacrossthe proposalsin the corpus, and the
in
ways which first personplural pronouns are strongly implicated in

Response / Evaluation. Results of this study are reported in paragraphs 65.7
to 65.14
65.7 My earlier analysis of PP had led me to conclude that personal pronouns were
a relatively low frequency element in PPs and were unlikely to play a major
role in the structure of the texts. What I found was that first person plural
pronouns actually have a relatively high frequency in PPs -a conclusion that
runs counter to my earlier understanding of the genre. This apparent
contradiction arises from a limitation in Biber 1988 - viz. that there is no
differentiation between first person singular and first person plural pronouns.
All first person pronouns are lumped together as a single class. What becomes
clear when you look at the difference between uses of we/our/us and I/my/me
in PP in comparison with a general corpus such as LOB, is that there are
striking and important contrasts between the proposals in the PP corpus and
other texts (Table 108).
we/our/us 767 6.699275 4942 4.015275

I/my/me 2 0.017469 10950 8.896653
first-person pronouns 769 6.716744 15892 12.91193
total words 114,490 1,230,800
fahle /(/8 - first person pronouns in PP and LOB
In I'I's the number of first person singular pronouns is negligible (and in fact is
the result of the inclusion of the text of a letter of intent in one of the PP texts)
- especially when compared with LOB. However, normalised counts (per
thousand) for first person plural pronouns shows that the count is in fact
higher in I'll than it is across LOB. This contrast is, however, masked, if only
the combined counts for personal pronouns are taken. In this case the
normalised count for PP comes out lower than in LOB.

65.8 This contrast is maintained if one looks at first person pronouns in PP and
their nearest analogues in LOB+. Again, there is an initial impression that PP
has fewer first person instances than everything apart from Academic Prose
(Table 109):
Linguistic feature PP Press Press lI Religion Off Doc Ac Let

Rep Rev Prose Prof
liest puisun plollowis Gi i 00 16 60 10 00 ; `) /,0 40'00
-50
Table /09 - first person pronouns (%ornial writing)
Although data for a split singular/plural count are not available for LOB+, I
would predict that the reality of the matter will be that the PP will prove to
have a similar count to Academic Prose, but that the gap between e.g. Official
Documents or Religion would be reduced if singular and plural counts were
separated.
65.9 What appears to be the case in PPs is that in a significant number of instances
(e.g. 28% of the instances of "our" in the PP Corpus37) it is typically
associated with moments when the writer is presenting either:
"a SOLUTION e.g. :
We propose to contact other publishers if WSIP are not

able to meet our delivery deadlines "
...
"... fur approach to the technical assistance will therefore be
to build up and support local capacity ... "
" or an EVALUATION in which the consultancy group's previous experience is
called on to justify their analysis e.g. :
37 in the other 60% of instances it is typically associated with the capacities or personnel associated
with the firm

"... In particular, our partnershipcan bring the following

benefits to the programme "
"... Throughout,
... be
our aim will to maintain quality and
relevance of the work in an environment which is rapidly
changing ... "
"... Theseclarify our understandingof the terms used and offer
suggestionswhich we consider will maximise the effectiveness
of the inputs "
...
65.10 The right collocates for the 61 instancesof "our" in thesecontexts given in
Table 110 show how this particular pronoun is strongly associatedwith
proposedactions and purposesor earlier experience.
experience 21
approach 20
general (approach) 4
understanding 4
view 3
aim 2
intention 2
initial (aim) 1
input 1
knowledge I
objective 1
use I
Table 110 - right collocates "our" in the PP Corpus
65.11 Similarly, the right collocatesfor "we" (in this casefrom the ENV proposal
alone) indicate a similar set of rhetorical organisers. On the one hand our
experiencemight suggesta solution. On the other, we might propose a
solution.
propose 28 feel 1
have 8 highlight 1
will 7 intend 1
consider 5 list 1
understand 3 offer 1
acknowledge 1 provide 1
are I shall 1
believe I would 1
expect I
Table111- "We"in ENV
65.12 There is a good reasonfor the predominanceof SPREpatternsin PP. The
essence of proposal writing is having to respond to a set of givens. Proposal
writers are neither inventing a project, nor presentingtheir independent
analysis. Rather, they are respondingto the analysis of the situation which is

presentedby the TOR. Although they are invited to commenton this analysis,
there is a limit to the extent to which it is profitable to challengethe analysis
presentedin the original project specification. If you are bidding to managea
project, you are obliged to acceptthe fundamentalrationale for the proposed
reform.
65.13 The way in which SPRE and associatedpatternsare used can be seenin many
sectionsof the texts in PP. Two further examplesare given below. The first
shows a Problem / Response / Evaluation cycle where there is once again a
clear shift from the neutral impersonal grammatical subjects/ actors in the
Problem element,to first personplural grammatical subjects/ actors in
Responseand Evaluation.
CGC (CHEREPOV)
[PROBLEM] Task 5: design planning processesand procedures
a2.11 This is an essentialstagein development of the planning and delivery capabilities of

the RDA. [RESPONSE] We will work with the RDA staff to design appropriate planning
processesand procedures.The processeswill cover project identification, involvement of
key actors in the region, packaging to attract resources,and monitoring and review.
[EVALUATION] Our input will be to draw on successfulexperienceelsewhereand help
local staff to develop processesappropriate to local circumstancesand the types of projects to
be undertaken.
Table 112 - CGC Cherepov
65.14 The samepattern is shown in a more extendedexample. Once again the
Problem is statedthrough the languageof the Terms of Referenceand the
Responseand Evaluation are signalled by the use of first personplural
pronouns.

BK162
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The wider objective of the Programmeis:
[PROBLEM] "the strengtheningof the strategicapproachto social policy by way of

maximising coordinationand upgradingthe information and project implementation
functionswithin the Ministry of Labour and SocialWelfare."
Within this, the immediateobjectivesof the programmeare:
" the strengtheningof the in-housecapacityof the recently createdPolicy Coordination

Unit (PCU) to provide policy advice within the MLSW;
" to provide assistanceto the recently createdInformation TechnologyCentre in the
developmentof integratedinformation systemswithin the MLSW;
" to assistin the developmentof the implementationcapacityof the PMU;
" to provide assistancein the developmentof OccupationalSafetyand Health (OSH)
Policy;
" to assistin the designand implementationof appropriatesocial policy responsesto

the consequences of economicrestructuring.
1.23 METHODOLOGY
GeneralApproach
[RESPONSE] Our generalapproachto this project will havethe following characteristics:
" flexible and appropriateresponseto Bulgarian needs;

The structuringof this contractis designedto allow the use of short-termexpertiseat
short notice. The TeamLeaderwill work closely with colleaguesin the MLSW, and
in particular with the Director of the PMU, to identify the short-termTA needs. This
identification will carried out within the contextof the medium-termstrategy
developedduring the inceptionphaseof this Programme.
" working in partnershipwith our Bulgariancolleagues;

The purposeof this contractis to assistthe MLSW and the PMU to find Bulgarian solutions
to Bulgarian problems. While it is important to shareEU and other countries'experienceand
bestpracticewith our Bulgarian colleagues,it is at the sametime essentialthat this
experiencebe translatedefficiently so that it is relevantto the Bulgarian situation.
[EVALUATION] Our experienceis that it is only by working in close partnershipwith our
local counterpartsthat sucha translationcantake place.
Table 113 - BK162
66. Conclusion
66.1 This brief discussionof the organisation of project proposals closesthis
central section. In the first chapter (What are we looking for? ) I outlined some
of the problems which were met in applying a corpus basedapproachto the
study of a specific genre. In the second(Grammar and Style) we saw how the
results of a corpus basedanalysis using the framework developedin Biber
1988could offer valuableinsightsinto the linguistic constructionof a
particular genre,particularly along the interpersonaldimension, and how such
an approachhad potential value in writing pedagogy. In Lexical dimensions

an analysis of Keywords (Scott 1996) was usedto provide an accountof the
wordings chosenby PP writers.
66.2 In this last chapter, Organisation, we have accountedfor two aspectsof the
organisation of PPswhich are likely to have pedagogicvalue in the
developmentof an argumentin PPs explicit section headingsand the use of

-
a minimal discoursepattern (SPRE). Clearly, neither of theseobservationson
the structure of PPshas been intendedas a definitive statementabout the
structure of "difficult texts". The purposeof the chapterhas beento
demonstratethe pedagogicpotential of seeingwhat kinds of structureexist in
genresin which one is interested.If an assumptionis being made, it is that
generically relatedtexts will have somekind of structure and that the structure
of one member of a genreis likely to be related to the structure of another. In
PPsthe common elementsare:
" the organising languageof the TOR/ITB and its impact on the organisation of
the proposal itself, and
" the minimal discoursepattern which underpinsthe argumentsin the proposal
and which is related to the conditions in which PPsare produced
The patterns and organisationalfeatureswill be different in other genres,but
they will exist and they are somethingthat it will be useful for the writer to
identify as part of the preparationfor writing. In the final chaptersof the
thesis we will seeto what extent the observationsthat have beenmade in this
chapter and earlier chaptersin Section Two accord with the understandingof
writers in the organisationswhich provided the texts in the PP corpus, and
what relevancethey have for writing pedagogy.

(Writing Project Proposals) Chapter 8: page247
SECTION 3- TALKING TO WRITERS
Chapter 8: Writing Project Proposals

"My overall responsibility was to win the project."
(Project proposal writer in conversation 12 May 1998)
67. Introduction
67.1 In Chapter 3 (Approaching the Data: dealing with genre), I said that this thesis
would have three areasof focus: pedagogic,corpus and casestudy. Issuesin
pedagogywere introduced in Chapter 1 (Writing Difficult Texts),and Chapter
2 (Teaching Writing) and will be returnedto in Chapter9 (Helping learners
write difficult texts); corpusissueshave been addressedin the four chaptersof
Section 3. In this chapterI will describethe approachtaken in the
developmentof the casestudies,and will report findings that have arisen from
them.
67.2 In conducting theseinterviews, I have becomemore aware of the value of
mediating insights gained from corpus analysiswith additional, more
ethnomethodologicallyoriented data. The researchinto writing reviewed in
Chapter2 contains many studiesof the composition processesof individual
writers, and there is a growing literature which is able to demonstratethe value
of a corpus linguistic approachto the study of specific written genres(Scott
MR 1998, McKenna B 1997,Thompson P 1998,Tribble C 1998),or the study
of writing processesfrom the perspectiveof the organisation in which the text
is written (Odell L& Goswami D 1985, Spilka R 1993, GunnarsonB 1997).
However, I am not aware of studieswhich combine a corpus analysis of a
specific genrewith a review of writing practices and preferencesin the
organisationswhich have provided the original corpus data. The results

reported in this presentchapter indicate the potential of such a combined
approach,and further applications of the approachshould yield significant
insights in future studies.
67.3 Although the casestudiesreported in this chapterare small-scale- three
interviews with writers from two of the organisationswhich contributed to the
PP corpus - they have proved useful. Specifically, they have achievedtheir
main purposeof enhancingour understandingof the ways in which contextual
knowledge (knowledge of audience,of other texts etc.) is drawn on when
writers are making selectionsfrom the meaningpotential of English during the
composition of texts which are part of the Genre Specific Potential of a
specific communicative context. Thus, the greatestimmediate value of the
interviews has beenthat they provide insights into:
" the writing processadoptedin successfultendering organisations
" the linguistic and text organising preferencesof experiencedwriters within
theseorganisations
" the reasonswhy expert writers of PPshave such preferences.
67.4 The interviews proved to have an additional value as they have allowed me to
test conclusionsreachedin the earlier corpus focused chapters. Thesewere:
" There is a close relationship betweenthe languageof the documentsprovided
in the Invitation to Bid and the final text of the technical proposal. This
relationship goesbeyond a simple re-statementof required section headings,
as it includes a consciousre-working and incorporation of themesand
argumentsdevelopedby the writers of the TOR

" Writers of PPsdraw on a knowledge baseof preferred keywords when writing
proposals. The lexical set used is not necessarilydependenton the immediate
purposeand focus of the proposal, but is, rather, related to the desire of the
to
writer presentthe professional standing of their organisation in a favourable
light. In the context of PPs(and, I would predict, in other clearly delineated
genres)this tendencyto draw on a set of preferred lexis also produceslocal
semanticprosodiesas part of the genrespecific potential.
67.5 In the next section I will describethe organisationswhich participated in the
survey and the individuals who took part in interviews. I will then go on to
outline the instruments I have used in the casestudy and results that have been
obtained.
68. The organisations
68.1 Members of staff from two organisations(OrganisationA, OrganisationB)
to
agreed participate in this stageof the researchproject: one from
Organisation A, and two from OrganisationB.
68.2 Organisation A is a large UK based organisation with a world-wide network of
offices and over 50 years' experience in aid and development work, and the
capacity to bid for the management of both large and small human resource
development projects. The interview with Interviewee 1 took place in the
organisation's UK headquarters. Although the organisation employs a large
number of staff, and can, therefore, draw on a very rich human resource, it
also suffers from frequent lossesof continuity in its project teamsas a result of
the continual movement of staff to and from the UK. While, once again, this
has some advantagesin terms of the network of overseascontactsthe

organisation is able to call it

on, can have a serious impact its
on capacity to
respondquickly and effectively to bid proposals. With senior staff sometimes
recently arrived in post, and the ever-presentrisk that key staff will be moved
or promoted to other parts of the organisation,it can be difficult to bring
appropriatewriting teamstogether at short notice.
68.3 Two staff membersin OrganisationB agreedto be interviewed. Organisation
B has a very different history and structure. It was established10 years ago by
three founding partners,and is still managedby this trio. Specialisingin
economic and consultancy

management it has developeda strong reputation in
social reconstruction. It has a small building

headquarters in the UK and two
overseasoffices, and currently employs 50 specialist consultants. Being a
small organisationit has the capacity to respondrapidly to the changing needs
of its clients, but it also lacks the large-scalenetwork required to manage
extensiveprojects independently,so often entersinto strategic alliances with
in to
other suppliers order win and managecontracts. This is an advantagein
so far it
as allows the company a high degreeof flexibility in its operations,
but also has a down side as it often meansthat membersof the core team can
becomeseriously over-stretched!
69. The interviewees
69.1 Interviewee 1 has worked in OrganisationA for over 15 years. She is a British
national with a long experienceof working in Eastern Europe. Although she
has this long experienceof project management,shehas only recently begun
to be directly involved in proposal writing. She is the author of one of the

texts in the PP Corpus, and was initially interviewed during the preparatory
stageof this researchproject.
69.2 Interviewee 2 has worked in OrganisationB for around eight years. Her first
languageis German,but she is fully effective as a writer of English and has
beenresponsiblefor the preparation of a number of successfulTechnical
Proposals. During her time with OrganisationB shehas worked as a
consultanton economic and social developmentprojects in Britain and central
Europe, and is now basedin the headquartersoffice with a managementrole in
a number of UK projects.
69.3 Interviewee 3 has worked in OrganisationB since it was established. At the
moment, he is more actively involved in long term consultanciesin Eastern
and central Europe than Interviewee 2, spendingpart of his year in field
activities, and the rest of his time in the UK headquarters. He is currently
for
responsible project pursuit within the region and has been involved in the
developmentof a seriesof technical proposalsduring the last three years.
69.4 I was fortunate to be able to gain accessto thesethree interviewees as they
representa useful cross-sectionof proposal writers. Interviewee A has only
recently begun to take responsibility for proposal writing, and was much more
tentative in many of her conclusionsthan the other two interviewees.
Additionally, the consultancy group which employs her standsin sharp
contrast to the company which employs the other two interviewees. Being
both large and highly bureaucratic(at least at headquarterslevel) it imposes
very different kinds of constraint on the proposal writer from those imposed
by OrganisationB. Not only do Interviewees B and C work in this smaller,
flexible organisation,but they have had contrasting experiencesof

more

,
proposal writing. Interviewee B has worked for severaldifferent organisations
and tended,in discussion,to view proposalwriting from a "best practice"
perspective. Interviewee C, on the other hand, has worked in the same
organisationthrough most of his post-university career,and tendedto be
slightly more cavalier - or, at least, pragmatic - in his view of the processof
proposal development. All this has meantthat although the picture of
proposal writing gainedfrom the interviews is by no meansexhaustive,it is
more extensive than might initially be indicated from the numbers involved.
70. Interview structure
70.1 The interview was plannedto last for one hour (the pre-agreedtime) and was
basedon two activities: a structuredinterview and a text analysis task.
70.2 The interview (seeAppendix 19: Interviews - Questionnaire)had two main
sections. In the first section, the writing context was discussedthrough two
setsof questions. The first set included three questions,all relating to the
ways in which the writing of the Technical Proposal is managedin the
organisation:
" What happensin your organisationbefore project proposal writing begins?
(focus on project identification / team formation

...
" What happensin your organisation at the beginning of proposal writing?
(focus on team management/ task allocation / analysis of TOR / identification
of consultants ... )
" What happensin your organisation during the processof proposal writing?
(focus on developing drafts / peer review )

...

70.3 Questionsin the secondset enableda more detailed discussionof the choices
that were made in the developmentof text, focusing on:
" the use of the Terms of Reference(TOR), and the Invitation to Bid (ITB) in
the developmentof the proposal
" the overall organisationof the technical proposal (TP)
" the reasonsfor the naming of key sectionsin the TP.
70.4 Section 1 of the interview was designedto elicit information about the writing
culture which exists within the tendering organisationand the roles of
proposal managers. One of the main findings of the corpus study components
of this researchproject has been the strong influence of the languageof the
TORs on the organising languageof the Technical Proposals(section headings
and sub-headings). I wanted to use the opportunity for discussionwith
experiencedwriters to investigatethe extent to which writers are aware of the
influence of the TORSand to clarify their reasonsfor drawing on them in the
developmentof the PPs.
70.5 Section 2 was basedon a text analysistask in which the interviewee was asked
to read a short extract from a TP (not written by a member of the consultancy
group) and to mark those words or passagesin it which were:
" different from the way in which they would have worded such a passageor
" similar to their way of writing.
70.6 This task was designedto provide intervieweeswith an opportunity to provide
specific exemplifications for the opinions they had offered in Section 1.

Asking intervieweesto undertakea detailed analysis of a short spanof text
proved to be a useful techniqueas it elicited information which could not have
beenobtained from questioning alone. Although findings from this section
reveal a significant lack of homogeneityand approachwithin and between
consultancy groups,they also showed an overall similarity of approach-
despitedifferences in interviewee experienceand writing context. These
results will be discussedin the following sections.
71. Interview results: Question Set 1- Starting
71.1 What happens in your organisation beforeproject proposal writing begins?
In the context of the PHARE programme,both organisationshad similar
approachesto project pursuit, using a combination of web-basedresearchand
active 'getting alongside'approachesto the governmentdepartmentsand
individuals who might becomeinvolved in future EU projects. The reasonfor
this preparatorywork is to ensurethat the organisationis (a) aware of what
will be coming up in its field, and is (b) able to maximise its chancesof being
shortlisted as a potential supplier once it has submitted a formal expressionof
interest.
71.2 Deciding whether or not to expressan interest is in itself a complex process.
The criteria which are common to both organisationsare:
" Will the contract provide a satisfactoryreturn on investedtime? PHARE, for
instance,becamesignificantly less interesting for British organisationsduring
1997/98as a result of the very strong pound sterling.
" Is the organisation'sbid likely to be favourably viewed by the national
government? In some circumstancesthere can be a significant preferencefor

suppliers from one country rather than another,and it may not be worth your
while starting a tender.
" Does the organisationhave appropriatepotential partners? PHARE projects
typically involve two or three EU countries, and having the right partnerscan
be critical to the successof a bid.
" Does the organisationhave the right staff available? There is a general
assumptionamongstwriters with an interest in this kind of bidding process
that the CVs of the experts are of paramountimportance- i. e. if you do not
have theseright, you might as well not bother!38
71.3 What happens in your organisation at the beginning of proposal writing?
Once the organisationhas received the Invitation to Bid (ITB) or Invitation to
Tender, one of the first issuesit has to face is whether or not the proposal is to
be written by one personor a team. The theoretical position seemsto be that:
once you get the Invitation to Tender, something called a

... includes
proposal team is put together which the proposal
manager- who's the personwho will write the bulk of it. But
it will also have a proposal director who's the personwho will
make some sort of quality control - reads it hopefully before it
goesout! And then other memberswho might be in a position
to write things for it and who will also later be in the team to do
the work. (Interviewee 2)
This however, is not always possible or appropriate,and the second
interviewee from Organisation B reportedthat:
38 This assumption does not fit comfortably with the considerable effort that organisations put into
proposal writing. The fact of the matter appears to be that while "names" are important, their importance
is in itself a textual construction. While the expertise of individuals is not in doubt, names only become
"names" as a result of the accumulated weight of other documents (e. g. consultancy reports, project
evaluations), and the way in which earlier experience is represented through the arguments, histories
and connections presented in the technical proposal itself.

(Writing Project Proposals) Chapter 8: page 256
In theory, a proposal is written by severalpeople. In practice

[... ] it's very often the sameperson- becauseit's quicker - one
personthinking through the approachand assemblingthe bits is
better than several(Interviewee 3)
71.4 Such a view supportsconclusionsreachedby Kleimann in her 1993 study of
the relationship betweenworkplace culture and review processes(Kleimann S
1993). OrganisationB is a small operation with good internal communication,
but also puts its staff under quite considerablepressurein terms of the scale
and range of tasks they have to undertake. In such circumstancesthe specific
the
workplace culture encourages occasionalsacrifice of best practice in
favour of getting the job done as quickly as possible.
71.5 If an organisation doesdecide to opt for a team approach,all interviewees
agreedthat there is a strong need for single point management,and that, at the
end of the day, one personmakes a betterjob of pulling all of the text
componentstogetherthan many.
my responsibility was to produce a document that was

...
coherent, that had no erratic leaps,that had an internal
intellectual logic to it so that one section flowed into another
without any gaps. And that a document which had different
authors contributing could be seenas a single whole.
(Interviewee 1)
71.6 Interviewees also acknowledgedthat prior experienceof writing proposalsfor
the agencywhich issuedthe ITB is a key qualification for the proposal
manager- while recognising that this too its

can produce problems.

We see that [having written this kind of proposal before] is

very important, because you have to be experienced in reading
the TOR and understanding the TOR and then putting across
the message of how you want to do it - so there is an element of
having done it before which helps you do it again. But there's a
danger probably that you become too stale we have personally
-
in the company one or two people whose proposals I find are
just deadly boring because I just feel that they are so
stereotypical and mechanical (and some of those that we
haven't won recently! ) Now I'm not sure why, but sometimes,
there comes a point where we just chum things out and that's
not good either, so I think you need to bring a certain freshness
to it too [... ] (Interviewee 2)
71.7 One way to avoid this sort of problem is to ensurethat the proposal draws on
the ideas of more than one person. Interviewee 2 describedthe use of
'brainstorming' sessionsas a way of ensuring freshness:
thesetend to be very useful given that we've got such a

...
range of people working here and it's proved to be very helpful
if one can have an hour, an hour and a half, together to spell out
some key points. There's always a kind of "think-piece" bit in
those proposals,where you demonstratethat you've understood
the TOR, that you're competentin the field and that you can
add value to the TOR at this stage(Interviewee 2)
71.8 What happens in your organisation during the process of proposal writing?
As a further strategyto avoid the stalenessthat can come from over-
familiarity, the bidding organisationsinterviewed here also invest time and
resourcesin ensuringthat the proposal draws on expert opinion, and that this
is closely matchedto the needsand expectationsof the potential recipient
country.
I supposeyou're parallel tracking - building up the team at

...
the sametime as you're building up the approach. You're also
gathering information on how to bid - which may involve a
visit to the country and will probably involve speakingon the
phone to people, maybe gathering general country information
[... ] Typically if you're dealing with outside people, you're
dealing with them becausethey have some specialised
knowledge either of the country or the subject, so that is
feeding into what you're writing as well. (Interviewee 3)

71.9 In such a context, the writer's task is relatively clear. This understandingis
neatly summedup by Interviewee 1:
My overall responsibility was to win the project. Winning the

project in our proposal meant demonstrating that we knew what
we were doing, that we'd taken account of all aspects of the
Terms of Reference, and that we were able to illustrate our
competence, the experience that was relevant to the
implementation of this particular project, and our ability to
provide a flexible response to the terms and conditions of this
particular project ...
The corpus study confirmed the generalimpact acrossall of the texts in the PP
corpus of this needsimultaneouslyto demonstrateprofessionalcompetence
and institutional to
responsiveness the needsof the client. Professional
competencewas signalled through devices such as the suasivelanguageof the
proposals(e.g. the high incidence of attributive adjectives and phrasal
coordination) and the exploitation of local semanticprosodies. Professional
flexibility was often signalled through the echoing of the languageof the
TORSwhich accompaniedthe invitation to bid. (See sections72 and 73 below
for a fuller discussion).
71.10 However, while being aware of this over-riding responsibility, all interviewees
stressedthe time pressurethat they are under when writing:
"One of the criticisms directed at us regularly is that we don't

have time to check the final product with all the partners,so
they don't get a final say in the shapeof the thing that's
submitted. But life's a bit like that, you know, you don't get
enoughtime" (Interviewee 1)
They also commented,that although their organisationshave produced
guidelines for proposal development,they are frequently ignored in the
of
pressure getting the job done:

"We do have what is called a proposalwriting handbookwhich

a colleagueof mine put togetherwhich maps out the procedure
how one should go about it, but to be honestwe don't always
follow that - which is unfortunatebecauseit is very sensible,
the way he has structuredit. " (Interviewee 2)
72. Interview results: Question Set 2- Writing the technical proposal
72.1 The secondset of questionsin the interview focusedon the interaction
betweenthe proposal writer and the documentationprovided in the ITB. All
those involved in the interviews stressedhow important this is to effective
proposal writing:
"the Terms of Referenceare central, absolutely central to

writing a proposal " (Interviewee 1)
-a view which confirmed the findings reported in the Section 3 chapters
Lexical Dimensions and Organisation where the relation betweenthe lexis and
heading labels of PPs and the languageof PHARE ITBs and TORs was
shown. Although the documentationwhich informs the proposalsis not the
only sourceof the lexicon of PPs,it is certainly a major resource(whether it is
consciously or unconsciouslydrawn on). Of specific interest in the study
reported below is the fact that the PP writers interviewed were strongly aware
of the importance of the TORs, and went to considerabletrouble to ensurethat
their proposalsdemonstratedthat they valued the contribution which the
writers of the TORs had made.
72.2 How (if at all) do you make use of the documentsprovided in the TOR / ITB
for a potential contract? A common perception of the TOR was given by
Interviewee 1. She commented:

(Writing Project Proposals) Chapter8: page 260
it... you do like to echo the words that are in the TOR or even
phrases, because it's a bit like active listening on paper, isn't it?
That you're reflecting back to someone something that they
thought they were very clever to devise, and people always like
and can relate to something that has an element of themselves
in it. "
In such a context, the proposal is thus not only a demonstrationof the
organisation'scompetence,but also of its responsivenessand sensitivity to the
local and technical issuesraisedby the authorsof the TOR. Mirroring the
languageusedby the TORs' authorsis not simply flattery, it is a conscious
strategy designedto show that the is

potential service supplier willing to
ensurethat their views harmonisewith those of the agencywhich will select
the service supplier.
72.3 Interviewee 2 offered a similar view when she said: "I try to reflect the TOR
becauseI feel they've obviously donetheir work and they want that to be seen
" Although she goeson to add: "... the TOR normally reflect the work
...
programme,not the issues. We normally have an issuessection and a work
programme,and the issuessection is where you're allowed to put a bit of
intellectual input into it", drawing attention to the more intellectual style she
reports as being typical of Organisation B, and the need to strike a balance
betweenoriginality and deferenceto the controller of the budget. Striking this
balancemay lead to tensionsduring the developmentof proposal, but it is at
such points that the professionaljudgement of the writer becomescritical.
72.4 It is possible that the TOR in PHARE projects are more important in the
developmentof a PP than is the casewith bids to other organisations.
Interviewee 3 commented:

"... in a UK job in economic development- or in someEC jobs

- you'd typically be able to speakto the personwho wrote them
[the TOR] and try to understandwhat was behind them. That's
not usually the casein PHARE - partly becausethey've usually
recruited someother consultantto write them ... "
Not having recourseto discussionwith the original authorsof the TOR, and
also knowing that those evaluating the proposal will often be as dependenton
the ITB documentsas the bidding organisation,the TOR take on a central
importance for those writing the proposal. This places such proposalsinto a
very specific category, as their intertextual dependenceappearsto be much
greaterthan that of proposalssubmitted to other organisations.
72.5 The two remaining question areasin the secondsection of the interview were:
9 How do you (and your colleagues)decide on the main section divisions of the
Technical Proposal?
9 How do you (and your colleagues)decide on the different section headingsof
the TP?
72.6 Discussion under theseheadsbrought out the extremely close relationship
betweenthe overall structure of the PP and the languageand organisation of
the TOR. Interviewee 1 illustrated this when she commented:
"The [section heading] labels for PHARE and TACIS projects

are almost given - so you have to make sure that you follow the
regulations there, that you're giving what they ask you for and
no more, or not too much more... "
There is, however, a contrastbetweenthis view and that of Interviewee 2 from
OrganisationB. In her opinion, while the work-programme componentof the
proposal (the section which respondsdirectly to the tasks implied by the TOR)

may draw very closely on the languageof the ITB, the proposal should also
contain an "Issues" section which is written in a much more open way:
"Well, what we usually do is say in all our proposals: 'In a

regional developmentprogrammeof this kind in the late 1990s,
in this kind of environment, the following issuesare relevant
'. And that's where the brainstorming sessionis good
...
becausethat's what provides the intellectual input into the
project. And then I would normally have bullet points and say,
'Partnershipmodels' for instance,or 'Sustainability for
development'or 'International networking' - or you name it!
Say the six key issueswhich we'd identified in the
brainstorm... " (Interviewee 2)
72.7 This comment throws light on the ITB/PP relationship mentionedin paragraph
67.4 -a question which was also raised in an earlier chapter:
"This leads one to ask why the writers have opted for high or
low explicitness in the signalling of text organisation. [... ]
What do writers hope to achievethrough their use of
numbering schemesand section headings,and to what extent
are they aware of the impact of their use of theseschemeson
the overall reader-friendlinessof their texts?" (Organisation)
Apart from the normal sign-postingthat is offered by such devices,it appears
that writers have two (possibly contradictory) purposesin their use of section
headings:
" to demonstratetheir conformity to the requirementsof the TOR
9 to demonstratethe originality of their approach.
Thus, the main headingsused in the majority of the proposalstend to reflect
the requirementsof the TOR (seethe list of Level 1 statusheadingsin Table
114 below):

(Writing Project Proposals) Chapter8: page263
Organisation and method

List of staff
Statement and terms of reference
Introduction
Introduction and summary
Key issues
Statements and terms of reference
Technical response
Terms of reference
Work programme
Workplan
Table 114 - Primary headings
Secondaryand tertiary headings,by contrast,more frequently reflect the
writers' attemptsto add value in the proposal and usually move away from the
languageof the ITB. The diversity of lexis deployed is much greaterand the
themesaddressedare more specific (seeAppendix 28: Organisation - Section
Counts and example in Table 115 below)
Adding value
Approach to delivery stage
Approach to inception stage
Building trust
Businessadvice (including somelocal consultantstraining)
Company expertise
Consortium organisation
Contracting and financial services
Current environmental education in Poland
Curriculum development,primary education; curriculum development,vocational
education
Delays to the start of the project
Development phase
Dissemination phase
EasternEuropeanexperience
Improving the image of entrepreneurialactivity
Table 115 - Tertiary headings
73. Text Analysis Task results
73.1 During the text analysis task, intervieweeswere askedto mark up a text
extract from a PP (not written by their organisation) and to maintain a protocol
commentary. The protocol was tape recordedbut has not beentranscribed.

The original text extracts were marked with coloured highlighters - red (not
like I write) and green (like I write). A word-processed version of these
results can be found in Appendices 20,21 and 22. Red highlighting has been
replaced by bold / strikcthrough text. Green highlighting has been replaced
by shaded text. The passage used in the activity is quoted in full below. It
comes from an early section in the Technical Proposal and was selected
because it makes reasonable sense in isolation from the rest of the text.
Our general approach to this project will have the following characteristics:
flexible and appropriate response to xxxxx needs;
The structuring of this contract is designed to allow the use of short-term expertise at short
notice. The Team Leader will work closely with colleagues in the MLSW, and in particular
with the Director of the PMU, to identify the short-term TA needs. This identification will be
carried out within the context of the medium-term strategy developed during the inception
phase of this Programme.
working in partnership with our xxxxx colleagues;
The purpose of this contract is to assist the MLSW and the PMU to find xxxxx solutions to
xxxxx problems. While it is important to share EU and other countries' experience and best
practice with our xxxxx colleagues, it is at the same time essential that this experience be
translated efficiently so that it is relevant to the xxxxx situation. Our experience is that it is
only by working in close partnership with our local counterparts that such a translation can
take place.
location of project operations within xxxxx;
It is our practice to develop adequate administrative structures for the project operations in-
country. Our intention is that our long-term experts will live in apartments rather than hotels
and we shall employ sufficient xxxxx staff from our own budget to ensure the efficient
administration of this important project. In addition to their important technical and
administrative contribution, our xxxxx employees will provide our foreign advisers with an
essential xxxxx perspective and sensitivity to local needs.
Table /16- Text analysis passage
73.2 'T'herewas general approval from all interviewees for the use of headings and
bullet points - the consensus being that bullet points make information more
easily accessible and allow the writer to highlight the strengths of their
argument. The only interviewee who objected to the wording of the bullet
points themselves was interviewee 1. Her feeling was that a rhetorical
opportunity had been missed as a result of the author's failure to use
grammatical parallel structures across the three bulleted lines (i. e. responding
Chris I'ribble - NO Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

flexibly and appropriately / working in partnership / locating project

... ...
operations ... ).
73.3 Interviewee 1 proved to have very different responsesfrom the other two.
First, she was the only one to approve of the use of translated efficiently and
such a translation in the paragraphunder working in partnership this

...
metaphoricaluse being strongly disapprovedof as potentially confusing by the
two other interviewees.
I would avoid the word "translation" - simply because

"translation" means"languagetranslation", and translating from
one situation to anotheris a confusing use of languagefor
people reading it ... (Interviewee 3)
A probable explanation for this stanceis that the intervieweesfrom
OrganisationB appearedto be more aware of the issueof writing proposalsto
be read by speakersof languagesother than English than the interviewee from
OrganisationA:
"I think most of us are awarenow that one should try and keep
the English a bit more straight-forward in the PHARE proposal
in that most of the people reading it either in the recipient
country or in Brusselswill not, however good their English is,
it will not be their first language. Some of us write in a
complicated way left to ourselves,and it's best to perhaps
review what we've written to make sure it comesacross
relatively straight-forwardly." (Interviewee 3)
73.4 Secondly, Interviewee 1 commentedpositively on the repetition of our
throughout the passage(11 instances)- the others finding it inappropriately
repetitious, or more dangerously,overly tub-thumping.
"There's a lot of 'our' in here our, our I would not use that
... ...
so much, I would try to give an impressionthat we know what
we are talking about and that we've done this kind of work
before, but this is overplaying it a bit I feel it's patronising
...
and I wouldn't like to use it. " (Interviewee 2)

(Writing Project Proposals) Chapter8: page 266
73.5 Away from questionsof style, Interviewee 1 was also the only one who did
not comment on the inclusion of low-level administrative information in the
passage- e.g.
"Our intention is that our long-term expertswill live in

apartmentsrather than hotels and we shall employ sufficient
xxxxx staff from our own budget to ensurethe efficient
administration of this important project."
This was seenas being entirely inappropriateby the other interviewees,their
position being that the readerhad no interest in such matters at this point in the
document (and that thesekinds of detail were usually coveredby PHARE
administrative proceduresand required no special attention from the service
provider).
73.6 Where all intervieweeswere in agreementwas in their approval of a set of
words and phrases- referred to as "motherhoodwords"39by one interviewee.
"Motherhood" -a particularly apt bit of jargon - can be defined as:
"Apple-pie, great,things that are incontrovertibly good things,

and therefore you put in anyway ... Becauseeveryoneexpects
them they're only interesting if you can say somethingthat says
how you'd do them or give someexample of how they would
work... " (Interviewee 3)
73.7 The list in the first column of Table 117 - "motherhoodvs keywords" shows
the approved (motherhood)words and phraseswhich the intervieweesmarked
in
up the 258 word text extract used in the final interview task. The point of
interest here is that thesemotherhoodterms map remarkably closely onto the
key-words discussedin Lexical dimensions(seeparagraphs5.5 ff. ). Thus 18
of the 31 words or phrasesidentified by the interviewees also proved to be
39 Or as plain "motherhood":as in "this one's a real motherhood." (reported by Lou Bumard during the
-
TALC 1998 conference)

keywords or keyphrases(clusters set at 2) in the PP corpus (columns 2 and 3
in Table 117).
1 2 3
"motherhood" terms PP/BNC Keywords PP/BNC Keywords (2)
administration ADMINISTRATION
advisers ADVISERS
appropriate (Attr. Adj. 1) APPROPRIATE
experience EXPERIENCE
expertise EXPERTISE
foreign (Attr. Adj. 2) FOREIGN
inception INCEPTION
local (Attr. Adj. 3) LOCAL
long-term (Attr. Adj. 4) LONG-TERM
partnership PARTNERSHIP
phase PHASE
PMU PMU
PMUs PMUS
Programme PROGRAMME
project PROJECT
short-term (Attr. Adj. 5) SHORT-TERM
technical (Attr. Adj. 6) TECHNICAL
best practice (Attr. Adj. 7) BEST PRACTICE
contribution x
efficient administration x
efficiently x
flexible (Attr. Adj. 8) x
foreign advisers (Attr. Adj. 9) x
important (Attr. Adj. 10) x
important project (Attr. Adj. 11) x
inception phase x
local counterparts (Attr. Adj. 12) x
perspective x
sensitivity x
TA x
technical contribution (Attr. Adj. 13) x
Table 117 - "motherhood vs keywords"
73.8 Not only is there this closenessof fit in terms of the words that the
intervieweeshave approvedin this very short passage,they also included a
large number of examples(13/31) of one of the featuresstrongly identified
with PPs as a genre (attributive adjective). The fact that unprompted expert
informants felt the needto mark this word class for approval provides further
support for their significance in the construction of allowable contributions to
the genre.

74. Conclusion
74.1 Thesebrief casestudieshave provided an opportunity to test conclusions
reachedin earlier chaptersin this study, and have also demonstratedthe value
of discussionwith expert practitioners when it comesto understandingthe
nature of expert performance (BazermanC 1994,Tribble C 1997a). The
writers in this study have confirmed the importanceof context knowledge (of
co-texts and social context) in text formation, and have given clear examples
of the kinds of professionalconsensuson allowable languageuse that develop
in the processof genreconsolidation.
74.2 The studieshave also shown the potential value for pedagogicpractice of such
simple interviews. By focusing on what expert writers in a genre do when
they are writing, and asking intervieweesto reflect on the languagethat they
to
prefer use, it is possible to develop accountsof how different communities
of writers go about their work. This information can provide the basis for
practical and effective learning in

programmes which apprenticewriters are
not required to imitate the results of best practice - the texts, but are, rather,
askedto reflect on why certain writing practiceshave developedand what
their value might be to them, in their own developmentas writers.

(Helping learnerswrite difficult texts) Chapter9: page269
SECTION FOUR - IMPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGY
Chapter 9: Helping learners write difficult texts

"... what we call our knowledge is of its nature provisional, and
permanently so." (Magee B 1973:27)
75. Introduction
75.1 The researchproject reported in this thesis has had the overall aim of
identifying ways of helping apprenticewriters to learn how to write unfamiliar
factual genres.In the first chapter, I describedwhat I hoped to achieveduring
the project in terms of a seriesof outputs that would contribute to this overall
aim. The outputs were:
Output 1 a statementon the nature of writing, difficult and texts

Output 2 a summary of key issuesin current approachesto the teaching
of writing
Output 3 an account of possible applications of empirical linguistics in
the developmentof writing instruction materials
Output 4 an account of the ways in which expert writers view a) the texts
that have been the subject of the corpus analysis, and b) the
writing processesrequired for the production of thesetexts
Output 5 a report of findings and recommendationsfor possible
pedagogicapplications.
75.2 Each of the first four outputs has been elaboratedand reported in earlier
chapters. This final chaptercompletesOutput 5- major findings related to
specific areasof researchhave already beenpresentedin eachof the earlier
sections. In Section One: Setting things up, I establishedthe scopeof the
thesis and set out a working definition of the "difficult texts" in the title. I also
reviewed current issuesin teaching writing, and presentedsome ideason how
the tools and resourcesusedby writing teacherscould be expanded. During
this discussion,I statedmy understandingof how the notion of genrecould be
of practical relevanceto those who want to write difficult texts, and someof

the problems which teachersand studentshave to face when the notion of
genreis misapplied. In Section Two: An account of the data, I reportedthe
results of a detailed analysis of examplesof a clearly defined genre: i. e.
project proposalssubmitted to the EU PHARE programmeand other
developmentagencies.This section made a major contribution to the
developmentof Output 3:
" an accountof possible applications of empirical linguistics in

the developmentof writing instruction materials"
as it demonstratedthe potential of the frameworks for languagedescription
in
outlined Biber D 1988 and Scott M 1996 and 1997b for practical language
teaching. Section Three: Talking to writers is also important as it showsthe
extent to which the findings of the corpus basedstudy were confirmed by staff
in organisationswhich write project proposals,and demonstratesthe value of
referring to expert informants as a meansof checking conclusionsbasedon
corpus data.
75.3 In this final Section, I will make some suggestionsfor how insights gained in
be by
earlier chapterscan used teachersand studentswho are concernedwith
the writing of difficult texts. I have always intended that the researchreported
here should be consideredas an applied linguistics project, agreeingwith
Widdowson when he comments:
"I think it is the responsibility of applied linguistics to

demonstratewhether or not linguistics can provide insights of
use to the languageteacherand to investigate other sourcesof
insight in the searchfor relevant models." (Widdowson HG
1984:8)

As someonewho has taught writing for many years I feel that the job of
writing teachersis particularly challenging - especially in the way we find
ourselveshaving to be:
"a motivator, an interpreter of the task, a designerof

meaningful tasks, an organizer, a resource,a support person,an
evaluator,and a readerfor information." (Grabe W&R
Kaplan 1996:254)
I hope, therefore, that this thesis will make a contribution to the work of those
who are involved in this aspectof languageeducation.The extent to which I
have found "insights of use" to those who take on the complex roles of the
writing teacherwill be a measureof the extent to which I have fulfilled the
major purposeof this thesis - helping learnerswrite difficult texts.
76. Frameworks for teaching writing
76.1 At the end of ChapterTwo I askedfive questionsin responseto a seriesof
issuesthat had beenraised about aspectsof the teaching of writing. These
questionsare given below (in a sequencedifferent from the original):
Question: What constitutesa theoretically adequatepedagogic

framework for teacherswho want to help learnersto write
difficult texts (as we have defined them here)?
Question: What practical guidancecan be given to help

teachersdevelop appropriatemethodologiesfor the writing
coursesthey offer their students?
Question: What practical meansare there to help teachers

decide whether or not the texts they are dealing with are
exemplars of an identifiable genre?
Question: What kinds of examplesdo teachersand learners

needwhen approachingthe problem of writing into a new
genre?
Question: Is there any help for teacherswho cannot get hold of

examplesof the kinds of texts their studentsneedto write?

76.2 1will use thesequestionsas a way of organising this final chapter. In so
doing, I want to offer a framework for teaching writing which goessomeway
to meeting the criteria for integrating a genreapproachinto writing pedagogy
which I also outlined in Chapter2-i. e. an approachwhich:
" provides clear guidelines for the selectionof appropriatepedagogicexamples
9 gives a practical basis for analysingtheseexamples
" enablesstudentsto develop useful hypothesesabout languageuse in genres
that are important to them, so that they will be better able to write texts which
will achievetheir various purposes
The discussionin this chapterwill also be informed by my understandingof
the four essentialsetsof knowledge that writers needwhen approachinga
writing task i.
- e. content knowledge,writing process knowledge, context
knowledge,and language systemknowledge40.
76.3 The practical suggestionsfor helping learnersto write difficult texts that I
make here will, therefore, be framed by the five questionsI set out above. The
suggestionsthemselvescan be testedby asking what potential they have for
usefully extending learners'knowledge in relation to the difficult tasks they
wish to write.
77. Question 1
"What constitutesa theoretically adequatepedagogic

framework for teacherswho want to help learnersto write
difficult texts (as we have defined them here)?"
40 Quoted in Chapter 1: Writing difficult texts

77.1 An underlying assumptionof this thesis has beenthat the notion of genrehas
sufficient explanatory force for it to be used as a starting point for writing
pedagogy. Genre offers a basis for the selection and analysis of examplesof
the kinds of texts learnerswant to write, and for developing an understanding
of the communicative context in which those texts are written. Hasanhas
commented:
"Genre bearsa logical relation to CC [Communicative

Context], being its verbal expression.If CC is a classof
situation type, then genreis languagedoing the job appropriate
to that class of social happenings." (Halliday MAK &R Hasan
1985:108)
If this view is accepted,a major part of the job of the writing teachercan be
as
seen providing learnerswith opportunities to develop their understandingof
the communicative context for which the genreis the verbal expression,and
then to develop an analysis of how languageis used as a meansof ensuring
that the requirementsof that communicative context are met. In so doing, the
teacheris helping studentsto gain knowledge of the conditions in which the
texts they want to write are produced,and the constraintsthat writers of such
texts have to contendwith. In addition, they are also ensuring that learners
develop the linguistic resourcesthey need in order to write texts which will be
in
allowable contributions the chosengenre.
77.2 The first stagein this process,the developmentof a fuller understandingof
communicative context and co-texts (context knowledge) can be achievedwith
the help of a model such as that proposedby Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995).
They have suggesteda theoretical framework for the considerationof genre
from a sociocognitive perspective,and the five principles they propose,can
usefully inform a syllabus for writing. Theseare:

"Dynamism. Genres are dynamic rhetorical forms that are

developed from actors' responses to recurrent situations and
that serve to stabilize experience and give it coherence and
meaning. Genres change over time in response to their users'
sociocognitive needs.
Situatedness. Our knowledge of genresis derived from and

embeddedin our participation in the communicative activities
of daily and professional life. As such, genreknowledge is a
form of "situated cognition" that continuesto develop as we
in
participate the activities of the ambient culture.
Form and content. Genre knowledge embraces both form and
content, including a sense of what content is appropriate to a
particular purpose in a particular situation at a particular point
in time.
Duality of structure. As we draw on genrerules to engagein

professionalactivities we constitute social structures(in
professional, institutional and organizational structures)and
simultaneouslyreproduce these structures.
Community ownership. Genre conventionssignal a discourse

community's norms, epistemology,ideology, and social
ontology."
(Berkenkotter C& TN Huckin 1995:4)
77.3 Taking as a practical example the needsof learnerswho want to write project
proposals,a syllabus componentfocussing on context knowledgecould
involve two major steps.The first would give learnersopportunities to come
to an understandingof the constraintsand expectationsthat are commonly
encounteredin the in
contexts which they will be writing (the Situatednessof
the genre). For PPsthis would involve developing an understandingof e.g.
EU institutions and tendering practices,and the sourcesand kinds of
information that are available to organisationssubmitting proposals. It would
also include a considerationof peer review procedures,house style guides,and
the roles of the proposal managerand of specialist contributors (either from
within the organisation, or sub-contractorsbrought in to help develop a
specific bid). In this study of Project Proposals,we have seenthe importance

of the ITB and TOR and the efforts which Consultancy Groups go to to
follow the evolution of policy in the organisationsto which they make bids.
In other settings,this componentmay involve a processof institutional
induction (e.g. the kinds of pre-sessionalcoursecommonly provided for
overseasstudentscoming to study in the UK), or it may require course
participants already working as practitioners to reflect and report on their own
professional experience.
77.4 Steptwo in this syllabus componentwould require a review of the
expectationsthat potential readershave of the texts in question (Smart G 1993,
FreedmanA, Adam C&G Smart 1994). Such a review would oblige learners
to consider the Duality of structure and the Communityownership of the
genre,but it would not imply that learnersshould acceptwhat they observeas
immutable and hegemonic(the kinds of imposition which Clark R&R Ivana
1997 argue against). A major value of this kind of analysis is that it allows
studentsto develop an understandingof the constraintswhich writers face
within a specific communicative context and enablesthem to make their own
decisionsabout how they managetheir relationship with other owners of the
genre.
77.5 During this review processlearnerswould also analyseexamplesof PPsin
order to assessthe extent to which their assumptionsabout thesetexts match
the reality of what professionalwriters actually write. This would satisfy the
principle of Dynamism, in the sameway that e.g. a coursein writing for
publication in the social scienceswould needto take into account recent
changesin the nature of allowable contributions to the genresowned by
specific discoursecommunities (Bloor M&T Bloor 1991, Edwards H 1997).

77.6 If our hypothetical coursein proposal writing is seenas a set of modules,
alongsidethe teaching units which enablelearnersto come to an
understandingof the sociocognitive dimensionsof PPs,there would also be a
needfor modules in which learnerswould have opportunities to identify the
Forms and content that are appropriateto the genre. In other words, in order
to ensurethat studentswho want to write difficult texts have the language
knowledgethat they require, the syllabus must offer appropriatetext resources
and text analysistools, along with the meansfor making meaningful
comparative statementsabout the texts in question. This is the secondmain
elementof the syllabus specification, and leads us usefully to the secondof
our questions.
77.7 If genreis used in theseways, it offers a practical basis for the elaboration of
writing programmes. Huckin and Berkenkotter'ssociocognitive model gives
teachersand materials writers a way of addressingthe contextual dimension of
a genre, and, as we shall seein the next section, corpus linguistics offers
practical tools for dealing with the elaboration of languagesystem knowledge.
78. Question 2
"What practical guidancecan be given to help teachersdevelop

appropriatemethodologiesfor the writing coursesthey offer
their students?"
78.1 In Chapter2,1 gave examplesof different teaching materials currently used in
writing pedagogy,some of which were strongly form-focussed,while others
paid more attention to cognitive and social dimensions of writing. During this
discussion,I concludedthat it was inappropriateto attempt to impose a single
methodology for teaching writing -a view that harmoniseswith current

opinion in ELT where there is generalagreementthat teachersneedto match
teaching methodsto local conditions (Bamforth R 1993, Brookes A& Grundy
P 1990). Using genreas a starting point for writing instruction does,however,
have implications for what happensin classrooms(Christie F 1993, Gee S
1997), and practical suggestionscan be made for the managementand focus of
writing instruction if genreis adoptedas a theoretical framework for the
writing syllabus.
78.2 One such accounthas beenproposedby Callaghan,Knapp and Noble in their
report of work done at secondarylevel in the "Languageand Social Power"
project in Sydney,Australia (CallaghanM, Knapp P&G Noble 1993:179-
202). The diagram given in Figure 20 summariseskey featuresof the
approachtaken:
Teaching I Learning
processes
1. Context I Language 01 2. Structure -Writing

Makingconnections Usingthe genericstructure
between content to provide a scaffold for
knowledgeand language student writing of 11M
Teaching through: draft
th rough:
ntial work
" Concreteexperiences models ModelMgthe penedc
ch (Note"taking) Nnuture
" Describingand ing structure
sxplaininp " Modellingtext
(wholetext organisation
" Reading models (grammar)
in9 Su11olEinpwRhcontent
" ResearchI Note-taking ment language
" Definingcontexts " Studentsdraftingwhole
text
3. GrammarI Editing
Movingstudent,' writing
from orientation of
speech to orientation of
writing
" Modelling vwb

kLntflcaron, tens.,
Conjunctions
" Modelling theme, noun

groups, nominaNsetIon,
modality
Figure 20 - Callaghan M, Knapp P&G Noble 1993:196
78.3 The three major elementsin the teaching / learning processessummarisedin
this diagram offer a workable basis for the developmentof the kind of factual

writing programmewe have beendiscussing. Often beginning from an
analysis of examplesof a genre and the social context in which they have been
written (modelling), studentsgo on to develop an understandingof the content
and context relevant to the genre. They are then able to use examplesof the
genreas a starting point for their own writing (scaffolding) before developing
their own texts, and, at a later point, to use theseexamplesas a resourcefor
the improvement of their own independentlydevelopedtexts. Becausethe
model assumesthe possibility and value of recursion, the three setsof learning
processespresentedin the model should not be seenas being in a fixed
sequence. Activities in the learning processescan be used at any stagein a
learning cycle. In the model, teachershave expertiseas analystsand
informants and it is part of their job to make this expertiseavailable to the
learners. The learnersare also recognisedas having the capacity and right to
criticise and subvert the models that are presentedduring teaching / learning
if
cycles they wish to.
78.4 If teachersdecide to use genreas a starting point for helping learnersto write
difficult texts, they are likely to use the kinds of teaching / learning cycles
indicated by Callaghan,Knapp and Noble. In such a teaching / learning
setting, the corpus linguistic tools and techniquesdemonstratedin the four
chaptersof Section Two: An account of the texts have considerablepotential to
offer ways of organising the learning experience.Stylistic analysis drawing on
Biber 1988 can give learnersessentialinsights into the structureof the
interpersonaldimension of the genre. Keyword analysis can enablelearnersto
build an understandingof the lexis patterning of allowable contributions.

the languagelearner(JohnsT 1991,1994,1997,
http://sunl. bham.ac.uk/johnstf/homepage.htm).
79.2 What I proposeto offer here, basedon this earlier experience,and on the work
done in this thesis, are someprinciples for using corpora in writing instruction.
I shall consider someof the implications of adopting such principles by
looking at a practical example:how to teach learnersto write project
proposals.
79.3 The principles for using corpora in writing pedagogyare:
Principle 1 Work comparatively. The salient featuresof a specific genre
will not becomeclear unlessthey can be seenagainst a background of other
genres,or other populations of texts. This requirement is built in to Scott's
Keyword techniques(Scott M 1996),and is the basis both of early work in
stylistics e.g. Leech and Short (1981), by

and of recent studies Stubbs(1996).
The LOB and Brown corpora or the BNC (Sampler, full version, or genre
constitute
specific subsets) invaluable resourcesasyardsticks againstwhich
your own text can be measured41.

The results of Biber 1998 (and the results of
this study whatever its limitations) offer a very different kind of resource.
They make it possible to referencenot only the lexical dimensionsof the texts
under consideration,but also to profile thesetexts in terms of grammatical use.
Principle 2 Work systematically. First, if your data is not well organised
and consistent,you cannot expect consistent,reliable results - rubbish in,
rubbish out! Secondly,as we saw in Chapter3: What are we looking for, if
you do not ask the right questions(in the right way) you may get the answers
Chris Tribble - PhD Manuscript (this doe: January 7,1999)

78.5 Although such applicationsof corpuslinguistic approachesto text and genre
analysis can be extremely useful to the developmentof languagesystem
knowledge, it is import that they be seenas complementingrather than
replacing other, more familiar, classroomactivities. As we have seenin
Chapter2: Teaching Writing, the approachesthat are proposedhere are not a
panacea. They are, rather, practical suggestionsfor ways in which teachers
can extend their normal classroompracticesby drawing on new technologies
to deal with very old problems. I will discusssomeof the ways in which
corpus linguistic tools can be incorporatedin writing pedagogyin the next
section: Working with corpus data.
79. Working with corpus data
79.1 One of the main implications of earlier chaptershas beenthat it is possible to
use electronically held corpora to help teachersand learnersdevelop an
appreciation of aspects of language use in particular settings. In this present
writing, I do not proposeto offer detailed examplesof how concordancedata
can be integrated into classroomlearning or teaching materials. I have done
this elsewhere(Tribble C 1991,1997b, 1997c;Tribble C&G Jones 1997).
Moreover, a range of corpus basedELT task types and classroomactivities
now exists and has begunto be discussedmore widely (Botley S, Glass G,
McEnery T&A Wilson (eds.) 1996; Flowerdew J 1993; Flowerdew J 1996;
Granger S&C Tribble 1998; Johns T&P King (eds.) 1991; Melia J&
Lewandoska B [eds.] 1997; Scott M 1997b), and Tim Johns at Birmingham
University continues to demonstrate how valuable the combination of a
creative and imaginative teacher and an appropriate corpus of texts can be to

that you want, but thesemay not be the right answers42 Hoey's Five questions
offers a good example of the kind of framework neededfor analysingwords or
phraseswhich have been identified as being of interest in a particular genre.
We saw in Chapter6: Lexical dimensionshow combining such a check-list
with keyword analysis makes it possible both to identify the saliently
prominent words and phrasesin a corpus, and to come to a clearer
understandingof how this lexis is used by writers to achievethe rhetorical
effects that they require.
Principle 3 Work with whole texts wherever possible. This is said not
only becauseof the kinds if

of problems which can arise studiesare basedon
text fragments (Stubbs M 4),

1996: but also becausewe are concernedhere
with teaching writing, not grammar or lexis. If you do not have accessto the
whole text, (ideally in its original form with all its other associatedfeatures
figures, diagrams,typography even typeface), you can only ever have a

e.g. -
partial understandingof the kind of impact the text might have on a reader,
has during the production of the text. In

and of the choicesthe writer made
Chapter7: Organisation we saw how featuressuch as section headingscould
be used in developing an understandingof the interaction betweenTerms of
Referenceand Project Proposals. If it had not beenpossible to identify those
featuresin the corpus, a valuable level of analysis would have been lost.
Principle 4 Don't ignore frequent words. The discussionof of in Chapter
6: Lexical dimensionsand recent work by Hoey (1997a) showsthat a
41 The first of these (LOB / Brown) is currently available internationally from ICAME
(http://www. hd. uib. nolicame. html); the second should be available internationally by 1999 from the BNC
consortium (http: /finfo. ox. ac. uk/bnc/)
42 See Widdowson HG "The Critical Analysis of Text" Applied Linguistics (Forthcoming) for a criticism
of Stubbs 1994 for this kind of failure.

systematicconsiderationof frequent or apparentlyuninterestingwords can
reveal aspectsof the text which might not be shown by a study of lower
frequency items. Similarly, the striking contrastbetweenthe use of definite
article "the" in the Romantic Fiction data set as comparedto PPs,and its
implication in the specificity of Proposallanguagewould not have become
apparentwithout keyword analysis.Very high frequency words such as
definite articles are frequently excluded from corpus studiesthat are driven by
lexicographic or grammatical description agendas(Sinclair J 1987,1991). In
the analysis of genres,they should be seenas potential sourcesof essential
information.
Principle 5 Don't assumethat the corpus says it all. As we have seenin
Chapter 8: Writing Project Proposals, there can be considerablebenefit in
talking about the texts you have been studying with the people who wrote
them. One of the benefits of this kind of discussionis that it ensuresyou are
not imposing your own perspectiveon the data. The other is that you will
often find that new insights becomeavailable for results you have obtained
(e.g. motherhoodsin PPs).
79.4 What of our practical example of project proposal writing? We have already
seen in Chapter 3: Approaching the data, and Chapter 4: What are we looking
for, that a great deal of work can be involved in obtaining examples of a genre
and then it
putting into an appropriate form for analysis. However, assuming
that a consistently formatted and coded corpus of project proposals in machine
readable form is available, (Principles 1 and 2) and that teachers / learners
have access to a PC with WordSmith, and a reference wordlist based on a

corpus such as LOB or Brown, or the BNC Sampler,a useful procedurewhich
would conform to the principles I have presentedabovemight go as follows.
Step 1 Review the overall organisationof the genreexemplarsunder
analysis- this should be done with accessto both the paperversion and an
electronic version where possible. Identify the ways in which text organisers
and non-verbal information are used and try to decidethe motivation for this
use. Where possible,review any support documentationwhich was required
in order for the texts to be written (e.g. TOR / ITB). If it is felt to be useful,
make separatelists of the languageusedin explicitly marked section headings
(Principles 2 and 3).
During this review, ask if it is possible to identify differencesor similarities
betweenthe ways in which texts in the researchcorpus are organisedwhen
comparedwith other text genres,and what motivates thesedifferences
(Principle 1).
Step 2 Analyse the examplesin the researchcorpus to identify any
discoursepatternsthey may share(e.g. Reason/ Result, Generalto Particular,
SPRE). How are argumentsin paragraphsand sectionsorganised? Are there
any significant patternsin subject/theme(Principles 2 and 4)? In what way
doesthe researchgenrediffer from other genres(Principle 1)?
Step 3 Make a frequency sortedwordlist and a keyword list for the
researchcorpus. It can be helpful to do this for single words and two word
clusters (Principles 2 and 4). Review how positive and negative keywords are
in
used the texts. Use Hoey's five questionsas a starting point for this
investigation. Referencethe investigation againstthe use of the word classes

in specific text dimensionsin Biber 1988 (Principle 1). This review will make
it possible to identify:
" key words and phrasesassociatedwith the genre(this offers content
knowledgeand context knowledgeas thesewords and phraseswill give clear
indications of the elementsrequired in allowable contributions to the genre,
and language systemknowledgeas the keywords and phrasesassociatedwith
them indicate the extent to which a text is e.g. nominally or verbally oriented,
the kinds of subordinationthat are used,how noun phrasesare structuredetc.)
major wordclassesthat are used in the genreand the impact of the use of these
wordelasseson the interpersonaldimension of the text (this will relate to
particularly to Biber's Factor 1 "Involved versusInformational Production"
and Factor 5 "Abstract versusNon-abstractInformation". This also extends
context knowledge and language systemknowledge and prepareslearnersfor
effective modelling from the texts in the corpus. (Principles 1,2 and 4)
Step 4 Check conclusionsthat arise from this analysiswith expert
informants where-everpossible. It can be very helpful to get the agreement
for a "return visit" to organisationsthat provide text samples.Once learners
to
start write independently,anotherway of checking conclusionsagainst
is
expert opinion to use classroomtechniquessuch as reformulation43
(Allwright RL, M-P Woodley & JM Allwright 1988; Tribble C 1997a)
(Principle 5).
79.5 Once such a review has beencompleted (either by teachersor materials
writers preparing to help students, or by students investigating a genre as part

of a learning the
process) researchcorpus becomes for
a means ensuring
appropriateindependentwriting at the end of a learning process. At the end of
such a review, teachersor materials writers will be positioned to develop
appropriate,motivating and stimulating learning materials which match to the
needsof your students. Learnerswill be enabledto approachthe writing task
with a fuller understandingof the task and the results that they are aiming to
achieve.
80. Questions 3 and 4
80.1 Discussion in the earlier parts of this chapterhas assumedthat the texts which
have been the subject of analysishave beenmembersof the samegenre. What
I have not done as yet, is to offer guidanceas to how teachersand learnerscan
feel reasonablysure that this is the casefor the corpusresourcesthey
The
themselvesassemble. third and fourth question of the five that I set out at
the beginning of the chapteraddressthis problem:
"What kinds of examplesdo teachersand learnersneedwhen

approaching the problem of writing into a new "
genre?
"What practical meansare there to help teachersdecide

whether or not the texts they are dealing with are exemplarsof
an identifiable genre? "
80.2 1have treatedthesetwo questionstogether, as, clearly, they are both
concernedwith the sameissue- the need for appropriatemodels when genre
to
approaches writing instruction constitute part of a teaching / learning
strategy. Flowerdew refers to this issue when he discussesthe ways in which
the modelling of texts is used by writers approachingnew genres:
43 A technique in writing instruction in which a student draft is sympathetically reformulated by an expert

informant and the two versions of the text are used as learning / teaching materials
Chris Tribble PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7,1999)

-
"... this skill of seekingout instancesof genre-dependent

languageuse in English and incorporating them in one'sown
writing or speakingis not limited to foreign languages. Many
native speakersmake use of others'writing or speechto model
their own work in their native language,where the genreis an
unfamiliar one." (Flowerdew J 1993:313)
80.3 A short, unhelpfully circular responseto the first question: "What kinds of
examplesdo studentsand teachersneed?" would be: "Examplesof the genre".
This is unhelpful becauseof the ambiguity which is still associatedwith the
term genre itself. A more useful, though longer, answeris that if teachersand
studentsare interestedin working with a genreapproach,they needto make
sure that:
the texts they are aspiring to write are part of the GSP of a clearly delineated
communicative context (as we shall seebelow, communicative purposeis the
most useful test of genreequivalence),and that
" the examplesthey use for analysis or modelling are truly analogousto one
another.
Without such a narrow definition, genrebecomesuncomfortably woolly as a
category- we have seenin Chapter 2: Teaching Writing (in the discussionof
brochures)the kinds of confusion which writing teacherscan face if they do
not ensurethat the genrethey are teaching is a genre,and that the texts they
presentto learnersare membersof that genre.
80.4 Having set out the criteria which should inform the selection of examples,I
would want to stressthat (in conformity with Principles 1 and 3) learnerswill
needthe opportunity to work with examplesof whole texts, and, as we have
seenin Chapter 2, they will need many rather than single examples.

80.5 The answerto Question2 also implies the responseto Question 3. The
"practical means"to help teachersdecidewhether or not text samplesare
membersof the samegenreis to be found in the communicativepurposeof the
texts at issue. As an illustration I give below an example of an unambiguously
delineated genre: RECIPE:
A Agnes Sorel - Stuff the omelettewith minced mushroomstossedin butter

and coheredwith a thin chicken puree, lay someroundels of tongue on the
top, surroundedwith a thread of thickened gravy (Saulnier 1914,p66)
B Piselli alla Francese

Shell enoughyoung gardenpeas to fill a two-pint jug. Theyounger and
sweeter the better.
Stew, over a low flame, 2 choppedlettuces, 1 choppedonion, salt and

pepper in 10 gms of butterfor about 10 minutes.
Add thepeas along with a generousbunch of parsley and thymeand two
cups of good stock.
Cook over a highflame stirring continuously until the liquid has reduced
and thepeas are cooked.
This will provide a main vegetabledishfor five or six people. Our cools
Maria, gave it to usfor thefirst time in the early 1950s- she had adapted it
from a French recipe she learned during the war. Our onlyjustification for
putting it in a collection of Italian recipes is that we have eaten it so
regularly in that part of the world. (Ross J&M Waterfield 1973: 121)
C Put your tunny steaksin hot olive oil to brown lightly on each side. Remove
and put aside to keep warm. Now put into your olive oil 2 shallots,
2
chopped; carrots, sliced; a stick of celery, finely chopped, and 4 tomatoes,
skinned and chopped. Add a sprig of thyme and cook for 15 minutes. Now
put your tunny steaks back into the braising pot, and add wine to cover
them. Put the lid on your pan and cook for 1 hour in a slow oven [170°C /
325°F, gas 3]. (Lassalle G 1976:177)
Table 118 - Recipes(Tribble C 1997:54-55)
80.6 Each of thesetexts has a clear main communicative purpose- to enablethe
to
reader produce a certain number of servings of a specific dish to a specific
standard. Although be
recipescan used for other purposes(entertainment,
historic researchetc.) there is usually one main reasonfor writing them down
- to help people cook the dishes they want to serve others, or eat themselves.

While they all sharethis communicativepurpose,the recipes do not share
structure, syntax, lexis or style, and somecan be seenas more central to a
genrethan others (e.g. recipe A is probably less central than recipe B). In
terms of communicative purposethey are analogues;in terms of surface
featuresthey differ in many respects.
80.7 The practical meanswhereby teacherscan assesswhether or not they are
dealing with texts that are membersof the samegenrelies, therefore, in a test
for communicative purpose. This position harmoniseswith Hasan(as stated
above), and with Swales, he

when says:
"Communicative purposeis both a privileged criterion and one

which operatesto keep the scopeof a genre as here conceived
narrowly focused on comparable rhetorical action." (Swales
1990:58)
and offers a reasonabletest for classroomteachersand researchersalike.

...
80.8 The usefulnessof such a test can be seenwhen we consider the problems
posedto teachersin foreign languagelearning or in mother tongue instruction
by "letters" or "essays"where the texts as traditionally taught are usually
for
accounted on the basis of form rather than purpose. A form-driven view of
texts risks leading to the mechanicalimitation of text-book models. A view
driven by communicative purposestartswith the context of writing and
considersform in the light of the needsof writers and readers.In the latter
material the sort of modelling proposedby Flowerdew becomespossible. It is
much harder to achievethis with materials that are driven by form. This
problem can be seenclearly in the "handbooksfor commercial
correspondence"that are widely available in the EFL and native speaker
market (e.g. Ashley A 1992). In such materials, although someteaching units

are organisedaround themessuch as: Enquiries or Complaints and
adjustments,others focus on broad contexts such as "Electronic
correspondence"or "In-company communication"; and, all of the teaching
units are restricted by the fact that only single examplesare offered for
imitation.
80.9 Theserecipe examplesalso demonstratethe value of Principles 1 and 3 for
working with corpus data. Working comparatively allows learnersto seehow
the genre standsin relation to other genres(e.g. TECHNICAL
INSTRUCTIONS, PRODUCT INFORMATION) and to understandthe social
motivation for the differencesbetweenone genreand another. Having access
to many examplesallows learnersto appreciatethe range of allowable
contributions to the genre and to identify marginal and central instances.
When, as is often the casewith teaching materials such as the commercial
correspondencehandbooksreferred to above,this is not the case,learnershave
for
no means reaching this kind of conclusion.
80.10 In finding answersto the first four questionsposedat the beginning of this
chapter,we have, in many been

senses, dealing with ideal caseswhere
teachersand learnershave accessto the datathey need and the resources
necessaryfor its analysis. What of those teacherswho work in less than ideal
circumstances?
81. Question 5
"Is there any help for teacherswho cannot get hold of examples
of the kinds of texts their studentsneedto write?"
81.1 However persuasivelyI may (or may not) have made a casefor using genre
and corpus analysis as way of helping learnersto write difficult texts, the last

of my five questionsstill requires an answer. All too often, it will prove to be
extremely difficult for teachersto find examplesor analoguesof the kinds of
texts that their studentsneedto learn to write. Interestingly from my
perspective,this problem is not restricted to learnerswith an interest in
recondite disciplines or professionalactivities, it is a major problem for most
learnersand most teachers. This problem exists for severalreasons- e.g.
" In many caseslearnersin educationalor training settingsare askedto write
texts which are only written in those settings- the prime example of this being
the still ubiquitous "essay",a genrewhich has no life outside the classroom.
" In academicsettingsit is usually difficult, or impossible, to have accessto one
of the key academicgenres- examinationresponses.Although this is for
good administrative and ethical reasons,it neverthelessmakes it extremely
difficult for learnersto gain an appreciationof how to go about writing into
thesegenresas
81.2 Various solutions have beenproposedto this kind of problem. Granger (1998)
recommendsthe use of corpora of essayswritten by native speakers(NS) of
British or American English as a way of giving learnersexemplar texts for
modelling ESSAY. I have arguedagainstthis position (Granger S&C
Tribble 1998) - not becauseof any problem of sharedcommunicative
purpose,but becauseof the highly problematic nature of uneditedNS
production - and have suggestedthat the essayscurrently found in CD ROM

encyclopaediasoffer an interesting set of analoguesto various genresof
writing commonly required of learners.(Tribble C 1997c).Johnsat
Birmingham University usesa corpus of New Scientist texts as the basisfor a
remedial grammar coursefor postgraduatestudentsat that institution (JohnsT
1997 & Tim Johns'home page).
81.3 The main point to make here is that when it is not possibleto collect examples
of precise analoguesof the genresthat learnersneedto write, teacherscan still
use genresthat stand in a reasonablyclose relation to the target genre(e.g.
encyclopaediaessaysor newspapereditorials as relatives of studentessays).
Such data will not allow the highly specific modelling which the PP corpus
could make possible for writers of analogousproposals. However, so long as
learnersunderstandthat there are restrictions on the conclusionsthey draw
from this corpus data, such a corpus will still give studentsinfinitely more
scopeto develop languagesystemknowledge than other approaches. Thus, in
the caseof the New Scientist collection usedby Johns,Myers has clearly
demonstratedthat the communicative purposeof scientific journalism is
markedly different from that of academicjournals, and requires strongly
contrasting instantiations of equivalent knowledge (Myers 1994) - such
articles are not analoguesof journal articles or MA dissertations.Johnshas
shown, however, that such texts can be in

useful extending learners'language
systemknowledge, even though the texts are not membersof the genresthat
learnersneedto write. While they cannot be used as a basis for modelling
44 A good example of this problem occurred in my own experience teaching LLM students in the
University of London. The legal "problem" essay that students have to write is a major genre in the LLM
examination, yet it is never published nor publicly circulated. It is produced by candidates, consumed by
examiners and then destroyed by the university after a brief period in the archives of Senate House..
The examiners know what a "good" answer looks like - but candidates can only find out about the genre

major academicgenressuch as examination essays,laboratory reports, or MA
dissertations,becausethey have face validity with John'slearnersat
Birmingham, they do constitute a valuable starting point for the development
of languagesystemknowledge. (JohnsT 1997)
82. Some conclusions
82.1 So where have we arrived? We certainly do not have a recipe book for writing
project proposals- or any other kind of difficult text. That has never beenmy
intention. What I hope we do have is, first, a clearer senseof the ways in
which teachersand learnerscan draw on the notion of genre - that is, to
paraphraseHasan, "languagedoing the job appropriateto a specific class of
social happenings"- as a way of framing a pedagogyfor writing. Secondly, I
hope that I have demonstratedthe potential of certain techniquesin empirical
linguistics (notably corpus analysis) for application to languageeducation.
82.2 If teachers(and especially text book writers) who read this thesis are
persuadedthat there might be some value in using some of the approaches
proposedhere, it could have an interesting long term impact on the kinds of
materials that are published for teaching writing. At the very least I look
forward to text books for teaching writing which offer assistanceto learnersin
writing real-world genres,and which give learnersthe chanceto develop
appropriateknowledge of the context, languagesystemand writing processes
required to write into those genres. At best, I look forward to text books
which offer all of this, and are accompaniedby a CD ROM containing a
corpus of appropriatetext examplesand appropriatetext analysis software.
at second hand, usually through a very short "examinationpreparation"course offered by one of the

82.3 As a final note, as with most researchprojects, I have probably raised more
questionsthan I have resolved. Someof the potential researchareaswhich
have arisen during earlier discussion,and which I feel would merit further
considerationare:
" Does a suddenobligation to develop a capacity to write into new genrescause
in
changes social relations? Administrators and academicsin the former
communist countries of central and easternEurope have not only had to learn
new ways of working, they have also had to learn how to write new kinds of
text (in their mother tongue and in English). To what extent has the needto
write into thesenew genreschangedthe ways in which people think about the
problems they are addressing,and changethe way they work with one
another?
" Studying "Negative Keywords" proved to be much more fruitful than I had
expected- especiallywhen combined with Hoey's five questions(e.g. the
discussionof of in Chapter5: Lexical dimensions). There appearsto be
considerablepotential for further study of both positive and negative keyword
contrastsbetween different written genresor different modes of production
(spoken/ written). It would be interesting to seethe extent to which these
techniqueswould permit a classification of texts which was equivalent to
Biber 1988, but which did not require a marked up corpus.
" The interviews that are reported in Chapter 8: Writing Project Proposals give
important insights into the ways in which texts such as Invitations to Bid
(ITB) interact with the texts which are written in responseto such invitations.
tutors who is also an examiner.

It would be interesting to investigatethe importance of such texts as a resource
for proposal writers, and to get a better understandingof the ways in which the
contrasting approachesthat consultancygroups adopt to planning and
developing a proposal determinethe way in which they follow or flout the text
specifications made in the original invitation.
82.4 Enough. As I have noted in the epigraphto this chapter,what we call
knowledge is provisional. I hope that in writing this particular difficult text I
have made a contribution to our understandingof someof the issuesthat
cluster around writing, and teaching writing. I certainly do not expect it to be
the last word.

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Tomaszczyk (ed) PALC '97 Proceedings L6dz University PressL6dz
Tribble C (1998) "Genres,keywords, teaching: towards a pedagogic accountof the
languageof project proposals" in Burnard L (ed) Teachingand Language
Corpora 98 (unpublishedproceedingsof the 1998TALC conference,Oxford)
Tribble C&G Jones (1990) Concordancesin the Classroom Longman Harlow
Tribble C&G Jones (1997) Concordancesin the Classroom:A ResourceBookfor
Teachers Athelstan Houston Tx
Turk C&J Kirkman (1989) Effective Writing, improving scientific, technical and
businesscommunication E& FN Spon (Chapmanand Hall) London

van Leeuven T (1993) "Genre and field in critical discoursestudy" Discourse and
society 4/2: 193-223
White R&V Arndt (1991) Process Writing Longman Harlow
White R&D McGovern (1994) Writing Prentice Hall International Hemel
Hempstead
Widdowson HG (1984) Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2 Oxford University
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Widdowson HG (Forthcoming) "The Critical Analysis of Text" Applied Linguistics
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Wilson A&T McEnery (eds) (1994) Corpora in language education and research:
A selection of papersfrom TALC94 UCREL LancasterUniversity Lancaster
Winter EO (1976) "Fundamentalsof information structure" mimeo: Hatfield
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Witte S (1992) "Context; text and intertext: Towards a constructionist semiotic of
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Wynne M (1996) A post-editor's guide to CLA WS7tagging UCREL University of
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Zamel V (1983) "The composing processesof advancedESL students:6 case
studies" TESOL Quarterly 17/2165-187

Tables and Figures: page312
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1- What writers needto know 10
.................................................................................
Table 2- BusinessEnglish materials (Contents) 37
.
..............................................................
Table 3- BusinessEnglish Materials (Owen R, 1992:59) 39
.
................................................
Table 4- Letter of rejection (Corpus of administrative correspondence- personally
held) 42
.......................................................................................................................
Table 5- pleased/ unfortunately 45
........................................................................................
Table 6- EAP Programme 47
.................................................................................................
64
Table 7- Brochure counts
..................................................................................................
Table 8- Proposals:break-down by agency 74
......................................................................
Table 9- Proposals:location 75
..............................................................................................
95
Table 10 - Biber 1988: Linguistic Features
.......................................................................
Table 11 - Neighbouring Genres 107
......................................................................................
Table 12 - Counts (First Algorithms) 110
...............................................................................
Table 13 - Major discrepancies 111
........................................................................................
Table 14 - Neighbouring texts 112
.........................................................................................
Table 15 - Discrepancies 113
.................................................................................................
Table 16 - Neighboring texts (by Dimension) 121
.................................................................
Table 17 - Ranked scores 125
.................................................................................................
Table 18 - high frequency items 126
......................................................................................
Table 19 - low frequency items 126
.......................................................................................
Table 20 - top 34 out of 852 attributive adjectives.......................................................... 129
Table 21 - bottom 10 out of 852 attributive adjectives.................................................... 129
Table 22 - Attributive Adjectives .................................................................................... 130
Table 23 - Considerable................................................................................................... 130
Table 24 - Wide 131
...............................................................................................................
131
Table 25 - Key
.................................................................................................................
131
Table 26 - Colours
...........................................................................................................
132
....................................................................................................
133
Table 28 - Top PP classifying adjectives.........................................................................
Table 29 - International 134
....................................................................................................
Table 30 - international (BNC) 135
........................................................................................
Table 31 - Nominalisations: punctuation 137
.........................................................................
Table 32 - Nominalisations: verbs following .................................................................. 138
.
Table 33 -Top 20 nominalisations .................................................................................. 138
.
Table 34 - coordination: adverb 140
.
......................................................................................
Table 35 - coordination: verb 141
.
..........................................................................................
Table 36 - Doubling effect 143
.
..............................................................................................
Table 37 - Verb preceding noun coordination 145
.
................................................................
Table 38 - predictive "will" 146
.
.............................................................................................
Table 39 - this + predictive "will" 147
.
...................................................................................
Table 40 - words in Theme 148
.
.............................................................................................
Table 41 - will + verb 148
.
......................................................................................................
Table 42 - adverbsin PP and Romfict 149
.
............................................................................
Table 43 - Adverbs in PP 150
.
................................................................................................
Table 44 - Adverbs in RomFict 151
.
......................................................................................
Table 45 - verb:noun 151
........................................................................................................
152
Table 46 - male/female pronouns
....................................................................................
152
Table 47 - thei r .
................................................................................................................

Tables and Figures: page 313
Table 48 - private verbs - RomFict 153

................................................................................
Table 49 - PP private verbs 154
....................................................
....... . ..
............... .................
Table 50 - vagueness 154
........................................................................................................
Table 51 - integrity 155
...........................................................................................................
Table 52 - linguistic features 156
............................................................................................
Table 53 - "PP / GuardianWordlists" 160
.............................................................................
Table 54 - PPBNC Keywords 168
.........................................................................................
Table 55 - PP/GuardianKeywords 169
..................................................................................
Table 56 - BNC / Guardian Keywords PP Frequency 170
- ..................................................
Table 57 - PP/BNC: negative keywords 172
Table 58 - PP/Guardian:negative keywords .............................:............................................
172
Table 59 - PPBNC/Guardian Negative Keywords ...................................................................
173
.........................................................
Table 60 - RomFict: positive keywords 174
...........................................................................
Table 61 - RomFict: negative keywords 175
..........................................................................
Table 62 - Romfict: frequency 176
.........................................................................................
Table 63 - Positive keywords (word class) 182
......................................................................
Table 64 - Positive keywords 182
...........................................................................................
Table 65 - Negative KW: word class 185
...............................................................................
Table 66 "that" in the PP Corpus 186
...................................................................................
Table 67 - but 187
...................................................................................................................
Table 68 - X2 test 187
.............................................................................................................
Table 69 - But: counts 188
......................................................................................................
Table 70 - PP But colligation 190
...........................................................................................
Table 71 - RomFict But colligation 190
.................................................................................
Table 72 - but (2 word clusters) 190
.......................................................................................
Table 73 - "but we" 192
..........................................................................................................
Table 74 - "but" positions 193
................................................................................................
Table 75 - However 193
.........................................................................................................
Table 76 - BNC Core - however/but 194
...............................................................................
Table 77 - PP key-keywords 195
............................................................................................
Table 78 - experiencecollocates 197
......................................................................................
Table 79 - experience:left sort 198
........................................................................................
Table 80 - experience:right sort 199
......................................................................................
Table 81 - experienceelsewhere 200
......................................................................................
Table 82 - experienceclusters 202
..........................................................................................
Table 83 - experiencelexical collocates (clusters) 202
..........................................................
Table 84 - experience:patterns 204
........................................................................................
Table 85 - Independenttexts - experience:patterns 204
........................................................
Table 86 - PP experienceleft context (82.53% of all instances) 207
.....................................
Table 87 - PP experienceright context (86.6% of all instances) 207
.....................................
Table 88 - BNC SpokenCorpus- Experience: semanticprosodiesother than
"professional" 209
.......................................................................................................
Table 89 - experience:BNC spokencorpus data 209
.............................................................
Table 90 - BNC/PP experience:left colligates (all counts are percents) 211
Table 91 - BNC/PP experience:right colligates (all counts are percents) .........................
211
Table 92 - Colligational information .......................
212
.....................................................................:.........
Table 93 - PP vs BNC Colligation 213
Table 94 - Experience: colligates ...................................................................................
214
Table 95 - PP Colligation (Left/Right) .....................................................................................
214
Table 96 - PP Colligations Left + Right patterns ............................................................................
215
.............................................................
Chris Tribble - PhD Manuscript (this doc: January7; 1999)

Table 97 - "experience of' in BNC Written 216

Table .....................................................................
98 - experience: counts 217
..........................................................................................
Table 99 - PP sentence initial 218
...........................................................................................
Table 100 - Document structure 219
Table ......................................................................................
101 - PP Corpus level counts 228
- ...............................................................................
Table 102 - Heading level counts 229
Table 103 - Sections type: token ....................................................................................
...................................................................................... 229
Table 104 - extract from PHARE ITB 231
Table .............................................................................
105 - Level 1 headings 231
...........................................................................................
Table 106 - content elements 235
..........................................................................................
Table 107 - moves in obligatory content elements? 236
Table 108 - first person pronouns in PP and LOB ........................................................
241
Table 109 - first person pronouns (formal writing) ...........................................................
242
Table 110 - right collocates "our" in the PP Corpus .........................................................
243
........................................................
Table 111 - "We" in ENV 243
................................................................................................
Table 112 - CGC Cherepov 244
.............................................................................................
Table 113 - BK162 245
...........................................................................................................
Table 114 - Primary headings 263
..........................................................................................
Table 115 - Tertiary headings 263
..........................................................................................
Table 116 - Text analysis passage 264
...................................................................................
Table 117 - "motherhood vs keywords" 267
..........................................................................
Table 118 - Recipes (Tribble C 1997:54-55) 287
...................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Clark and Ivani6 1997:11 17

...............................................
...................................
..
Figure 2- Flowers & Hayes writing processmodel (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:92).... 25
Figure 3- An alternative representationof the processof writing as a social practice ..
(Clark & Ivanid 1997:98) 26
....................................................................................
..
Figure 4- Writing as communicative languageuse (Grabe W&R Kaplan 1996:226) 27
Figure 5- Swales 1990:84 ....
...............................................................................................31
Figure 6- Doherty Knapp & Swift 1987:13-15 ..
............................................................... 41
Figure 7- Hamp-Lyons L&B Heasley 1987:100 ..
........................... 50
Figure 8- Dudley-Evans T 1985:5-8 ...............................
..
.......................................... 51
Figure 9- White R&D McGovern 1994:22-4 .....................................
..
................................................................ 54
Figure 10 - JordanRR 1992:49-50 ..
......................................... 56
Figure 11 - O'Dell F 1996:87 ........................................
..
..................................................... 63
Figure 12 - Involved vs. Informed: first attempt ......................................
..
104
Figure 13 - Narrative vs. Non-narrative: first attempt ..............................................................
104
Figure 14 - Explicit vs. Situation Dependent:first attempt .....................................................
105
Figure 15 - Overt expressionof persuasion:first attempt .............................................
105
Figure 16 - Abstract vs. non-abstract:first attempt ................................................
106
Figure 17 - On-line informational elaboration: first attempt .........................................................
106
Figure 18 - Text sequencingexercise ...........................................
238
................................................:.............................
Figure 19 - ENV: Text sample 240
................................
Figure 20 - CallaghanM, Knapp P&G Noble 1993:196 .........................................................
277
...............................................

LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Attributive Adjectives Excel formulae. doc

2. Brochure (BNC search results). doc
3. Brochure texts. doc
4. But analysis. doc
5. CGA ENV - Table of contents.doc
6. CLAWS?TAGLIST.doc
7. EnvironmentalEducationTOR.doc
8. Experience Immediate left collocates. doc
9. Experience_ sentence initial. doc
10. Experience_BNC_Spoken. doc
11. Experience_BNC Written. doc
12. Experience_Clusters. doc
13. Experience_left and right sort. doc
14. Experience_sentence initial. doc
15. Extracting colligation information from POS coded text. doc
16. Interview - Text analysis (Respondent 1).doc
17. Interview - Text analysis (Respondent 2). doc
18. Interview - Text analysis (Respondent 3). doc
19. Interviews - Questionnaire. doc
20. Interviews- RespondentI doc
21. Interviews- Respondent2 doc
22. Interviews- Respondent3.doc
23. Keywords PP BNC.doc
24. Keywords_PP_GDN. doc
25. Nominalisations doc
26. Not only_but. doc
27. Organisation- content elements.doc
28. Organisation- Section Counts.doc
29. Organisation- summary of proposalsections.doc
30. 'our' in PPs.doc
31. PHARE Contract - ITB.doc
32. PHARE Contract- Technical Proposal.doc
33. PHARE Contract - TOR.doc
34. Phrasal coordination. Adjective. doc
35. Phrasal coordination. Verb. doc
36. PP Themes.doc
37. Predictivemodal will.doc
38. Preparing the PP Corpus. doc
39. Private verbs. doc
40. Search Algorithms final set.doc
41. Search Algorithms-initial set.doc
42. Tendering Instructions (PHARE Project). doc
43. Text sequencing activity. doc
Printed reports from the following spreadsheetsare included in the Appendices.
1. Corpus Results Biber Factor scores(XL Corpus ResultsBiber Factor scores.xls)

2. Corpus Results Original Counts (XL Corpus Results Original Counts.xls)
3. Experiencecolligations (XL Experience_colligationand other data.xls)
Page 315
.
Page 316
APPENDIX - Attributive Adjectives Excel formulae
Excel formulae used to sort WordSmith output and identify attributive
adjectives are given in row I
A B C D E F G H I` J K L M N
1 Attrib test No. Word # tag Word # tag count Chur 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 2
1 =1F(AND(EXACT 1 LONG =LEFT JJ TIME =LEFT NNT 5 =LEN =IF-($ =/F( =IF($ =1F($
("J", D2), OR(EXA (E2) (H2) # (E2) J2=2 $J2 J2=4 J2=5,
CT("N", G2), EXA 2,0) =3,3 4, Q) 5,0)
,
CT(, J" G2))), 1,0)
"0)
2 1 1 LONG J JJ TIME N NNT 5 2 2 0 0 0
Appendices: Attributive Adjectives_Excel formulae

Page317
APPENDIX Brochure (BNC search results)
Here is a random selection of 50 solutions from the 945 found...
A7H 1296 The brochure continues:'A lot of things will happento you during your
time with the Volunteers.
AAV 62 The ability to seek out travel services for the customer even when they do
not appear on brochure racks has brought the company a strong following in the
town but also, according to manager Sandra Chisholm, from as far as Glasgow.
AHU 19 Original plans found in a Bugatti sales brochure have been used to help
with the restoration.
AMO 22 Check out the White Hot Deals section at the other end of this brochure for
a whole range of great holidays at value prices.
AMD 2245 One of the most popular resortsin this brochure, and it's not hard to see
why.
AMD 2795 Brochure Prices
AMW 1455 Geographicallimits: all destinationsdetailed in this brochure and
intermediate stopping places.
AYM 1260 The brochure I've enclosedwill give you the full picture.
B03 2799 The Natural Break brochure, sponsoredby British Gas,revealsa wealth of
conservationopportunities aroundthe country.
B3K 1368Pleaserefer to the back cover of this brochure for more details.
C9N 1589 (The answerto this can be found in the PRS brochure, available from
dealersnationwide.)
C9P 368 Call for a free brochure 'I have to saythat I really didn't like the smell
much, but it is a VERY natural product so I was happy with that.
CBF 5634 'In the brochure it looks like a picture of Disneyland in the bush with mud
huts with all mod cons.
CBW 1666 It prides itself on this fact and points out in its brochure that while a large
group can offer a wide range of services 'many of which you are unlikely to
want&hellip its investment managers suffer from real problems and conflicts of
interest: supporting in-house issues, buying in-house unit trusts, helping its market
makers and churning portfolios'.
CFN 491 There'smore to a namethan meetsthe eye as you will discover when you
sendfor our brochure.
CFR 798 Should you encounterdifficulty in obtaining items illustrated in this
brochure pleasecontact New World.
CFT 3299 When you book a selectedgolf holiday in the 1991 Solgolf brochure (one
of Britain's leading golf holiday companies)as a Golf Plus club member you will
automatically receive £25 discount on your holiday invoice.
CFU 309 For your 1990 Speedbirdbrochure phone (24 hrs) or call at an ABTA
travel agent.
CFV 2349 Ask for our CHINA brochure now!
CFW 1495 The map will be on saleat the DGM from mid-1991, together with a
brochure for investors which includes a version of the map at 1:2 500 000.
CMM 406 The parametersone will use to decidewhere to place an order are
somewhatsimilar to choosingwhich holiday and which brochure.
CRS 1439 Going through the Cedars'brochure with them, however, they were
pleasedto find a statementwhich they could relate to, namely that the school setsout
to help children, 'who are having problems in learning to read, find spelling and
Appendices: Brochure (BNC search results)

Page318
writing difficult, are unable to expressthemselveswell, are unable to settleand

concentrate&hellip'
EA9 1387Any enquiries by letter should be dealt with immediately by return
enclosing the hotel brochure, tariff and any other relevant information that will assist
the sale.
EBN 94 A detailed brochure with map and route descriptions point out places of
interest on your way.
ECO 84 iv A family has received £400 in compensationafter a coachholiday
firm failed to provide the smoke-freetransport specified in the brochure.
EC9 635 Pleasetelephoneor write, including stamp,to Mrs. JE Butterfill, the
ResidentProprietor, who will be pleasedto sendyou a brochure.
EDO 539 The prices contained in this brochure were valid at the time of publication
(October 1991).
ED3 1794FREE colour brochure: -81-;748 4569 (24 hrs).
EET 88 SaveAir Miles tokens and make your Sovereignholiday somethingto really
write home about -- 1000 Air Miles vouchers entitle you to a whopping £ 60
off any holiday in this brochure.
EFC 1383For further information and a copy of our eventsbrochure, contact any of
the historic sites describedin this brochure or the Wales Tourist Board's Tourist
Information Centres.
FRL 1993Both texts then seemto abandonthe questionof what Matroc's competitors
do and move on to considerthe types of customerin the market place and whether the
brochure would be of any value to them.
FRL 2005 For them this brochure is unnecessary.'
FRL 2013 In a way, I suppose,it seemsrather illogical to dismissthe value of the
brochure altogether, for all types of customer,and at the sametime suggestthat the
best way a customercan get the information s/he needsis to use a list of telephone
numbersprinted in the very brochure that is being dismissed.
GON610 'If there is a connection,I'm dealing with --'Then he broke off and his gaze
slipped down to the car ferry brochure.
G21 852 BP ordered 5,000 extra copies for eachtranslation and distribution abroad
and the commission led to another: illustrating pond life on a tracing paper sample
brochure.
G37 833 Quayside,the mail order side of Boat Bits Ltd, are producing a full colour
32-pageA5-sized brochure.
G4X 66 There'sactually the self assessmentbrochure.
H8J 885 'She's rememberedshe found a brochure for a hotel in Northumberland and
she leapt to the conclusion that Garry was going to surpriseher with an unexpected
holiday.
FIBS 7I wish to producethe brochure in time for its issueto have maximum
circulation and impact to ensurea successfulcentenary.
HSJ 367 If there isn't a Pineapplenear you, write to PineappleMail Order/ SKY Offer
7 Langley St, WC2 for a free copy of their mail order brochure.
J9P 211 And what we're doing is if you just look at your pack now, everybodywho
to
writes us, it doesn't matter what they want, whether it's favours of crackers,they're
getting a brochure which you know our brochure, which has the favours and
crackerson.
JAO 118 in the brochure?
JAO 248 Er for instancelook at the doctors' leaflets, the brochure goeson about er
how much the money has been savedfor the health council and all the rest of it.
Appendices: Brochure (BNC, search results)

Page319
JKO 22 But Mr if you know that in the real world ordinary people will often rely on
statementsin a brochure like this, don't you agree?,that's the object of it
JKO 24 no of courseyou wouldn't, I don't supposeMr would, but the whole purpose
of a brochure like this, is not necessarya dishonourablepurpose,it's a hook the
punter, to use Mr elegantword, he want to make it so simple to hook the punter and
make him or her sayto himself that's where we want to live and set their heart on it,
that's all the purpose of this brochure in it? or is the
K1P 3742 It claims Michael Heseltine wrote two letters to SFV saying he'd read the
company's brochure and because it didn't run package holidays there was no need for
insurance.
K4T 5247 The've now launcheda new rangeusing almond oil, and the brochure uses
pretty pictures of Californian almond farms set againstdescriptionsof crude oil
production and refineries.
K4W 1845Meanwhile, last year'spresident,Alan Wilcox, Richmond's Town Clerk, is
putting together a bumper centenarybrochure looking back at someof the highlights.
K8U 1986 Cargill boastsin its companybrochure that'some of our best customers
have never heard of us' (Morgan, 1979,p. 4).
KNF 720 On the back er table there there'sa brochure called Women at the Wheel,
it's a Vauxhall er application pleasedo take a good copy, very good application.
Appendices: Brochure (BNC search results)

Page320
APPENDIX - "Brochure Texts"

O'Dell F (1996) CAE Writing Tasks Cambridge University Press Cambridge
MOMI
words= 101
sentences =4
Average sentence length = 25.25
clauses = 12
Average clausesper sentence=3
adjectives=8
imperatives =4
you =1
(Sentence1) (clause 1) Lights... Cameras...Action... {clause 2) Come [imp. ] to the

award-winning Museum of the Moving Image and (clause 3} discover [imp. ] the
fascinating and magical world of film and television. (Sentence2) {clause 4) Both a
museumand an experience,{clause S} MOMI is an exciting blend of entertainment
and educationwith plenty of hands-onfun. (Sentence3) {clause 6} Enjoy [imp. ] a
magic lantern show, {clause 7) 'fly' over the Thames like Superman,(clause 8} be
[imp. ] interviewed by Barry Norman or {clause 91 audition for a Hollywood screen
test. (Sen enc 4) {clause 10) Along the way y will meet MONII's famous actor
guides, (clause 11) including a 1930'sOdeonusherette,Hollywood director and even
a Russian guard - {clause 12) all on hand to encourage participation and (clause 13)
provide more detailed information.
TOWER HILL PAGEANT

words = 105
sentences =7
Average sentencelength = 15
clauses= 11
Average clauses per sentence = 1.5
adjectives =5
imperatives =7
you= 1.
(Sentence5) {clause 14) Step [imp. ] aboarda time-car at the award winning Tower
Hill Pageantand {clause 15} relive [imp. ] 2000 years of London's history. (Sentence
6) {clause 16) See[imp.J, hear [imp. ] andsmell [imp. ] the past as Y.Jaj travel through
27 lifelike scenes.(enten 7) {clause 17) Meet [imp. ] the Romans, Saxonsand
Vikings, {clause 18) smell [imp. ] the horrible plague and {clause 19} escapethe
terrors of the blitz. ( nten 8) {clause 20} New in 1994 is a scenedepicting the
recent Docklands development.
(en ence9) (clause 21) Complementingthe dark-ride is the walk-through

Waterfront Finds Museum, with over 1000 exciting discoveries.(Sentence10)
(clause 221 Displays include a replica Roman ship, medievaljewellery and evena
bubonic plague skeleton. (Sentenc 11) (clause 23) The Tower Hill Pageantis one of
London's most fascinating attractions, (clause 24) locatedjust a coven'sglide of
London.
Appendices: Brochure texts

Page321
SCIENCE MUSEUM
120 words
6 sentences
Average sentencelength = 20 words
clauses=9
Average clausesper sentence= 1.5
adjectives=7
imperatives =0
you=2
Sen ence 12) {clause 25) Spaceships, aeroplanes, computers, and even an Egyptian
mummy are among the many thousands of objects in the Science Museum's world
famous collections. (Sentence 13) {clause 26) {clause 27) An exciting combination
of actual equipment, instruments and machinery along with sets, drama characters and
a range of special events tell the story of science, technology and medicine. (Sentence
14) {clause 28) Popular galleries include the Exploration of Space, Land Transport
and Flight, {clause 29} which houses many of the aircraft that made aviation history.
(Sentence15) (clause 30) Over 600 working exhibits encouragethe visitor to

experiencescienceand technology "hands-on". (Sentence 16) (clause 31) In the
interactive gallery Launch Pad, yjW can build a bridge, {clause 32) be a human
battery, {clause 33) operatea model grain pit and lots more. (Sentence17) (clause
34) Flight Lab offers exhibits that encouragej to test the principles of flight.
GFIANDI TEXT
words = 109
sentences =4
Average sentencelength = 27.5
clauses= 10
Average clauses per sentence = 2.5
adjectives = 13
imperatives =0
you=0
(Sentence18) (clause 35} Gandhi, (clause 36} also known as Mahatma

Gandhi, was born in Porbandar,in the modem (adj 1) stateof Gujarat, on
October 2,1869, into a political (adj 2) family, (clause 37) both his father and
grandfather having been prime (adj 3) ministers to the rulers of two adjacent
(adj 4) and tiny (adj 5) princely states. nne 19) (clause 38) After a
mediocre (adj 6) career at school, (clause 39) he went to London in 1888to
train as a lawyer, (clause 40} leaving behind his young (adj 7) and illiterate
(adj 8) wife, {clause 41) whom he had married when shewas barely in her
teens.(Sentence20) {clause 42) Gandhi qualified as a barrister three years
later and {clause 43) returnedto India. (Sentence21) (clause 44)After an
undistinguished (adj 9) legal (adj 10) practice he left for South (adj 11) Africa
in 1893 {clause 45} to serveas legal (adj 12) adviser to an Indian (adj 13)
firm. 0 Microsoft Encarta 1998
Appendices: Brochure texts

Page322
APPENDIX - But analysis
1. But in PP and RomFict
What lexical patternsis the word part of?
92 word clusters
PP Romfict
cluster Freq. cluster Freq.
but also 12 but I 22
but the 6 but she 18
but we 5 but it 16
but he 14
but you 10
but the 6
2. Does the word regularly associatewith particular other meanings?
9 PP - positive contrast (often as part of a professionallyqualified

judgement)- e.g. "This is a tight time schedule,but achievable "; ".... an
....
important part in this project but we think it prematureto define "
....
hs. This is a tight time schedule, but achievable, given the structure
ob in the course of implementation but additional training and study v
stricted to education exclusively, but also includes DHV 's ex
particular orientation of the RDA, but also allow for the fact that th
ust become fully involved in this, but also bring to bear their experi
ill involve not only presentations but also case study exercises, disc
e running of the central ministry, but also into education management
background in regional development but also substantial involvement in
ritten) will be less of a problem, but also that with their pre-existi
er it is not only MONE as a whole, but also the individual staff under
tise of the Implementation Advisor but also to that of the Contractor.
it by the demise of heavy industry but also with some beautiful scener
olved not only in the design stage but also, through delivery, as obse
the relevant Departments of MONE, but also, where possible, the indiv
SME business development support, but careful planning - and perhaps
32 accompanied by a limited but carefully targeted field work e
PEP has three independent but complementary action strategies
uments that are not only effective but efficient and workable as w
be useful for later policy advice, but enable the support and backstop
roduced to an appropriate standard but quality assurance will be a maj
ly which areas each will focus on, but we believe that it is important
s who wish to study each language, but we suggest that those staff who
an important part in this project but we think it premature to define
spects of economic transformation, but we would also emphasise that th
in an early stage of development. But we would expect to find some in
Appendices: But analysis

Page323
" RomFict - no clear pattern
3. What structure(s)doesit appearin?
" PP - major structural associations
Class count %
addition count 13 19.70
pronoun count 10 15.15
adjective count 8 12.12
verb count 6 9.09
time count 3 4.55
v. modal count 3 4.55
adverb count 1 1.52
PP BUT: total instances = 66 class %

ng activity built in from day one, but is more, the process to
, what addition
particular orientation of the RDA, but also allow for the fact that th addition
ust become fully involved in this, but also bring to bear their experi addition
ill involve not only presentations but also case study exercises, disc addition
stricted to education exclusively, but also includes DHV 's ex addition
e running of the central ministry, but also into education management addition
background in regional development but also substantial involvement in addition
ritten) will be less of a problem, but also that with their pre-existi addition
er it is not only MONE as a whole, but also the individual staff under addition
tise of the Implementation Advisor but also to that of the Contractor. addition
it by the demise of heavy industry but also with some beautiful scener addition
olved not only in the design stage but also, through delivery, as obse addition
the relevant Departments of MONE, but also, where possible, the indiv addition
addition Count 13 19.70
t Warsaw University of Technology. But it is equally important to invo pronoun
ed. We return to this point later, but it will be unrealistic to expec pronoun
entre in Wroclaw has been selected but its potential has not been esta pronoun
o them. These are discussed below. But our experience elsewhere in Rus pronoun
corruption and criminal activity. But they also provide an important pronoun
ly which areas each will focus on, but we believe that it is important pronoun
s who wish to study each language, but we suggest that those staff who pronoun
an important part in this project but we think it premature to define pronoun
spects of economic transformation, but we would also emphasise that th pronoun
in an early stage of development. But we would expect to find some in pronoun
pronoun Count 10 15.15
hs. This is a tight time schedule, but achievable, given the structure adjective
ob in the course of implementation but additional training and study v adjective
SME business development support, but careful planning - and perhaps adjective
PEP has three independent but complementary action strategies adjective
uments that are not only effective but efficient and workable as w adjective
entral part of the work programme, but other factors will also be cruc adjective
on, Natural Resources and Forestry but primary education is the respon adjective
roduced to an appropriate standard but quality assurance will be a maj adjective
adjective Count 8 12.12
produced meet the needs of Poland but are in line with international verb
with the client and stakeholders, but are likely to include: a th verb
project. We have visited the area, but do not know it well. We would, verb
be useful for later policy advice, but enable the support and backstop verb
- high rates of growth of GDP but falls in real consumption; verb
not only dedicated for improvement but feels the need for institutiona verb
verb Count 6 9.09
ugh the establishment of the CSME. But this the the time
, at stage, role of
hat Inception proceeds with rigour but at the same time with full awar time
rience, was an industrial chemist, but since 1988 his main work intere time
time Count 3 4.55
o is based on expected priorities, but may be subject to change in the v. modal
be dependent on the services used but may range from reports on the r v. modal
um will follow its own methodology but will be required to make know-h v. modal
V. modal Count 3 4.55
32 accompanied by a limited but carefully targeted field work e adverb
adverb Count 1 1.52

Page324
" RomFict - major structural associations
Class count °
pronoun count 69 36.13
adverb count 13 6.81
verb count 11 5.76
proper noun count 10 5.24
question count 10 5.24
verb of count 4 2.09
verb modal count 2 1.05
adjective count 1 0.52
" RomFict - major structural associations
total instances = 191 class

o take care of her professionally, but he certainly did n't want you t pronoun
shiver went down Joanna 's spine, but he did not touch her. " Well, t pronoun
comparisons. " He sounded pompous, but he did not want to be made to f pronoun
eyes. He hated having to hurt her, but he had known ever since he had pronoun
was not adverse to the suggestion, but he had to use a deal of pressur pronoun
t lay ahead. It was all too short, but he intended to hold on to it ti pronoun
nd would have moved away from him, but he laid a restraining hand on h pronoun
would come the inevitable thought, But he 's married! It ca n't mean a pronoun
her may have been a bit of a rogue but he was also a gentleman, and th pronoun
by that lady and by Gregory West, but he was Diana 's man and she wou pronoun
I gave him a quick, nervous glance but he was n't looking at me. He wa pronoun
r. Jacques slept above the garage, but he was used to Grant taking his pronoun
t you waiting, "I said hurriedly, but he waved me back on to my rock. pronoun
y Mattson may have his suspicions, but he wo n't have any proof. Ray w pronoun
I have something to offer you. "" But I-" Joanna began. She stepped pronoun
to suspect anything is wrong. "" But I ca n't remember who I am, "I pronoun
e prior to that morning in August, but I can tell you all about Dorcas pronoun
leared up. "" Why yes, of course. But I did n't know she was coming. pronoun
r since you were a schoolgirl, Jo, but I did n't think I stood a chanc pronoun
my husband and Joanna my daughter- but I do n't know them. I do n't kn pronoun
sappointed? "" Quite the reverse, but I do wish you were married. "R pronoun
eject it. He might not like me but I felt that he would listen, an pronoun
at 's not enough. You know it too, but I forgive you because you do n' pronoun
at of you to say that, sweetheart, but I hardly like to borrow from yo pronoun
e? ""I 've heard in the morning, but I 'm not sure. "" Then we '11 pronoun
ica? "" No. My chief is doing so, but I 'm taking out some special ge pronoun
on 's over- that 's your look-out. But I must say I think it 's rather pronoun
orth. Joan says you 've been away, but I pictured you shut up at Silve pronoun
'I was not talking of a carnival. But I presume we shall be allowed t pronoun
2010 **14; 157; 467 **17; 172; MIDDLE But I should be back in an hour or pronoun
avin. ""I 've only met him today but I think I can safely say that I pronoun
ery, sir. It may be of no account, but I think that you will find it- pronoun
"I suppose I 've wanted it too, but I 'vebeen afraid. "" Afraid? pronoun
for the back of a nearby chair. " But I 'vejust been extremely clums pronoun
it for a bit, Di, " he told her. " But I want it! " she protested. "I pronoun
s though he would have interrupted but I went on, "I ca n't tell you pronoun
inclined his head. "I could, yes. But I would advise you to see your pronoun
ld have told me. I am Lisa Landry- but my mind is Dorcas Mallory. " He pronoun
made her feel oddly breathless. " But my wife reminded me that I have pronoun
thankful to get out of the mess... But she lwas neurotic. It 's my gue pronoun
eing involved. I did n't tell you, but she called here two days ago. ' pronoun
including her in the conversation, but she could not help feeling that pronoun
and she 'd had Hyacinth kidnapped. But she had congratulated him and t pronoun
t to have brought straight to him. But she had not done so and had und pronoun
Adrian Mallory was in Dorcas, too. But she had not particularly felt t pronoun
ng Ray 's innocence would be gone. But she knew she had to act- and to pronoun
inging out the colour of her eyes, but she knew she must do something pronoun
r seen her on the hillside or not, but she never did any harm just by pronoun
that Oliver was in love with her? But she reminded herself, he does n pronoun
you 're here... " He rose at once, but she saw the surprise he could n pronoun
of alone; granted she 's run away, but she took Tu Kota with her; and pronoun
s advice flashed through her mind, but she turned away, giving a littl pronoun
Gaby 's hand after a few minutes, but she was asleep, looking as deep pronoun
firmly before their private life, but she was probably right; there w pronoun
r pencil moving and her head bent, but she was straining to hear every pronoun
" Her father spoke to the child, but she went on weeping. " Yoo-li-a pronoun
yacinth has returned to Lipur. "" But she would n't do that. How coul pronoun
e expected to find Hyacinth there, but someone might have seen her. Ni pronoun
achieved quite the fame they did. But we will, Rob, we will, " she en pronoun

Page325
ng. "" Perhaps. "" Perhaps. But- but you are not going to leave me, pronoun
was positive none was intended. " But you could be mine, "I insisted pronoun
might not seem so 'deadly dull. ' But you do n't, and that 's that! " pronoun
stonished. She said impulsively: " But you hardly know him, Jo! Mr. Ra pronoun
later on? "" Our marriage? No... but you may rue the day you ever m pronoun
as quiet and controlled as ever, " but you must have guessed that I ca pronoun
d lyou know this girl? "" No. "" But you probably heard your husband pronoun
" He shrugged. " Please yourself. But you 're a fool if you do n't. T pronoun
agine how bored you must get here, but you should n't play with fire, pronoun
the child told you about the clip. But you suspected me before that, d pronoun
pronoun Count 69 36.13
y. " It is n't at all important. " But after that slight slip of the t adverb
ore she accepted Charles Rawlings, but afterwards he had believed that adverb
said, sir, it may be of no value, but briefly, I have some scraps of adverb
not a vast fortune, by any means, but enough to make me feel, at leas adverb
way by now to where I do not know, but even if I did know for certain adverb
t wish to be stopped for speeding. But finally after a terrific climb adverb
lover she seems to expect, but honestly, Charlotte, she 's suc adverb
attention, " she began, but imperiously he cut her short. " adverb
pay great
ill be no one, " he assured her. " But meanwhile, I must find her. If adverb
irres not quite coherent sentences, but presently beneath the soothing adverb
passing through villages or towns. But presently they began to climb u adverb
was a more slender man than Nigel, but still stood about six feet tall adverb
e blame for Greta 's death on Ray; but surely the police would never s adverb
adverb Count 13 6.81
Caroline could do nothing but agree although she would have 1 verb
ce room.
do n't to sound discouraging, but aren't some of them pretty low verb
want
he houseman, meaning no offence, " but does he? That blonde was someth verb
know each [PPX221] other (PPX222], but doing nothing definite. A roman verb
ith the warm rolls and cherry jam, but drank two large cups of coffee. verb
my been the notorious jewel thief but had also murdered Greta. It see verb
He 's getting on well but is pretty helpless still with h verb
er shopping.
club. " Noreen looked doubtful. is that
" But what you wanted? I thou verb
I am at your service, but
listen to me, please. "" Do n' verb
of course,
tell But me why you ask it? "I too verb
an I am to answer such a question.
to confirm or deny this, but
turned back to Noreen. With as verb
er mother
verb Count 11 5.76
butler 's pantry next door. " But Fergus- " "Wheesht! Stay her proper noun
nlit ,
t be running into danger with him, but Adrian could be wrong, and anyw proper noun
have heard from Lipur. " But Charles Rawlings agreed with Ni proper noun
until we
little light there was in the sky, but Diana knew every path in this p proper noun
he a governess to do, but Don Felipe made no mention of P proper noun
what wanted
" Yes, I suspected you, but Jimmy Mattson also suspects you proper noun
position.
ine him enough, but Joanna 's greeting was barely p proper noun
greeted pleasantly
together? " he asked. " No sir. " But Nick guessed that the Malay was proper noun
11 other [PPX222] in bewilderment, but Noreen, recognizing Stephen 's proper noun
d to each [PPX221] other [PPX222]. But Pauline came out at once. Andre proper noun
proper noun Count 10 5.24
" He asked almost wildly, " But how can I let you live, knowing question
guilt.
1 to her as you obviously are. "" But how can I stay? " Julia began. question
rgain- your life for your silence. But how could I ever trust you? "" question
stioning Grant might be dangerous. But what had finally prompted him t question
all prepared to love you for ever. But what happens? You seem to have question
lness. His notes will be truthful, but what he leaves out will matter question
fic I was able to pick up his car. But when he started up the Grande C question
before the front door. But when she tried to close it afte question
she reached
Jo my dear, but when you come back... " his han question
the end of this month,
her get in it had told the truth. But where had she been taken? And w question
question Count 10 5.24
trying to recover lost ground, but finding it difficult. Mollie wa verb of
was
Andrea ate in the canteen hastily, but forcing herself to mix with the verb of
on the table not wanting to smoke but needing some action to help her verb of
done to make her despise him... But to walk out on Philip, break he verb of
ad
verb of Count 4 2.09
he felt him looking across at her, but would not look up until he said verb mod al
hat he was waiting for me to go on but wouldn't hurry me, that his ca verb modal
verb modal Count 2 1.05
one, doing the job nearest to her, but empty and unhappy. The thought adjectiv
e
adjective Count 1 0.52
4 Is there any correlation betweenthe word's uses/ meaningsand the structures

in which it participates?
Is the word associated with (any positions in any) textual organisation? " (Hoey
M 1997a: 1)

Page326
PP Romfict
Sentence initial 9.09 22.51
Sentenceinitial in direct speech (indicated by ") 0.00 12.04
Clause punctuation (, ;) 50.00 52.36
Paragraph initial 00.00 ?
2. But in BNC Spoken / Written Core
BNC S poken but: 6529 BNC Written but: 4363

N cluster Freq. % N cluster Freq. %
1 but 1 1,062 16.27 1 but the 370 8.48
3 but it 622 9.53 2 but it 219 5.02
5 but you 339 5.19 4 but 1 191 4.38
6 but er 294 4.50 6 but they 127 2.91
7 but the 294 4.50 7 but he 115 2.64
8 but we 277 4.24 8 but in 111 2.54
10 but they 263 4.03 11 but there 99 2.27
11 yeah but 242 3.71 13 but also 94 2.15
12 but he 227 3.48 14 but not 77 1.76
18 but that 191 2.93 15 but this 74 1.70
20 but if 178 2.73 16 but a 70 1.60
21 but she 168 2.57 17 but that 70 1.60
22 but erm 159 2.44 20 but she 63 1.44
23 but there 148 2.27 23 but you 58 1.33
24 is not 57 1.31
total pers. pronouns as percent 35.78 25 but we 54 1.24
30 but then 48 1.10
Itotal
pers. pronouns as percent 13.94

Page327
APPENDIX: CGA ENV - Table of contents
ORGANISATION AND METHOD

(I) SUMMARY 2
(II) PROJECT MANAGEMENT 2
Project reporting 3
(III) GENERALAPPROACH 3
Goal 3
Strategy 4
Institutionalising change 4
Developmentof appropriate strategies 4
Building on existingframeworks 5
Phased approach 5
Structured evaluation 5
Implementation schedule 6
(IV) ComN ENTs ON THE TERMSOF REFERENCE 6
Organisation 7
TeamLeader 7
Project coordinator 7
Resources 7
Primary workbookfor students 7
Review teams 7
Terminology 8
Workbook 8
The role of the REECs 8
The trading of materials 8
Sustainability of the materials and theproduction process 8
Timing of theproject 9
Integrating Environmental Education into the school curriculum 9
(V) PROPOSEDAPPROACH 9
Aim 9
Analysis of need 10
Current Environmental Education in Poland 10
Strengthsof EE in Poland 10
Weaknessesof EE in Poland 10
NO ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES 11
Summary 11
Review of environmental Education and EE resources 11
Teachershandbookson Environmental Education 11
Primary School Students/ Workbooks - "Seals, Community and environment" 12
Vocational School StudentsI Workbook 12
Training manual 13
Trained teachers and trainers 13
Materials already available in Poland 13
(VII) PROPOSEDRESPONSE 13
Team leaders 13
Project coordinator 13
Researchassistant 13
Curriculum development,primary education; curriculum development, vocational education 14
Review team 14
Voivodship 14
Readers 14
Publisher 14
Steering committee 14
(Vm) WoRxPLAN 15
Research phase 15
Development phase 16
Dissemination phase 18
Appendices: CGA ENV - Table of contents

Page328
APPENDIX - CLAWS 7 TAGLIST
I punctuationtag - exclamation mark DAT superlative after-determiner (most, least)

punctuation tag - quotation marks DB before-determiner, capable of pronominal
( punctuationtag - left bracket function (all, half)
punctuation tag - right bracket DB2 plural before-determiner, capable of
punctuationtag - comma pronominal function (both)
- punctuation tag - dash DD determiner, capable of pronominal function
----- new sentence marker (any, some)

punctuation tag - full-stop DD1 singular determiner (this, that, another)
.
punctuation tag - ellipsis DD2 plural determiner (these, those)
...
punctuationtag - colon DDQ wh-determiner (which, what)
punctuationtag - semi-colon DDQGE wh-determiner,genitive (whose)
? punctuation tag - question-mark DDQV wh-ever determiner (whichever, whatever)
APPGE possessive pronoun, EX existential there
prenominal (my, your, our etc.) FO formula
AT article (the, no) FU unclassified
AT1 singular article (a, an, every) FW foreign word
BCS before-conjunction(in order (that), GE germanic genitive marker - ('or 's)
even (if etc.)) IF for as a preposition
BTO before-infinitive marker (in order, li preposition
so as (to)) 10 of as a preposition
CC coordinating conjunction (and, or) IW with; without as preposition
CCB coordinating conjunction (but) JJ general adjective
CS subordinating conjunction (if, JJR Rgeneral comparative adjective (older,
because, unless) better, bigger)
CSA as as a conjunction JJT general superlative adjective (oldest, best,
CSN than as a conjunction biggest)
CST that as a conjunction JK adjective catenative (able in be able to; willing
CSW whether as a conjunction in be willing to)
DA after-determiner, capable of MC cardinal number neutral for number (two,
pronominal function (such, former, three... )
same) MCGE genitive cardinal number, neutral for
DA1 singular after-determiner (little, number (twos, 100's)
much) MCMC hyphenated number (40-50,1770-1827)
DA2 plural after-determiner (few, MC1 singular cardinal number (one)
several, many) MC2 plural cardinal number (tens, twenties)
DAR comparative after-determiner MD ordinal number (first, 2nd, next, last)
(more, less) MF fraction (quarters, two-thirds)
Appendices: CLAWS? TAGLIST

Page329
ND1 singular noun of direction (north, PN indefinite pronoun, neutral for number (none)
southeast) PN1 singular indefinite pronoun (one, everything,
NN common noun, neutral for number nobody)
(sheep, cod) PNQO whom
NNA following noun of title (M. A. ) PNQS who
NNB preceding noun of title (Mr, Prot) PNQV whoever, whomever, whomsoever,
NN1 singular common noun (book, girl) whosoever
NN2 plural common noun (books, girls) PNX1 reflexive indefinite pronoun (oneself)
NNL1 singular locative noun (street, PP nominal possessive personal pronoun (mine,
Bay) yours)
NNL2 plural locative noun (islands, PPH1 it
roads) PPHO1 him, her
NNO numeral noun, neutral for number PPH02 them
(dozen, thousand) PPHS1 She, she
NNO2 plural numeral noun (hundreds, PPHS2 they

thousands) PPIO1 me
NNT temporal noun, neutral for number PPIO2 us
(no known examples) PPIS1
NNTI singular temporal noun (day, PPIS2 we
week, year) PPX1 singular reflexive personal pronoun
NNT2 plural temporal noun (days, (yourself, itself
weeks, years) PPX2 plural reflexive personal pronoun

NNU unit of measurement,neutral for (yourselves,ourselves)
number (in., cc. ) PPY you
NNU1 singular unit of measurement RA adverb, after nominal head (else, galore)
(inch, centimetre) REX adverb introducing appositional
NNU2 plural unit of measurement constructions (namely, viz, eg.)
(inches, centimetres) RG degree adverb (very, so, too)
NP proper noun, neutral for number RGA post-nominal/adverbial/adjectivaldegree
(Phillipines, Mercedes) adverb (indeed, enough)
NPI singular proper noun (London, RGQ wh- degree adverb (how)
Jane, Frederick) RGQV wh-ever degree adverb (however)
NP2 plural proper noun (Browns, RGR comparative degree adverb (more, less)
Reagans, Koreas) RGT superlative degree adverb (most, least)
NPD1 singular weekday noun (Sunday) RL locative adverb (alongside, forward)
NPD2 plural weekday noun (Sundays) RP prep. adverb; particle (in, up, about)
NPM1 singular month noun (October) RPK prep. adv., catenative (about in be about to)
NPM2 plural month noun (Octobers) RR general adverb (actually)

Page 330
RRQ wh- general adverb (where, when, VDZ does
why, how) VHO have

RRQV wh-ever general adverb VHD had (past tense)
(wherever, whenever) VHG having
RRR comparative general adverb VHN had (past participle)
(better, longer) VHZ has
RRT superlative general adverb (best, VM modal auxiliary (can, will, would etc. )
longest) VMK modal catenative (ought, used)
RT nominal adverb of time (now, WO base form of lexical verb (give, work etc.)
tommorow) WD past tense form of lexical verb (gave,
TO infinitive marker (to) worked etc. )
UH interjection (oh, yes, um) WG -ing form of lexical verb (giving, working
VBObe etc.)
VBDR were VVN past participle form of lexical verb (given,
VBDZ was worked etc.)
VBG being WZ -s form of lexical verb (gives, works etc.)
VBM am WGK -ing form in a catenative verb (going in be
VBN been going to)
VBR are VVNK past part. in a catenative verb (bound in
VBZ is be bound to)
VDO do XX not, n't
VDD did ZZI singular letter of the alphabet (A, a, B, etc.)
VDG doing ZZ2 plural letter of the alphabet (As, b's, etc.)
VDN done
NOTE: DITTO TAGS
Any of the tags listed abovemay in theory be modified by the addition of a pair of
numbers to it: eg. DD21, DD22. This signifiesthat the tag occurs as part of a sequence
of similar tags, representinga sequence of words which for grammaticalpurposesare
treated as a singleunit. For example the expression in terms of is treated as a single
preposition, receiving the tags:
in terms of 1133
_1131 _1132
The first of the two digits indicatesthe number of words/tags in the sequence,and the
second digit the position of each word within that Such
sequence. ditto tags are not
included in the lexicon, but are assignedautomaticallyby a program called
IDIOMTAG which looks for a range of multi-word sequencesincluded in the
idiomlist. The following sampleentriesfrom the idiomlist show that syntactic
ambiguity is taken into account, and also that, dependingon the context, ditto-tags
may or may not be required for a particular word sequence:

Page331
at RR21 length RR22

a_DD21/RR21 lot_DD22/RR22
in CS21/II that CS22/DD1
(Wynne M 1996)
Appendices: CLAWS? TAGLIST `.

Page332
APPENDIX Environmental Education TOR
ANNEX A
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Strengthening Environmental Education at Primary and Vocational School Level

Project No. ECIEPP 19W3.1
1. Introduction
The European Community supports the economic transformation process in Poland

through the PHARE programme. PHARE assistance is providing support to policy
reforms and development of the basic physical and human infrastructure needed to
operate a modern economy. The PHARE Programme is demand-driven and
concentrateson a limited number of programmesrespondingto requestsfrom the
recipient countries. In the caseof Poland environmentalprotection was identified as a
priority areaand as such is being supportedthrough PHARE
PHARE funds for environmentalprotection not only were allocated for investment
projects but also guided to environmentaleducation.In the PHARE Phase11
Programme(1991-1993), the Polish Government.Through the Ministry of
Environmental Protection, Natural Resourcesand Forestry, consideredstructural
support to Environmental Education (EE) essentialin order to involve the school-age
children at an early stagewith environmental protection measures.By selectingEE as
a priority area. the Government implicitly acknowledgedthat teaching school-age
in
children caring for the environment is a future investment. It is evident that sucha
strategic choice will have substantial consequences for the educationsystemas such.
If environmental educationaspectsare to be introduced andlor strengthenedin the
present school curricula. environmental issues can link different traditional subjects
with eachother (biology, geography and physics). The result could be an
interdisciplinary approachin the presenteducationsystem.However it must be clear
that such an adjustmentcan only be achievedthrough a stepwiseprocess.Today's
school-agedchildren are the future decision makers.Only by giving them a solid
basic knowledge on environmentalcare,they will in due coursebe able to take the
correct decisions to
needed guarantee a sustainable development.
An essentialelement in reaching a sustainabledevelopmentin Poland is to strengthen
Environmental Education (EE). EE is likely to bring studentsand teachersface to face
with major regional, national but also global issues. Environmental subjectsare
generally complex. incorporating social, cultural. political and economic factors. It is
vital both for the full developmentof the studentand for the future well-being of
Poland that such issuesare explored in and out of the classroom.The school provides
a forum where young people can be sensitively and professionally encouragedto
discussand form opinions on matterswhich critically affect their own lives. The
penalties for denying studentsthis opportunity may be seriousfor their own
environment whilst the rewardsin terms of addedrelevanceand interest in their
learning may be great.
In Poland, the importance EE can have with regard to creating a sustainable
development has been acknowledged. The consequence of such an approach is that
EE need to be systematically integrated in the present education system. The problem
is that suitable curricula and appropriate training methods are lacking. For this reason,
external support is needed in order to strengthen EE. The present terms of reference
Appendices: Environmental Education TOR

Page333
outline the specific assistancerequestedto strengthenEE in primary- and vocational

educationin Poland
2. Programme
The Development Objective of the programmeis to support and stimulate the growth
of EE practice and methodology in schools.and encouragethe developmentof
environmental awarenessand competencyamongstyoung people as a key elementfor
building a sustainablefuture for Poland. An important part of the strategywill be to
link with and strengthenthe nationwide network of Regional Environmental
Education Centres(REEC) establishedby National Environmental Education Centre
(NEEC).
The Immediate Objectives of the Programmeare:
- prepare environmental for
educationpackages teachersand studentsat primary
school level and technical vocational school level related to environmentalprotection;
- involve Polish in
experience order to help build on and further develop expertisein
EE, especiallyby involving the REEC's with testing of the materials and training of
teachers,with a view to creating a continuousimpetus;
The programmehas three components:
- the development and testing of materials;
- the completion to final printing of one of the packages;
- the development of an in-service teacher education workshop model using the
completed and draft materials;
The presentcurriculum reform in Poland is very sympatheticto EE in terms of
welcoming interdisciplinarity and active methodology, whilst there is a growing
awareness that there needs to be a much more widespreadpromotion of education
through and for the environment than is currently prevalent in schools.
The situation is characterizedby pockets of new activity, enthusiasmand
developmentsparticularly at local level, set againsta backgroundof shortageof up-
to-date teaching resourcesand equipment.generalshortageof in-service provision in
EF, and a prevailing teacher-centeredmethodologicaltradition. The priority need is
for teaching resourcesthat introduce active teaching and learning styles in an
accessibleway and as the key to more fundamental curricular change.
While there is a minority of committed teachersinvolved in EF- the greaterneedis to
provide basic but thorough resources in EE for the ordinary teacherrather than cater
exclusively to this more experiencedminority.
3. Services to be provided
3.1 in relation to the researchstage

becomefamiliar with the Polish educational system,and in particular the
current stateof curriculum reform as it affects general educationat
primary school level (grades 4-8);
becomefamiliar with curriculum reform in vocational education.in
particular as it affects vocational schools under the control of the 'Ministry
of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry (e.g.
Forestry Schools,Water ManagementSchools,Technical Environmental
Protection Schools);

Page 334
- examine all basic programmesand popular author'sprogrammeswith

environmental content affecting primary schoolsfrom grades4-8;
- examinethe syllabus operating for the subject "the Ecological Basis of
Environmental Protection" and any evaluation of this course;
- collect examplesof high quality materials on EE from leading countries in

this field;
3.2 in relation to the implementation stage
Basedon overseasexperienceand Polish needs,synthesize,rewrite and adapt
elementsof existing material. and produce original material if necessary,in
order to produce first drafts of materialsas follows:
Primary Education:
Teachershandbook on introducing EE as a cross-curriculartheme, suitablefor

all subjectteachersand classtutors, grades 4-8 (ages 11-15); Students
workbook on self community and the environment. with potential for
crosscurricularuse;
Vocational Education:
Teachershandbook on EF, specifically oriented to the course'the Ecological

Basis of Environmental Protection' but also capableof use in other subject
contextswithin a vocational school setting and aiming to encourage
interdisciplinary teaching wherecircumstancespermit (ages 15-19); Students
workbook based on, but not limited to'the Ecological Basis of Environmental
Protection' syllabus;
At both, primary- and vocational level, thesematerials should put particular

emphasison active participatory methodology. The teachershandbooks should
include the following elements(the material for primary educationmore
strongly than the vocational guide which should be more subject oriented i. e.
towards environmentalsystemsand protection):
- basic EE theory and principles;
- basic policy, strategyand curriculum planning;
outline of different options/modelsof EE acrossthe curriculum;

-
- environmental auditing/developingthe green school and estate;
- active learning methods.
environmental action and community links.,
-
self-training approach, plus guidelines on how to use material in in-service
-
training workshop;
The two setsof material should be designedas integrated packages;The
teachershandbook on EE for primary level is to be produced to published
form in limited quantity within the contract period. The other three units to
draft prototype form. ready for publication.

Page 335
3.3 in relation to testing the materials
- design and implement. togetherwith NEEC and the REEC's, a testing

programmeat schoolsin various regions and environments;
3.4 in relation to teachereducation
design and implement, together with NEEC and the REEC's, teacher
-
education workshops for the primary and vocational level materials in
association with the testing programme;
involve trainers in the regions in the process to help them conduct
-
participative workshops based on the elaborated model. These
participative workshops will largely take place after the contract period;
3.5 in relation to the revision and production
- evaluateand revise "proto" materialsbasedon the results of the testing at

schoolsand the teachereducationworkshops and produce full scripts
ready for production;
- bring the teachershandbookfor primary level through to publication;
Resources have been allocated to finance a team of experts for an approximate total of
36 manmonths.
One expert, the teamleader,will be responsiblefor the coordination and
implementation of the entire programme.The teamleaderwill be assistedby a team of
in
experts, specialized those aspectsof the programmewhich are related to curriculum
developmentin primary- and vocational education.The teamleaderand the other
expertswill work in joint cooperationwith a programmecoordinator attachedto
NEEC which is also supposedto be financed out of the project budget.
Tenderers should note:
(a) that the team should include individuals with experiencein EC
member statesin the areasrelevant to the programme;
(b) that the importance of languageskills within the team (fluent in
English and the capacity to speakPolish) will be an advantage;
(c) as the project requires in-depth knowledge of the presenteducation
system in Poland. the Tenderer must be able to demonstrateclose and
formal cooperationwith Polish counterpartorganizations;
(d) that excellent writing and editing skills are required;
(e) that the teamleaderwill require in-depth project management
experienceand knowledge of EE theory and practice;
(f) that the team will be expectedto liaise with a Polish working party or
advisory group coordinatedby NEEC;
The Tendereris requestedto presenta proposalwhich clearly defines approachesand
methodsto be used in reaching the objectives of the project. In particular, the proposal
should contain a detailed description of
- approach and method of analysing current EE in Poland
- approach and method of systematically introducing EE in the present

primary and vocational educationsystemin Poland;

Page336
- presentationof the project team including the organization of the team,

detailed CV's of all team membersand information on supportive
organizations;
- the budget for the project must be presentedaccordingto the attached
format; (Annex D)
4. Responsibilities and Qualifications for the Experts
The detailed responsibilities and required qualifications and experienceof the experts
are as follows
Teamleader
(a) in relation to the management of the project
in
ensure, general, the effective and timely implementation of the project
-
coordinatethe contributions from all other membersof the team
-
prepare the initial and subsequent work programmes. the inception report,
-
quarterly progressreports as well as the final report
- liaise with NEEC and the advisory body on programmedevelopment
- liaise with ECMU, which is coordinating the PHARE PhaseII

Environmental Support Programme,
(b) in terms of implementation
- design an appropriateworkplan and full time-table guaranteeinga solid

implementation of the work,
- assign and agreeupon responsibilities of the team members;

ensure the integration of all concerned partners in all aspects of the
-
programme,especially concerning the involvement of Polish expertise;
negotiate any copyright and adaptation agreements with copyright holders
-
of any suitable material on EF,
(c) in relation 10 institutional development
- design a training programme on curriculum developmentfor key staff;
- design and run initial teachertraining workshops for the REEC's networks
and other participating organizations;
(d) on-going evaluation
establishevaluation criteria for individual elementsof the programme,in
-
to
order permit a systematic appraisal of programme inputs;
- undertake such an appraisal after the testing of materials;

Profile of the Candidate
(a) educationand qualifications
- University degreewith additional qualifications in education,fluent in

English. Fluency in Polish will be a bonus;
(b) essentialexperience

Page 337
- strong backgroundin environmental educationand particularly curriculum

researchand curriculum development;
- excellent analytical skills.,
- experiencewith programmemanagement;
- working experience in international projects;
- knowledge of EC financial and procurementregulations,programme

implementation and reporting procedures;
(c) desirableexperience
experience with environmental education policy and project development

-
in EC member states;
- familiarity with the presentlevel of environmentaleducationin Poland;

(d) personalcharacteristics
- excellent written and oral communication skills,

- capacity to lead a team successfully;
- innovative and resourcefulpersonality;
to in
- capacity work stressfulcircumstances;
Curriculum Development Primary Education
(a) in relation to the managementof the project
advise on and lead designing and implementing a plan for the production
-
of primary school packages;
be responsible for the appraisalof the vocational educationprogramme
-
after testing the materials;
- researchthe presentsituation regarding curriculum reform at primary

school level, particularly grades 4-8, as it affects environmental education
provision
collect suitable and appropriate examples of high quality environmental
-
educationresource materials for teachers and students at this level
- synthesize,rewrite and adapt elementsof existing material, and produce

original material if necessary.in order to develop first draft recommended
materials
- devise and carrying testing programmesin identified schools.,evaluate
and revise drafts and produce units described
- the studentshandbookto final draft stageready for publication
- the teachershandbookthrough publication ready for application
- liaise with and assistteam memberswith their tasks

(c) in relation to institutional development

Page338
- assist the team-leader in working with NEEC and run training on

curriculum development for key staff and initial teacher training
workshops through the REEC's and other participating organizations
- assist the team-leader with establishingevaluation criteria for individual

elementsof the primary educationprogramme,in order to permit a
systematicappraisalof programme inputs
- be responsible for the appraisalof the primary educationprogrammeafter

testing the materials.
Profile or the Candidate(s)
- University degreewith qualifications in educationand environment
- fluent in English. Fluency in Polish will be a bonus

strong background in environmental education and particularly curriculum
-
development. for ages 10-15
- excellent analytical skills

- writing and editing experience
experiencewith designing and facilitating in-service teachereducation
-
workshops in environmental education
creating and leading active teaching and learning programmes in EE
-
working experience in international projects
-
- familiarity with good quality environmental educationprogrammesfrom

different EC member statesand other countries
familiarity with production of materials including desk-top publishing
-
skills
experience in designing and carrying out testing materials
-
- familiarity with evaluation techniques
- pre-serviceteachereducationexperience
- excellent written and oral communication skills

- creative abilities. particularly in relation to educationalactivities
- good participative training delivery style
- capacity to work within a team successfully
- adaptive and capacity to work on own initiative
- capable of adapting current knowledge and skills to new circumstances
Curriculum Development Vocational Education

Page339
- advise and lead on designing and implementing a plan for the production
of vocational school units
- research the present situation regarding curriculum reform at vocational

school level, particularly as it affects environmental education provision in
technical vocational schools controlled by the Ministry of Environmental
Protection. Natural Resources and Forestry but also the Ministry of
Agriculture and the Ministry of Health
- researchin detail the provision, methodology and educationalresults of the

syllabus'the Ecological Basis of Environmental protection', any updating
in progressand how new materialscan enhancethe teaching and learning
process
- collect suitable and appropriateexamplesof high quality environmental
educationresourcematerials for teachersand studentsat this level
- synthesize.rewrite and adapt elementsof existing material. and produce

if in
original material necessary, order to develop first draft recommended
materials
devise and carrying testing programmes in identified schools
-
evaluateand revise drafts and produce units describedto final draft stage
-
ready for publication
- liaise with and assistteam memberswith their tasks
- assistthe team-leaderin working with NEEC and run training on

curriculum development for key staff and initial teachertraining
workshops through the REEC's and other participating organizations.,
assistthe team-leader with establishingevaluation criteria for individual
-
elements of the vocational education programme, in order to permit a
systematic appraisalof programme inputs
Profile of the Candidate(s)
- University degreewith qualifications in education and environment;
- fluent in English. Fluency in Polish will be a bonus;

- strong background in environmental educationand particularly curriculum

developmentfor ages 15-19 and in relation to vocational education,
excellent analytical skills
- writing and editing experience:experiencewith designing and facilitating
in-service teachereducationworkshops in environmental education

Page340
- creating and leading active teaching and learning programmes in EE
- working experience in international projects

- familiarity with good quality environmentaleducationprogrammesfrom

different EC member statesand other countries;
- familiarity with production of materialsincluding desk-top publishing

skills;
- experiencein designing and carrying out testing materials;
- familiarity with evaluationtechniques;pre-serviceteachereducation
experience;
- excellent written and oral communication skills., creative abilities,

particularly in relation to educationalactivities
- good participative training delivery style. capacityto work within a team
successfully
- adaptive and capacity to work on own initiative
- capableof adapting current knowledge and skills to new circumstances..
Project Coordinator within NEEC
It is consideredto be essentialfor a proper executionof the project that a Polish
national with sound experiencein EE will act as project coordinator. Ideally. such a
project coordinator could be attachedto the National Environmental Education
Centre. The project coordinator will have to be included within the project budget.
assistthe teamleaderespecially in coordination activities;

-
in
preparemeetingswith officials relevant public and other organizations
-
assistwith the collection of existing EE materials in primary and
-
vocational education;
- assistwith the planning of the various activities;
be responsible for the planning of appointments between team members
-
and regional representatives on EE,
assist with the selection of schools for testing the materials; making
-
for
practical arrangements training sessions;
act as focal point between the other team members, NEEC officers and
-
staff of the REEC's
Profile of the Candidate
- University degreewith additional qualifications in education;

Page341
- fluent in Polish and English;

- strong backgroundin environmentaleducation

- familiarity with the presentlevel of environmental educationin Poland,
proven organizationalqualities
strong network contacts
-- working experiencein international projects

experience with environmental education policy and project development
- good written and oral communication skills;

- innovative and resourcefulpersonality;
- capacity to work within a team successfully;

With regard to the responsibilities and qualifications of the experts.the Consultant
should note the following. The expert profiles to be submittedby the Consultant must
reflect the professional skills and training qualifications of the candidate(s)involved.
The Consultant should also realize that a successfulexecution of the project is only
possible if a substantial Polish involvement during the implementation phaseof the
is
project guaranteed. Since the present educationsystem in Poland are best
understood by local education experts.and since communicationwill take place
predominantly in the Polish language, involvement of Polish expertiseis a sine qua
non for the awarding the project.
5. Duration of the Assignment
It should be noted that the 36 manmonthswhich are available for the project
implementation should be divided over a team of expertswhich reflect the requested
expertise and skills needed to implement this project successfully.The team will be
basedin Poland, primarily in Warsaw. However, the experts should count on
extensive travelling up-country. The project coordinator attachedto the National
Environmental Education Centrewill also have as operation basis Warsaw. It is
expected that the experts can take up their duties latest one month after the contract
has been signed. The expertswill carry out their duties within a consecutiveperiod of
12 months (one year).
6. Liaising, Reporting and Location
The expertswill liaise with the project coordinator in NEEC and closely coordinate
with representativesof the Regional Environmental Education Centres.The experts
will through NEEC report to ECMU, the EC-Delegation and the Commission as
follows:
inception report three weeks after taking up the assignment, assessingthe
project given the first experiencesand describing in detail any changesor
alterations deemednecessary;
- quarterly progressreports;

Page342
- final report one month after finalizing the assignmentdescribingthe

achievementsand impact of the project;
All reports have to be submitted in 12 (twelve) copiesin Polish and 10 (ten) copiesin
English language.
Although the tender instruction formally is under jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry (MEPNRF), it is evident
that the Consultant should not only consult EE specialists within MENRF but also
cooperate with officers of the Ministry of National Education (MONE) at central and
regional level, especially where it concerns the formal introduction and distribution of
EE in primary schools.
The education act of 1991 clearly indicated that spreadingecological knowledge
amongchildren and youth is necessaryin order to develop appropriateattitudesto the
environment. The standpointof MONE concerningEE indicates a contemporaryand
holistic view of EF, and a clear understandingthat the presentsituation is highly
unsatisfactory.
The formation of a steeringcommittee, in which besidesthe project advisers,
representativesof both the MEPNRF and MONE will participate is recommended-It
is up to the Consultantto take initiatives to establishsuch a body immediately after
starting the project. The main duty of this institution is to exchangeinformation,
discusspossible options and alternativesfor introducing EE within the vocational and
primary school systemand to streamlineeachothers activities.
7. Equipment
Procurementof all equipmentwill be undertakenin accordancewith EC guidelines.

All equipment and materialswill, at the termination of the project. be passedon to
NEEC
8. Cost and Financing arrangements
The maximum available budget is ECU 400.000.

Additional Background Information
In the beginning of 1991. membersof the Polish Parliament initiated a processof

establishinga National Environmental Education Centre (NEEC). By doing so. they
were responding to the needs and requests of the generalpublic. Severalmonths later,
the Ministry of Environmental Protection. Natural Resourcesand Forestry and the
Ministry of National Education announceda tender to establishsuch the Centre. A
competition among NGO's ensued and bids were submitted to the Ministries.
Evaluation of the applicantsresulted in the selection of the National Foundation for
Environmental Protection which was given the responsibility to establishthe Centre.
The National Environmental Education Centre (NEEC) was officially establishedin
January 1992 as a division of the National Foundation for Environmental Protection.
In just one year, the staff of the Centre has managedto respondto requestsfrom both
the government and the society for strengtheningEE. NEEC was establishedto
facilitate a processof EE in Poland. The institute is young, dynamic and ambitious
and aims at propagating and integrating EE aspectswithin the current education
systemin Poland.
NEEC initiates, coordinatesor carries out activities which have a direct impact on EE
and stimulates an environmental awarenessprocessamongthe generalpublic.

Page343
Creating a widespreadperception of the environmentalproblems togetherwith

supportingEE action plans which are basedon mutual cooperation,are focal elements
for the Centre.
The Centre has four major branches:
- information systems: responsiblefor developing and updating databases
and establishinga resourcecentre;
- cooperation and networking: taking care of the relations with national
and international institutions for environmentaleducation;
- programming: responsiblefor identifying and formulating environmental
educationprojects;
- editing, publishing and marketing: responsible for the distribution of
publications and public relations.
The four sectionsinteract continuously and provide advice and technical and/or
financial assistanceto individuals or institutions which put in a requestfor supporting
environmental educationprojects.
The long-term objective of the NEEC is to inspire, encourage and develop
environmental education in order to initiate an awarenessprocess amongst the
population on environmental protection.
NEEC is focusing on two major immediate objectives:
(1) Development of a solid and permanent structure which could form
nationwide a starting-point for all actions in the field of EE
This immediate objective is reflected in the following activities:
establishing a sound network of Regional Environmental Education
-
Centres (REEC) over Poland which could become liaison offices for
NEEC and act as focal points within a particular geographical area for
other organisations interested in EF,
establishingan international network with partner organisations in order to

-
formalize the contactsand exchangeexperiences,ideas.views and
programmes;
organizing management training courses for the staff of the National and
-
Regional Environmental Education Centres;
- developing and implementing projects, preferably with partner

organisations,related to EF,
organizing and participating in scientific conferences,seminarsand

-
courses related to EE,
organizing and supporting national and in

regional campaigns order to rise
-
the public awarenesson environmental issues:
- developing an information and documentationcentre on EE which

functions as a service centre and provides information and publications
related to environmental subjectsnationwide;
- function as platform organization for exchangingideas and information
with local organisations;
(2) Strengthening of EE at primary and vocational level:
This second immediate objective is reflected in the following activities:
thorough in-depth study to the way EE is included in the present curricula;
-

Page344
design new or update existing education packages related to environmental

-
protection for primary education;
- develop methodsand techniquesof environmental educationto be

introduced into the vocational educationsystem;
- training of trainers and teachersin environmental education,organization,

methods and techniques;
- supplying training materials and equipment to education institutes;
professionally related language training in order to stimulate the
-
communication with foreign counterpart organisations;
- organizing study visits for trainers and trainees to develop an exchangeof

experience.,
NEEC believesthat the total is greaterthan the sum of its parts. For this reason.
NEEC aims at cooperationand interaction with other organizationsrather than
operating in isolation. If you presentyourself as National Institute. it is a prerequisite
that regional and local environmental organizationsare supporting the activities of
such a Centre. NEEC has put great effort in establishingcontactswith these
organizationsthrough initiating a processof networking.
NEEC, which is basedin Warsaw, believesthat the actual environmental education
activities need to be organizedand implemented by local organizations in different
regions of the country. Establishing a nationwide network of organizationswhich
concentrates on environmental education is a major cornerstone of NEEC's strategy.
(NEEC). is convinced that by creating a network of Regional Environmental
Education Centres(REEC), an. operating structurecan be developedwhich will have
a long-term effect and as such will' be sustainable. It is evident that such a network is
only going to be effective. once projects will be identified which will have a regional
or local component and are linked to EE. By creating a solid basis. NEEC believes
that a more effective and efficient use of the resourcescan be the result. The
advantagesof the network are manifold:
of information and experiences between regions is facilitated,
- exchange
cooperationon joint regional projects is encouraged,
- networking focuseson structural solutions and as such stimulates

sustainable development;
support of donor organizations for particular initiatives can be guided

-
through the network;
- isolated operation and ad-hoc initiatives will be limited.,
- international cooperationcan be activated;
-a more effective and efficient use of the available resources,

NEEC is of the opinion that the development of a nationwide network will function as
the umbrella to which a number of other projects will be attached. NEEC is convinced
that international contacts are essential to tackle environmental problems. As we all
know. environmental pollution does not stop at the national boundaries. An
international approach in solving environmental problems is the only way to reach
long-term structural effects. NEEC has made this approach to a focal one within its
institute and attaches great importance in jointly solving border-crossing

Page 345
environmentalproblems. NEEC wants to learn from experiences implementedin

other settingsand find out whether elementscan be introduced in Poland.

..
Page346
APPENDIX: Experience Immediate left collocates
1. Immediate left collocates
PP (389 instances) BNC (322 instances)

N WORD L1 N WORD L1
1 AND 38 1 THE 36
2 HAS 24 2 OF 21
3 CONSIDERABLE 23 3 AND 14
4 OUR 21 4 WORK 11
5 YEARS 17 5 FROM 10
6 OF 16 6 PERSONAL 8
7 EXTENSIVE 15 7 TO 7
8 INTERNATIONAL 14 8 MY 7
9 THE 12 9 WAS 6
10 WIDE 11 10 AN 6
11 PRACTICAL 11 11 PREVIOUS 6
12 PROJECT 10 12 HIS 5
13 EU 7 13 OWN 5
14 THEIR 7 14 NO 5
15 HAVE 7 15 THEIR 5
16 WITH 6 16 SEXUAL 5
17 THIS 6 17 WITH 5
18 SUBSTANTIAL 5 18 THAT 5
19 DIRECT 5 19 OUR 4
20 ON 4 20 YEARS 4
21 BROAD 4 21 THIS 4
22 RELEVANT 4 22 PAST 4
23 DEPTH 3 23 HER 3
24 CONSULTANCY 3 24 MYSTICAL 2
25 PROFESSIONAL 3 25 FLYING 2
26 HIS 3 26 AESTHETIC 2
27 FOLLOWS 3 27 SCHOOL 2
28 TRAINING 2 28 PAINFUL 2
29 LONG 2 29 GOOD 2
30 TERM 2 30 GAIN 2
31 PARTICULAR 2 31 PRACTICAL 2
32 SQW 2 32 EVERYDAY 2
33 AGENCY 2 33 RESIDENTIAL 2
34 OPERATIONAL 2 34 WHAT 2
35 POSITIVE 2 35 CONSIDERABLE 2
36 IMPLEMENTATION 2 36 EXHILARATING 2
37 COMMITTEE 2 37 MORE 2
38 POLISH 2 38 PARTICULAR 2
39 AS 2 39 SENSORY 2
40 EAST 2 40 BY 2
41 WORK 2 41 FOR 2
42 WORKING 2 42 HAVE 2
43 RECENT 2 43 MENTAL 2
44 ON 2
45 IN 2
Table1- PPBNC Left Collocates
2. Right collocates
PP - experience In = 24% of 389 BNC - experience in - 6% of 332

instances Instances
experience in academic or experience in adult life
Experience in Assisting Project experience in bonded warehouse
Experience in assisting project experience in Chapter 6
experience in both establishing experience in dabbling with
Appendices: Experience Immediate left collocates

Page347
Experience in Bulgaria We xperience in designing.

experience in business and axperience in each case
experience in central and xperience in education or
experience in Central and %xperiencein higher education
experience in Central and xperience in Holland was
experience in co- sxperience in managing events
experience in counselling clients xperience in my younger
experience in cross curricular )xperience in school will
experience in dealing with xperience in terms of
experience in delivering training xperience in the building
experience in designing and experience in the development
experience in developing NGO sxperience in these fields
experience in development of
experience in diagnosing and
experience in each of
experience in eastern Europe
experience in employment services
experience in Health and
experience in Hungary has
experience in Hungary mainly
experience in industry,
experience in institutional development
experience in international business
experience in inward investment
experience in issues concerning
experience in itself -
experience in management of
experience in managing and
experience in managing complex
experience in more detail
experience in Nizhny Novgorod
experience in order to
experience in organising and
Experience in PHARE countries
experience in Poland 173
experience in Poland fence
experience in Poland is
Experience in Poland {
experience in Poland.
experience in Poland.
experience in policy advice
experience in practical consultancy
experience in providing similar
experience in providing Technical
experience in providing Technical
experience in public administration
experience in recruitment both
experience in setting up
experience in technical,
experience in the activity
experience in the areas
experience in the CSME
Experience in the Czech
experience in the design
experience in the design
experience in the development
experience in the Dutch
experience in the employment
experience in the entrepreneurial
experience in the field
experience in the former
experience in the Hungarian
experience in the implementation
experience in the implementation
experience in the Irish
experience in the light
experience in the operation

Page348
experience in the Phare

experience in the problems
experience in the provision
experience in the training
experience in the UK
experience in their field
experience in these areas
experience in this area
experience in this area
experience in this field
experience in three relevant
experience in training and
experience in training and
experience in transferring and
experience in transferring know
experience in various projects
experience in western organisations
experience in workinq with
Table 2-PPBNC: experiencein...
PP - experience of = 38% of 389 BNC - experience of = 20% of 332

instances instances
Experienceof Active Employment experienceof a day
Experience of Active Employment experience of administering a
experienceof administeringfund experienceof age and
experienceof all stages experienceof Anglo-
experience of assisting both experience of banking,
Experienceof Assisting PMUs experienceof both ageing
Experienceof Assisting PMUs experienceof Breton affairs
Experienceof Assisting PMUs experienceof Christian leadership
experience of both institutional experience of collectivization there'd
experienceof both long experienceof combat,
experienceof business management experienceof communicatingwith
experience of business school experience of 2 could
Experienceof Central and experienceof crying to
experienceof change within experienceof developingand
experienceof comparableagencies Experienceof early Christians
experienceof complextechnology experienceof education or
experienceof consultancyin experienceof feminism and
experienceof designing and experienceof foreign countries
Experienceof DesigningProgrammes experienceof God,
Experienceof DesigningProgrammes experienceof governmentthey
Experienceof DesigningProgrammes experienceof guillotine motions
experience of developing integrated experience of him that
experienceof developingoutreach experienceof history.
experienceof each team experienceof internal audit
Experienceof Education Policy experienceof its members
experienceof EnvironmentalEducation Experienceof life suggests
experienceof EnvironmentalEducation experienceof life to
experienceof EnvironmentalEducation experienceof light.
experienceof EU and experienceof love revealed
experienceof EU best experienceof many teachers
experienceof EU best experienceof material security
experienceof EU best experienceof National Socialist
experienceof evaluation of experienceof others -
Experienceof Financial Management experienceof ownershipmakes
Experienceof Fund Design experienceof ownership.
Experienceof Funds Examples experienceof particularfactors
experienceof having successfully experienceof people loving
experience of helping to experience of reality.
experienceof institutionalcurriculum experienceof relationshipsand
experienceof institutionaldevelopment experienceof religious dread

Page349
experience of interactive teaching experience of the admirable

Experience of Introducing Change experience of the Alexander
Experience of Inward Investment experience of the Attlee
experience of inward investment experience of the company
experience of liaising with experience of the Contagious
experience of long term experience of the new
experience of management education experience of the older
experience of management training experience of the organisation
experience of management training experience of the past
experience of managing complex experience of the struggle
experience of managing Employment experience of the techniques
experience of managing similar experience of the Thames
experience of managing teams experience of the type
experience of managing the experience of the type
experience of managing two experience of the Weimar
experience of modem educational experience of this morning
experience of NGO activities experience of violence in
Experience of Occupational Health experience of walking and
experience of our Irish experience of war and
experience of over twenty experience of was that
experience of Phare Programmes experience of women from
experience of policy and experience of working for
Experience of Procurement under experience of a day
Experience of Professional Training
experience of programme evaluation
experience of project implementation
experience of project management
experience of projects within
experience of providing enterprise
experience of providing this
experience of Public Administration
experience of Public Administration
experience of questionnaire design
experience of relevant projects
experience of relevant work
experience of relevant work
experience of running his
experience of staff development
experience of staff,
experienceof staff,
experience of structural reorganisation
experience of supporting technical
experience of team
experience of team
Experience of tenderer and
experience of the consortium
experience of the consulting
experience of the design
experience of the development
experience of the employment
experience of the first
experience of the foreign
experience of EU best
Experience of the Implementation
experience of the issues
experience of the management
experience of the nature
experience of the organisation

Page350
experience of the organisations

experience of the organisations
experience of the participants
experience of the Phare
experience of the role
experience of the successful
experience of the two
experience of these firms
experience of three EU
experience of training delivery
experience of training Employment
experience of training in
experience of training needs
Experience of Training Phare
Experience of Training Programmes
experience of training public
experience of training within
experience of training within
experience of UK and
experienceof Vocational Education
experienceof work in
experience of work in
experience of work with
experience of working in
experience of working with
Experience of working with
experience of. managinq
Table 3- PPBNC: experienceof...

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APPENDIX - Experience: BNC Spoken

1 Erm having actually experience that way of you know h
2 when I was based in Ashfield, I had an experience of this.
3 No. I had an experience with a bike when I was
4 as quite er it 's quite it was quite an experience, er er to have seen er
5 ong others. What an experience, talk about Tory wets.
6 at wherever possible, the expertise and experience of the Board will be m
7 idea of building on past knowledge and experience. T
8 e is so much fund raising knowledge and experience amongst our volunteers
9 is so I think Deutsch Aerospace had any experience in that at all did the
10 o come up with these proposals have any experience in recruitment.
11 th grounds and you just ca n't have any experience of that either erm to
12 ong term sick which you ca n't have any experience of to erm early retire
13 other words if you read it without any experience you might start thinki
14 e. Is that a common experience? Y
15 and er they have picked up considerable experience from that but, you kno
16 ean, even living in can be a depressing experience in itself.
17 from your point of view, from your erm experience with the electrical
18 etween us we 'd got over twenty years ' experience of working with childr
19 a John 's got about twenty five years ' experience with computers on me.
20 the gentlemen there he 's got firsthand experience. Y
21 nd more and more people are looking for experience, they 're looking for
22 t bend is unbelievable and I speak from experience Madam Chairman because
23 lly you know, felt that that was a good experience, to see people who wer
24 rs and to to the people was a very good experience. A
25 r the sister 's post, ah but she 's got experience has n't she when she '
26 Sir Edward, of course, has had experience in getting hostages fr
27 ramme erm and any of you will will have experience of this, it takes a lo
28 ed. One told me his experience, on the phone from Wac
29 But, er what a horrifying experience. 0
30 dness me, Humphrey that 's a horrifying experience. Y
31 If you 've had a horrifying experience with some visitors tha
32 such an initiative. Experience in Ethiopia, Angola, C
33 's given me very much other than a lot experience, a lot of struggle, a
34 is dry anyway. more experience dri riding on the bike
35 ief. SCF has much experience to back up such an ini
36 church, that 's my feeling, erm and my experience, I would say, since li
37 Yes? Er, my experience is slightly different
38 Erm well you know, from my experience in the mother and baby
39 e. Erm, again in my experience the a any additional m
40 Mr says,. Erm in my experience it 's quite normal for
41 it 's it 's very common practice in my experience which seems to me very
42 Yes, that is correct erm in my experience er both being erm on a
43 And the second issue is in my experience if you have a seven ho
44 it 's well certainly in Nottingham, my experience is that the church of
45 It meant because of my experience and my knowledge I was
46 and dearest. On my experience dealing with people is
47 but then the northern divisions did n't experience the same problems with
48 And as time went on course I 'd got no experience of house cleaning boot
49 do with it dad ! No experience of ever anybody doing
50 retired but you know he, he was full of experience, that 's really what I
51 and I have had office experience. I
52 y stopped she 's got, she 's had office experience. A
53 have n't worked i but I have had office experience Ye
54 n every so often it 's I 've had office experience and my husband 's thi
55 has n't said anything about her office experience. A
56 in the long run, it was certainly, our experience has been that it certa
57 We must take heart from our experience in Hyde Park, we must
58 X Now I think in our experience so far we find that er
59 dren 's vision, commits us to using our experience gained here and overse
60 Yes erm well certainly from my own experience er II do n't really t
61 ta, are you talking from er er personal experience you know?
or people
62 t old or ill I find again from personal experience that they tend to give
63 ave did you I should say, have personal experience of that estate?
64 Again probably I had kind of personal
experience of that, em when I ha
65 the experience and I mean the personal experience as well as the er the
66 Was that due to personal experience or was it
67 line between it, being a very positive experience, and you 're suddenly
68 scale six member of staff with no prior experience who 'd had a rop ropy
69 is founded in the reality of our shared experience. I
70 n, er er has anybody else had a similar experience? I
Appendices: Experience BNC_Spoken

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71 experience as well as the er the skills experience Mm

72 ut that, it must have been a terrifying experience. B
73 That 's a now I 've had that experience. M
74 holiday, but my goodness it '11 be the experience of a lifetime and to f
75 family would have been terrified by the experience. E
76 ng the whatever, she had been given the experience and the end of it bril
77 Well, they have n't got the experience to realise what would
78 ovely you know but she did n't have the experience during the whatever, s
79 They did n't have the experience of buying something ni
80 ng his own resources okay, but the, the experience and I mean the persona
81 Er well I think the experience that I gained of the t
82 if you actually went through the experience that they themselves w
83 one, this was the greatest day in their experience and if they would live
84 ust wanted to say three things in their experience, the first things is t
85 ose tasks. And this experience can be gained either b
86 And erm also but II was glad to experience the kind of things tha
87 ing in the flats without choice, had to experience. M
88 me er trades union er some trades union experience. E
89 or somebody like that, who has no ward experience Bu
90 age when they are fairly loaded up with experience and maturity and all t
91 nd er Deutsch Aerospace are not without experience in flight controls the
92 BEC, work experience, M
93 s he has to service, erm collating work experience on the database.
94 Erm the number of, in terms of work experience there 's a, how many s
95 to be diffi On work experience? Y
96 So how did your work experience go today?
97 Yeah. experience. I
98 I like to ask you both about your experience of moving into Harlow
99 ved in the flats but also erm from your experience erm both as a nun and
100 e? I mean i in your experience is it something that y
Appendices: Experience BNC_Spoken

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APPENDIX: Experience - BNC Written
1 r of La Prensa, but lacks any political experience -a fact that becomes embarra
2 mend these people to you, that they may experience a special measure of your sup
3 n FM. Finally our research has examined experience across the Atlantic. There ar
4 million new listeners. We also examined experience across the Atlantic. There ar
5 GUIL: ( Fear, vengeance, scorn ) Your experience? - Actorst ( He snatches a da
.
6 ething Elisabeth Danziger would wish to experience alone. The recital had been a
7 ks living in sheltered sites. As, in my experience ( and see also Fretter &
8 the belief that character is formed by experience and circumstances ( John Lock
9 our we associate the hue with some past experience and draw upon our cultural ba
10 high calibre in terms of administrative experience and intellectual training". T
11 orage. These rules must be applied with experience and judgement if adequate pro
12 her gastropods are able to survive this experience, and may be transported consi
13 largely on a combination of operational experience and professional judgement. A
14 and regions of the United Kingdom, the experience and quality of the World Serv
15 ly into the psyche for memories of past experience and sensation to judge any wo
16 ntensity of feelings, and the effect of experience and training. It is not surpr
17 ant of their own nature, were devoid of experience, and were governed by their r
18 ing on areas where LASMO has knowledge, experience and, as a result, competitive
19 ket operators appear to have learned by experience and, with the four auctions o
20 bage? To know another is to **9; 1550; hi experience another. This is difficult, i
21 ventuality and is therefore unlikely to experience any difficulties in combining
22 nt, a dimension is added that makes the experience as alarming as it will ever b
23 of last season. " It was a hair-raising experience at Ibiza because for the sea
24 R. Khomeini, late of Tehran and Qom, to experience at least some of the, umm, de
25 n urgency to harvest the grain of their experience at once. " I've made a list: M
26 with menaces. They might well have had experience at second hand of Russian tra
27 quot; It must have been a very terrible experience, being with those Apaches. &q
28 fferent hue in the same way Many people experience blue skies and green meadows,
29 ly curious entrepreneur. Their combined experience built the most influential ag
30 n theme in that they occur within human experience but involve some fantastic ha
31 as a unique testimony to that religious experience but its inner meaning and sig
32 e been an exaggeration based on her own experience, but was related to the attit
33 own well-equipped salon, they gain work experience by spending four weeks in ac
34 f used with consideration, this type of experience can form part of a developmen
35 on the school outward bound course, and experience crushes on instructors and fe
36 ose a number of unknowns with no acting experience? Despite the high profile lau
37 to be part of such a valuable learning experience. **25; 210; divl The Education
38 ainly a good way to start and gain some experience. **25; 4658; div2 Getting organ
39 Their views will be coloured by their experience. **25; 361; div3 The Road to Su
.
40 d additional skills through **9; 2222; pb experience. Each unit profile will need
41 t solo show may well be a very daunting experience, for although artists are use
42 rk in 1941 was a bitterly disappointing experience for Britten. Whether or not h
43 also major gaps between aspiration and experience. For example, only 11.4 per c
44 ex and purely pragmatic, being based on experience from repetition of real searc
45 enever I wanted a respite from ordinary experience" From 1921 to 1927 Kingsmill
.
46 d from the pump by &formula;, will thus experience gain or loss according to the
47 pen, and Joan, to whom death was no new experience, gently closed them. She stra
48 atorial and divisive, as recent British experience has amply and unhappily shown
49 each park" ( TRRU, 1982,127 ) and this experience has raised doubts about the v
50 tegories II, III and IV are those where experience has shown that the materials
51 duct to satisfy our need for jobs. Past experience has shown that the imported r
52 reparation of an Architect's Brief Past experience has shown, on more than one o
53 with social welfare applications. Long experience has taught many Irishmen that
54 reality, the name we give to the common experience … " Look, look! &
55 ized, and of course she had had so much experience helping with my grandmother's
56 d settled into her chair, determined to experience herself being well-pleased. E
57 rices. Many thanks for an unforgettable experience". **9; 2757; hi Mr. & Mrs.
58 **11; 5304; ptr **16; 5316; caption Lacked experience Hill said: " I should n't have
59 auto-pilot facility was improving with experience. I bathed, dressed, and broke
60 h youths of his age, " said the voice of experience. " I know not why he troubled
61 ay rather than the evidence of your own experience. I still can not hold that to
62 for in this time I had an unforgettable experience. I was sitting quietly in my
63 the system was modified in the light of experience in 1953 and 1956. Unsuccessfu
64 tal and enduring part of man's life and experience in Egypt, the breath of life
65 ns. Become really involved, so that you experience in full the profound emotiona
66 d) of the user's needs, competence and experience In most cases " advance
.
67 so we can all benefit from this tragic experience in our lives". She is expecte
68 so we can all benefit from this tragic experience in our lives". She is expecte
69 erstand the difficulties which managers experience in staffing the service and t
70 ntially bruising debate about the black experience in the US. In the last sessio
71 in the last 20 years and a good deal of experience in the methods and techniques
72 makes clear, Russia's overseas colonial experience in the Americas was not a hap
73 but, there is a further consideration. Experience in the rate at which a flame
74 ronto, Canada in 1940 and has extensive experience in the leisure industry, part
75 adapting to users' needs, aptitude and experience In 1986 the then current tea
.
76 the present structure and also reviews experience in three other countries with
Appendices: Experience BNC_Written

Page358
77 f ventilation, consequential to a fire, experience indicates that such faith can

78 who is one of 10 yet to have first team experience. IPSWICH RESERVES ( from ): F
79 d imaginative anticipation can help but experience is better. All the parties ha
80 eld for this purpose. Yet United States experience is scarcely encouraging, for
81 tion so that you can recreate the total experience. It really is n't as hard as
82 to move into uncharted areas, based on experience, market knowledge and busines
83 an explanation … PLAYER: In our experience, most things end in death. GU
84 ified in Spanish, Portuguese or British experience. Neither position, however, c
85 ticularly by users with little previous experience of computers. People who were
86 e catalogues. The experience or lack of experience, of course, refers to the usa
87 90, an outcome in stark contrast to the experience of developers on the other si
88 n is truly baffling. Anyone who has the experience of employing workers will con
89 25; 5122; div2 Constructing landscape The experience of landscape in its physical,
90 was my closest friend. Because my first experience of love was here, I have neve
91 25; 792; div3 Intra-party discord No long experience of membership of a constituen
92 tly. Why then should I, who lack papa's experience of men and statecraft, questi
93 ogress was made until the 1950s but the experience of modern warfare had at leas
94 Time has stopped dead, and the single experience of one coin being spun one ha
.
95 *29; 242; divl THE CLOUDS GATHER My first experience of service with HM forces was
96 ultiplier is left to the discretion and experience of the judges. The best that
97 , but Nasser nonetheless had first-hand experience of the poverty-stricken condi
98 has had over twenty years wide-ranging experience of the publishing industry. H
99 e community. The right person will have experience of the service, an in-depth k
100 best garden plants to grow based on the experience of these two renowned gardene
101 tion, but it was thought that after the experience of two proportional represent
102 ny catalogue users will by now have had experience of word-processing systems wi
103 ich provide opportunities for firsthand experience of work in the health service
104 ecembrist conspirators already had some experience of, or indirect connection wi
105 n to be a low-key means of getting some experience, or create and attract a lot
106 came from right outside the audience's experience or expectations. It was barba
107 rienced users of online catalogues. The experience or lack of experience, of cou
108 od effect creating a pleasant" shopping experience", possibly even encouraging t
109 I made them. " " During your experience? " Dr. Favor said, &quot
110 1, " I said. " How do you get experience? " " All of a sudde
111 Every - patient is different and a new experience. * Seeing people getting well
112 Egypt between the two world wars. This experience shaped the political ambition
113 e real. The colour yellow is a mystical experience shared by everybody " -
114 The reserves field a blend of youth and experience. Steve Whitton, who played th
115 1145; div3 PR defined What can the Irish experience teach us about the relationsh
116 g feared, should be welcomed. Their own experience tends to make most of today's
117 16; 6275; caption New format" He has more experience than the other two, and showe
118 are lonely. Thank you for the everyday experience that Jesus is alive in us tod
119 fizzing in my head, but I know, through experience, that they will emerge when r
120 left her feeling groggy; she knew from experience that unless she rose immediat
121 one of the last developed countries to experience the phenomenon. For example,
122 ose to Senna. I was second and I lacked experience. " There was nothing I could d
123 nocence because he has never gained any experience. These two poems, Peter Grime
124 c collections -a unique opportunity to experience this beguiling and exotic asp
125 e are the deepest feelings I shall ever experience; this is the closest we shall
126 - particularly in the light of Sweden's experience. Though not in the ERM, its c
127 st qualified by talent, temperament and experience to become MPs many would be p
128 s roof, causing light rain! We have the experience to build that sort of constru
129 le service ahead and many years of past experience to draw upon. Why then in 198
130 realises it is necessary to use women's experience to get ahead - eg new opportu
131 empty house. JC: It really was quite an experience to sing to such an audience!
132 the advantage over Europe in that they experience very low temperature during t
133 From 1921 to 1927 Kingsmill's ordinary experience was comfortably divided betwe
134 No, no, no! - if we ca n't learn by experience, what else have we got? ( ROS
.)
135 d studied art in Paris in the 1870s, an experience which shows in her competent
136 rished nor ravished, yet aware of a new experience, which we can repeat at will.
137 lief Pool " should regard it as an experience which will assist their perso
138 ithin her, influenced by some deep-felt experience. " Why so? " she asked. " Why is
139 nore her pledge, to reject their shared experience, would be to complete the wor
140 work or training when a period of work experience would have been valuable. **9
141 gested, but it is an option which Swiss experience would help us to achieve if n
142 ell spent as there is no substitute for experience. Yarns are made from either n
Appendices: Experience BNC Written

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APPENDIX Experience_Clusters
1.5 word clusters
N cluster Freq.
1 consultant name has considerableexperience 8
2 experience relevant to this assignment 5
3 experienceof tendererand subcontractors 4
4 experience of the phare programme 4
5 has considerable experience in the 4
6 we have considerableexperienceof 4
7 experience in central and eastern 3
8 experience in the provision of 3
9 experienceof assistingpmus implement 3
10 experienceof designingprogrammesfor 3
11 experienceof eu best practice 3
12 experienceof the designand 3
13 has over twenty years experience 3
14 range of expertiseand experience 3
15 we have considerableexperiencein 3
2.4 word clusters
N cluster Freq.
1 he has experienceof 8
2 consultant_namehas considerableexperience 8
3 hasconsiderable in
experience 7
4 we have considerableexperience 7
5 experienceconsultant_namehas 6
6 years experiencein the 6
7 considerableexperiencerelevant to 5
8 experiencerelevantto this 5
9 extensiveexperienceof the 5
10 has considerableexperiencerelevant 5
11 have considerableexperienceof 5
12 considerableexperiencein the 4
13 experienceof the phare 4
14 experience of work in 4
15 experienceof working with 4
16 has extensive experience in 4
17 has extensiveexperienceof 4
18 haswide experienceof 4
19 have considerableexperiencein 4
20 knowledge and experience of 4
21 considerableexperienceof project 3
22 experience in the provision 3
23 experience in the uk 3
24 experience of assisting pmus 3
Appendices: Experience-Clusters
Page360
25 experienceof designingprogrammes 3
26 experienceof environmentaleducation 3
27 experienceof project implementation 3
28 experienceof the design 3
29 experienceof the development 3
30 experience of training in 3
31 experienceof working in 3
32 has experiencein the 3
33 has experienceof training 3
34 our experience is that 3
35 project experiencein Poland 3
36 range of expertiseand 3
3.3 word clusters
N cluster Freq.
1 has experience of 20
2 has considerableexperience 17
3 experience of training 12
4 considerableexperiencein 11
5 has extensive experience 10
6 he has experience 9
7 our experience in 8
8 considerableexperienceof 7
9 experience of working 7
10 experience relevant to 7
11 extensiveexperienceof 7
12 knowledge and experience 7
13 experiencein poland 6
14 experienceof managing 6
15 extensive experience in 6
16 haswide experience 6
17 experienceof work 5
18 expertiseand experience 5
19 have experienceof 5
20 wide experience in 5
21 wide experienceof 5
22 direct experienceof 4
23 experienceand expertise 4
24 experienceof assisting 4
25 experience of designing 4
26 international experiencein 4
27 practical experienceof 4
28 project experience in 4
Appendices: Experience_Clusters
Page361
APPENDIX - Experience left and right sort

-
1. Experience - left sort

industrial and development agency experience over more than 20 years.
y and Glasgow Development Agency). Experience includes strategies for
evelopment agency; will provide an experience base from which other ar
nex C Institutional background and experience and proposed staff
n the proposal. Background and experience 6. A partnership
NCE ANNEX B BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE TECHNICAL APPROACH A
CH AND WORKPLAN BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE The companies partic
ex C: Institutional background and experience and proposed staff
NCE 1 ANNEX B- BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE 13 COGNOS Internatio
ed staff 68 Background and experience 1. In terms of p
Organisation Annex C: and experience of the consulting firm a
a widely shared comprehension and experience of interactive teaching
er of teachers keen to develop and experience new ideas and approaches
ket for management development and experience at undertaking training
lance of broad based expertise and experience of the issues related to
ith a wider range of expertise and experience, particularly in the fie
e provide a range of expertise and experience in the operation of a fo
mplementary range of expertise and experience from environmental organ
rts, Dutch know-how, expertise and experience in technical, educationa
has accumulated the knowledge and experience to assist institutions o
a lack of sufficient knowledge and experience of modem educational sta
s gathered extensive knowledge and experience in transferring and adap
able to expand their knowledge and experience and gain the trust and r
t manager. The wider knowledge and experience of management training i
ope, backed by sound knowledge and experience of working with east and
be taken to combine knowledge and experience of EU best practice with
f the background, organisation and experience of these firms is given
ly through knowledge of Poland and experience of work in Central Europ
heir own professional practice and experience in the light of the lead
riptions of the qualifications and experience of each team member are
ne the relevant qualifications and experience of the foreign personnel
ing skills, consultancy skills and experience of staff development and
al. 5 Taking'our skills and experience together, we believe we
emphasises transferring skills and experience for developing self-sust
is topics) use the specialists and experience from all the countries i
schedule Section 1.3 Staff and experience of team (Annex C) a)
edule 37 1.3 Staff and experience of team (Annex C) 39
with details of the strengths and experience which are to be brought
nsortium matched for strengths and experience in the activity identifi
oach is based on the strengths and experience of three EU countries, a
t to the pupils ' surroundings and experience. Kent Curriculum Ser
se in the following two areas. Experience of Fund Design and Manag
sed recruitment methods as well as experience of the employment servic
ompanies ' requirements as well as experience of questionnaire design,
dards. 33. DHV has a broad experience in dealing with organisa
e development and bring this broad experience to the professional desi
ally well qualified and with broad experience of management education
nformation Unit in Brussels. - Experience of Financial Management
e EU 's Management Committee. -Experience of Funds Examples of
EU 's Management Committee. - Experience of Training Phare PMUs
parties and private companies. Experience The range of trainin
as current and directly comparable experience to bring to this project
is with a variety of complementary experience and expertise. Detailed
ks Sinclair which has considerable experience in organising and delive
in transition. He has considerable experience of the Phare Programme a
nical matters, he has considerable experience as a Project Manager. In
Ltd. The company has considerable experience in managing complex proj
Birks Sinclair has considerable experience relevant to this assignor
(Birks Sinclair) has considerable experience relevant to this assignm
Angela Taylor who has considerable experience in the implementation of
iates Ltd air has considerable experience in the provision of serv
Birks Sinclair has considerable experience relevant to this assignor
training. He also has considerable experience in the problems faced by
Appendices: Experience left and right sort

Page362
dition, Mr. Broad has considerable experience in designing and deliver

s development and has considerable experience in the design and implem
Birks Sinclair has considerable experience relevant to this assignm
xperience We have considerable experience in three relevant areas:
mentation We have considerable experience of project implementatio
rogrammes We have considerable experience in this area. We provide
valuation We have considerable experience of evaluation of Program
Birks Sinclair have considerable experience of supporting technical
.
plementation. We have considerable experience of project implementatio
ion. We also have considerable experience in delivering training t
ch is based on ECE 's considerable experience of Environmental Educati
bilaterally and in consortia experience over 5 years of successf
,
nagement, training and consultancy experience. UK Support Team Pol
training and business consultancy experience. 55. A full set
ta range of needs consultancy experience including the analysis o
responsible for signing contracts. Experience elsewhere suggests that
t within their home countries. Experience in Poland {para} The
of Reference. Section 1.3. (d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
ommitments from experts d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
experts 44 Page d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
tputs. 16 Section 1.3 (d): Experience of tenderer and subcontr
f the long-term advisers have deep experience of change within institu
of Birks Sinclair and has in-depth experience of managing complex proj
is will be informed by an in-depth experience of Environmental Educati
his is complemented by an in-depth experience and record of success in
s and methodology development. Experience The company 's exper
that it brings together different experience and expertise: Polis
path and Mr. Beresford have direct experience of training needs in the
ervices staff and most have direct experience in employment services.
ny members of the team have direct experience of training in the Czech
d by the IT specialist with direct experience of inward investment ope
n business in the West with direct experience of helping to develop an
et Republics and the Far East. EXPERIENCE Birks Sinclair has c
ate within an open market economy. Experience elsewhere has shown us t
tems for schools. ive: ect experience in Poland ience in P
r the majority of equipment. - Experience of Professional Training
t of both Bulgaria 's needs and EU experience; - develop a workpla
such training being informed by EU experience and best practice) M
e aiming at transferring Danish EU experience to Sweden. - Sem
knowledge and understanding of EU experience and best practice; -
provide a perspective based on EU experience and best practice.
nistry of National Education on EU experience of Vocational Education
the NEF Office Director on the EU experience of the design and conten
central and eastern Europe; - experience of working with central
or each area. Eastern European Experience 1.8 Table 1.2 pr
procurement; and evaluation. EXPERIENCE RELEVANT TO THE PROPOSED
139 Activities 139 Experience Relevant to the proposed
the Czech Republic. (Chart 3) -Experience of Training Phare PMUs
training system. Chart 5- Experience of the Implementation of
ement Committee. Chart 5- Experience of Training Phare PMUs
Activities 146 Clients 147 Experience 147 1.3.3 NICVA Comp
ties 26 Clients 27 Experience 27 1.1 State
private consultants. 2.13 Experience elsewhere would suggest
to share EU and other countries experience and best practice with o
52 Methodology 52 Experience 53 LIST OF CHART
son-months of local experts. - Experience of Occupational Health a
Agency, Mr Clark gained extensive experience of the development and i
addition, the school has extensive experience of liaising with other o
lity. Birks Sinclair has extensive experience in diagnosing and advisi
ncy in Scotland, and has extensive experience as a manager in the bank
ladimir. Bob Hodgson has extensive experience as a policy adviser and
f equipment. Mr Lowe has extensive experience of the Phare programme e
d by David Wood, who has extensive experience in practical consultancy
of NICVA. Mr Pagel has extensive experience of training in other cul
Project Team Leader has extensive experience of the organisation of E
ners. Roberto Vanore has extensive experience in managing and deliveri
opment in Sofia. She has extensive experience in Hungary mainly in the
ys use trainers who have extensive experience in their field and, in p
consortium partners have extensive experience of the role of support s
iness School, Poland extensive experience of the nature of managem

Page363
for director of SQW with extensive experience in eastern Europe and th

this assignment, as follows: - Experience of Assisting PMUs Implem
this assignment, as follows: -Experience of Assisting PMUs Implem
y tours, will be able to: gain experience and information by study
lovak partners have already gained experience and expertise. We will s
GNOS International in Germany. Experience Irish National Train
iences in Bulgaria into first hand experience in western organisations
pport infrastructure, and also has experience of relevant projects in
roject work in Russia. He also has experience of running his own firm
m in a number of countries and has experience of working with most of
ce in the UK Civil Service and has experience of UK and other European
nd the European Commission and has experience of institutional develop
cs. In addition, Mr. Beresford has experience with the recruitment of
loyment 'Service. Ms. Bleasdale has experience of the design and delive
ovak Republics while Mr. Broad has experience of training Employment S
UK Know How Fund. Mr Csszr has experience of training public offic
to this task. Ms. Leigh-Doyle has experience of training within the I
ng within local government. He has experience of the Phare programme i
Central and Eastern Europe. He has experience of programme evaluation
the UK Employment Service. He has experience of structural reorganisa
h local and national level. He has experience of a number of departmen
e of Public Administration. He has experience of both institutional re
ning for the Civil Service. He has experience of Public Administration
Western and Eastern Europe. He has experience of: managing complex pro
ing and Enterprise Council. He has experience in the development and p
ce over more than 20 years. He has experience of work with development
NGO development strategies. It has experience of working in Poland, Ru
and the Baltic Republics. She has experience of all stages of the ten
es and each member of the team has experience of Public Administration
learning programmes. This unit has experience in the areas of: -0
nd Safety Executive. Mr Walker has experience in the field of Occupati
ctives of this programme. All have experience of working in employment
Skjelhaug and Ms. Cross also have experience in counselling clients w
adquarters in Durham. We also have experience of the successful instal
son with the ESNRO. The ESNRO have experience of managing the provisio
d office. Staff in Manchester have experience of the management of pro
y that the Team Leader should have experience both of EU education sys
nited Kingdom. Birks Sinclair have experience of projects within the E
anagement of training budgets. His experience has spanned inspection o
t from Professor Ward in 1994. His experience was enhanced by conducti
authority finance in Hungary. His experience includes financial manag
ing record of implementation. -Experience of Designing Programmes
ng record of implementation. - Experience of Designing Programmes
tact between the Schools including experience in co-training, joint co
xample the LEDA initiatives. - Experience of Central and Eastern E
els of expertise and international experience who will provide an extr
ve wide national and international experience in public administration
es extensive UK and international experience in the provision of prac
ute has considerable international experience providing services both
It has considerable international experience in developing NGO develo
t, SQW has extensive international experience in inward investment and
over of MECU 10. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE The Institute has co
nisation 149 International Experience 149 1.3.4 Co
nisation 150 International Experience 150 1.1 Stat
cilitate investment. International experience demonstrates that simple
based on a review of international experience Russian Small Busine
t practice and other international experience as well as the experienc
cs and practice. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE GVG 's activities ha
areness issues. This international experience will be complemented by
ich will be a significant learning experience in itself - by ident
ork of 10 regional libraries. Experience of working with Polish c
ject based with there being little experience in cross curricular plan
incorporation of local experience capacity
ures: - - creating
Table 2. Each consultant has long experience of training in skills es
al network of offices. It has long experience of assisting both Italia
iew of both the project management experience and the technical base,
delivered to a regional market experience of designing and deliver
opriate skills or poor motivation. Experience also suggests over-staff
ved close liaison with NGOs. - Experience in Bulgaria We are c
cess of El 5 million. Areas of experience 16. ' Lancashire E
institutes. Areas of experience 4. The Council '
research

Page364
Executive. He has a broad base of experience in Health and Safety inc

oard of Directors. On the basis of experience elsewhere, we know that
our criteria that, on the basis of experience elsewhere, can be regard
t team because of their breadth of experience in recruitment both with
o spread more widely the impact of experience, skills and understandin
Where there is a general lack of experience, support organisations t
.
of the local specialists ' lack of experience. c) Management Train
ological change. He has a range of experience in training and vocation
onal level. They have a variety of experience in the design and delive
ainers. They all have a variety of experience of training within the U
c development. She has a wealth of experience in the training field an
vak Republics. She has a wealth of experience in the provision of trai
hool finance. s three years of experience in the Phare Programme a
nced adviser with over 30 years of experience. He has worked for major
e Amsterdam Employment Office) Experience in PHARE countries K
pproach to implementation based on experience accumulated on the RMC p
racting Authority. Building on experience to date A significan
lovak colleagues - building on experience to date - transferri
in particular, have wide hands-on experience. All training programmes
k which will come from operational experience with the CSME as an impo
he need to ensure that operational experience in the CSME, which will
- Practical Approach our experience is that, while it is nec
These are discussed below. But our experience elsewhere in Russia, and
penditure, and components. OUR EXPERIENCE IN ASSISTING PROJECT MAN
ficiently and effectively. Our experience, such as that with the P
raising measures. For example, our experience suggests that although p
ssed in section 2, above. From our experience in Nizhny Novgorod this
ration of the project as, from our experience of working in Nizhny Nov
ation of study tours. However, our experience is that the most effecti
ready existing in Hungary; Our experience in Hungary has made us a
n in action oriented teams. In our experience this approach is far mor
e Inception Stage. However, in our experience it will be highly desira
implementation which indicate our experience in the field of Envi
e their skills and motivation. Our experience elsewhere is that starti
uses on. These are examples of our experience in these areas. Addition
be incomplete. On the basis of our experience elsewhere, we would also
1 What We Offer 31 Our Experience in Assisting Project Man
llow-Up Programme 3.52 Our experience elsewhere has demonstrat
odel for the Civil Service our experience in this field can be des
nt to the Bulgarian situation. Our experience is that it is only by wo
SED TASK We here summarise our experience in each of the four area
nd CSME as well as with TACIS. Our experience elsewhere strongly reinf
his assignment. We have particular experience in providing Technical A
Procedures We have particular experience in providing Technical A
Six Month Work Plan period. - Experience of Designing Programmes
this team has significant personal experience of business school train
the most successful in Phare. Experience Birks Sinclair has c
PMUs, 6 have been in Poland. - Experience of Introducing Change to
ember that there is already Polish experience in issues concerning tec
tal protection; involve Polish experience in order to help build o
emselves, were very positive. -Experience of Training Programmes
mselves, were very positive. - Experience of Procurement under Pha
e of designing and delivering post-experience and post-graduate progra
iness qualifications and practical experience in working with companie
specialist expertise and practical experience required to'assist the P
of expert knowledge and practical experience to undertake this assign
g for new businesses practical experience of developing outreach t
eory, a heavy element of practical experience is essential. Participan
Our team has a fund of practical experience to share with their Hung
.
places great emphasis on practical experience and wherever possible en
They will then require practical experience of training delivery bef
.
ader. He has significant practical experience of business management i
that it has substantial practical experience of providing enterprise
team also has many years practical experience work in Eastern and Cent
rises plc will supply practitioner experience from the UK. They will p
trepreneurs, based on her previous experience in this area, which she
as their appropriate professional experience. Task 2: Training Su
s and a wide range of professional experience in setting up and managi
Durham University PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE 1985-present Dir
agement of complex programmes; experience of the development 0
68 5. Annex D: Project experience in Poland 173 6.
y years and with extensive project experience, it will. provide a proje

Page365
e project: - extensive project experience in central and eastern E

al. 4 These examples of project experience demonstrate not only as
ent training programs. Project experience 43. A summary is giv
shown overleaf. Recent project experience in Poland is given at an
annex I along with recent project experience in Poland. British C
QUINCE WICKSTEED RELEVANT PROJECT EXPERIENCE Table 1: SME Policy
5 Annex A Relevant project experience B CVs for project to
y is given below of DHV 's project experience as relevant for the Tech
works complemented by wide-ranging experience in the implementation an
Kingdom and abroad. We have recent experience of managing two large pr
is presented of the firm 's recent experience in the former Soviet Uni
anisations have excellent relevant experience in providing similar lon
nden, who also has highly relevant experience for carrying out this cr
f our consultants and the relevant experience of the organisations in
Czech and Slovak Republics. - Experience of Education Policy and
ion (Innovation Fund, Russia). Experience of Active Employment Pro
ch indicate the British Council 's experience are shown in annex I alo
but also includes DHV 's experience in training and manageme
Signed Commitment Firm 's Experience
urse development in the sector experience at working effectively w
lients in a variety of sectors experience of the development and i
aining and education services. Experience We have considerable
been able to build up significant experience of management training a
Price and Mr. Broad have similar experience in Poland. Counselli
. in Central
organisations. Table 1.2: SQW experience and Eastern E
ct in Bulgaria. Table 1.1: SQW Experience of Inward Investment and
rprise development and substantial experience of work in Russia. a
RH&H Consult has substantial experience in development of SMES,
elopment. We also have substantial experience of relevant work through
omment on the basis of substantial experience elsewhere that the regio
based on CNA 's very substantial experience in the entrepreneurial a
,
nput will be to draw on successful experience elsewhere and help local
ducation and training system. -"Experience of Active Employment Pol
95. al. 2 SQW has long term experience of the two main elements
ecent examples of SQW 's long term experience of relevant work through
is will enable us to transfer that experience to the new cluster of ma
experience as well as the experience of Phare Programmes in o
national
ble learning to be enhanced by the experience of the participants and
this objective is enhanced by the experience of both long-term advise
for its work which complements the experience of our Irish partner. Th
f the pilot Ministry following the experience of the first Ministry] u
importance. The experience of EU and other funders
e now of paramount
what it does have to offer, is the experience of having successfully p
e to support the scheme; - the experience of staff, - the over
undertake the Inception Stage. The experience and skills of the teams
res will be achieved by taking the experience and detailed programme c
School of Business 56. The experience of the consortium partne
this, but also bring to bear their experience from elsewhere, in order
unsupported, to consolidate their experience. During week six of
pment issues and, crucially, their experience in transferring know how
ion to brief descriptions of their experience and a specification of t
een selected on the basis of their experience in Central and Eastern E
because of the relevance of their experience and expertise to success
rts. Team members will share their experience of EU best practice in o
sources needed to support them experience of consultancy in the to
nomy in the Lublin region and this experience which will be brought to
and Tables 1.1 and 1.2 cover this experience in more detail. Inve
ise. We will seek to build on this experience. Transfer of a high
sh Enterprise Project (PBEP). This experience can and will be transfer
the same time essential that this experience be translated efficientl
quality management training. This experience is shared by all WBS per
hat BFIA do now and in relation to experience of comparable agencies i
oyment service staff trainers. Experience in the Czech and Slovak
s. Redpath has a range of training experience within the UK Employment
instruments: turning the training experience into hard programmes: en
staff and, in particular, transfer experience of EU best practice. In
23. In addition to the UK experience, it has also worked in a
oclaw WBS 5 years valuable experience of institutional curricu
Our programme team combines a wide experience of Environmental Educati
opment 31. Based on a wide experience in institutional develop
Appendices: Experience_left and right sort

Page366
1.18 INCE has long and wide experience in international busines

Programme in Poland. has wide experience of the Phare Programme i
regional development. It has wide experience both in Western Europe a
of Ireland. This company has wide experience of policy and strategy f
nt Service. Mr Richardson has wide experience of developing integrated
ent in the field. Mr Burt has wide experience of providing this manage
dance. Mr. Alan Beresford has wide experience in the employment proble
is as a project manager with wide experience in policy advice, syllab
From many years of world-wide experience in various projects our
erienced business counsellor, with experience of long term assignments
nsortium includes two members with experience in management of EC cont
xperience of EU best practice with experience of the Hungarian public
in the UK Employment Service with experience of managing Employment 0
in the team an IT specialist with experience of work in inward invest
have science-qualified staff with experience in academic or industria
y. His education, and earlier work experience, was an industrial chemi
on; implications in training, work experience and placement; sexual ha
ext. 29. DHV has a working experience of over twenty years in
- EU specialists can bring working experience of complex technology tr
onsultants have over fifteen years experience of project management wi
ire Enterprises who has many years experience of managing teams workin
ltancy team - which has many years experience of managing similar inve
mentation. She has over nine years experience of administering fund-ty
CVA). Mr Pagel has seventeen years experience of NGO activities and ha
tired after more than thirty years experience in the Irish Civil Servi
cutive (HSE). She has thirty years experience in the UK Civil service
Office. She has over twenty years experience in the Hungarian Civil S
Mr van der Werf has twenty years experience in the Dutch Civil Servi
signment. He has over twenty years experience in business and enterpri
ir. Dr Birks has over twenty years experience of the design and manage
MBO 'S. We have more than 10 years experience in both establishing and
aham Walker, who has over 36 years experience in the UK Health and Saf
ce. Mr Tuohy has over 15 years experience as an official in Irish
UK. Mr Brazewell has over 20 years experience of work in economic deve
ctory inspector with over 35 years experience in the UK Health and Saf
in mechanical engineering, 8 years experience in industry, 11 years in
2. Experience - right sort
ent training programs. Project experience 43. A summary is giv

training and business consultancy experience. 55. A full set
n the proposal. Background and experience 6. A partnership
pproach to implementation based on experience accumulated on the RMC p
in particular, have wide hands-on experience. All training programmes
opriate skills or poor motivation. Experience also suggests over-staff
ion to brief descriptions of their experience and a specification of t
to share EU and other countries ' experience and best practice with o
provide a perspective based on EU experience and best practice. -
such training being informed by EU experience and best practice) M
knowledge and understanding of EU experience and best practice; -
res will be achieved by taking the experience and detailed programme c
because of the relevance of their experience and expertise to success
lovak partners have already gained experience and expertise. We will s
is with a variety of complementary experience and expertise. Detailed
that it brings together different experience Polis
and expertise:
their knowledge and experience
able to expand and gain the trust and r
y tours, will be able to: gain experience and information by study
on; implications in training, work experience sexual ha
and placement;
e of designing and delivering post-experience and post-graduate progra
ex C: Institutional background and experience and proposed staff
nex C Institutional background and experience and proposed staff
his is complemented by an in-depth experience and record of success in
undertake the Inception Stage. The experience and skills of the teams
iew of both the project management experience and the technical base,
places great emphasis on practical experience and wherever possible en
ch indicate the British Council 's experience are shown in annex I alo
ncy in Scotland, and has extensive experience as a manager in the bank
ladimir. Bob Hodgson has extensive experience as a policy adviser and
nical matters, he has considerable experience as a Project Manager. In
ce. Mr Tuohy has over 15 years experience as an official in Irish
y is given below of DHV 's project experience as relevant for the Tech
t practice and other international experience as well as the experienc

Page367
ket for management development experience

and at undertaking training
urse development in the sector experience at working effectively w
5 Annex A Relevant projectexperience B CVs for project to
evelopment agency; will provide an
experience base from which other ar
the same time essential that this
experience be translated efficientl
the most successful in Phare. Experience Birks Sinclair has c
regional development. It has wide experience both in Western Europe a
y that the Team Leader should have
experience both of EU education sys
of the local specialists ' lack of
experience. c) Management Train
sh Enterprise Project (PBEP). This
experience can and will be transfer
NCE 1 ANNEX B- BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE 13 COGNOS Internatio
nisation 149 International Experience 149 1.3.4 Co
ures: - incorporation of local experience - creating capacity
al. 4 These examples of project experience demonstrate not only as
cilitate investment. International experience demonstrates that simple
t of both Bulgaria 's needs and EU
experience; - develop a workpla
unsupported, to consolidate their
experience. During week six of
nput will be to draw on successful experience elsewhere and help local
ate within an open market economy.Experience elsewhere has shown us t
llow-Up Programme 3.52 Our
experience elsewhere has demonstrat
These are discussed below. But our
experience elsewhere in Russia, and
e their skills and motivation. Our
experience elsewhere is that starti
nd CSME as well as with TACIS. Our
experience elsewhere strongly reinf
responsible for signing contracts. Experience elsewhere suggests that
omment on the basis of substantial experience elsewhere that the regio
private consultants. 2.13 Experience elsewhere would suggest
our criteria that, on the basis experience
of elsewhere, can be regard
be incomplete. On the basis of our
experience elsewhere, we would also
oard of Directors. On the basis of
experience elsewhere, we know that
Signed Commitment Firm 's
Experience
nden, who also has highly relevantexperience for carrying out this cr
emphasises transferring skills and
experience for developing self-sust
is topics) use the specialists and
experience from all the countries i
this, but also bring to bear their
experience from elsewhere, in order
mplementary range of expertise and
experience from environmental organ
rises plc will supply practitioner experience from the UK. They will p
cs and practice. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE GVG 's activities ha
anagement of training budgets. His
experience has spanned inspection o
nced adviser with over 30 years experience.
of He has worked for major
have science-qualified staff with experience in academic or industria
1 What We Offer 31 Our Experience in Assisting Project Man
penditure, and components. OUR EXPERIENCE IN ASSISTING PROJECT MAN
MBO IS. We have more than 10 years experience in both establishing and
liaison with NGOs. - Experience in Bulgaria We are c
ved close
He has over twenty years experience in business and enterpri
signment.
project experience in central and eastern E
e project: - extensive
Table 1.2: SQW experience in Central and Eastern E
organisations.
on the basis of their experience in Central and Eastern E
een selected
tact between the Schools including experience in co-training, joint co
Skjelhaug and Ms. Cross also have experience in counselling clients w
ject based with there being little experience in cross curricular plan
dards. 33. DHV has a broad experience in dealing with organisa
ion. We also have considerable experience in delivering training t
dition, Mr. Broad has considerable experience in designing and deliver
It has considerable international experience in developing NGO develo
RH&H Consult has substantial experience in development of SMES,
lity. Birks Sinclair has extensive experience in diagnosing and advisi
SED TASK We here summarise our experience in each of the four area
for director of SQW with extensive experience in eastern Europe and th
ervices staff and most have direct experience in employment services.
Executive. He has a broad base of experience in Health and Safety inc
opment in Sofia. She has extensive experience in Hungary mainly in the
ready existing in Hungary; Our experience in Hungary has made us a
ed staff 68 Background and experience 1. In terms of p
in mechanical engineering, 8 years experience in industry, 11 years in
opment 31. Based on a wide experience in institutional develop
1.18 INCE has long and wide experience in international busines
t, SQW has extensive international experience in inward investment and
ember that there is already Polish experience in issues concerning tec
ich will be a significant learning experience in itself - by ident

Page368
nsortium includes two members with experience in management of EC cont

Ltd. The company has considerable experience in managing complex proj
ners. Roberto Vanore has extensive experience in managing and deliveri
and Tables 1.1 and 1.2 cover this experience in more detail. Inve
ssed in section 2, above. From our experience in Nizhny Novgorod this
tal protection; involve Polish experience in order to help build o
ks Sinclair which has considerable experience in organising and delive
e Amsterdam Employment office) Experience in PHARE countries K
t within their home countries. Experience in Poland (para) The
shown overleaf. Recent project experience in Poland is given at an
68 5. Annex D: Project experience in Poland 173 6.
tems for schools. ive: ect experience in Poland ience in P
Price and Mr. Broad have similar experience in Poland. Counselli
annex I along with recent project experience in Poland. British C
is as a project manager with wide experience in policy advice, syllab
d by David Wood, who has extensive experience in practical consultancy
his assignment. We have particular experience in providing Technical A
anisations have excellent relevant experience in providing similar lon
Procedures we have particular experience in providing Technical A
ve wide national and international experience in public administration
t team because of their breadth of experience in recruitment both with
s and a wide range of professional experience in setting up and managi
rts, Dutch know-how, expertise and experience in technical, educationa
training. He also has considerable experience in the problems faced by
e provide a range of expertise and experience in the operation of a fo
iates Ltd air has considerable experience in the provision of serv
s development and has considerable experience in the design and implem
heir own professional practice and experience in the light of the lead
Angela Taylor who has considerable experience in the implementation of
cutive (HSE). She has thirty years experience in the UK Civil Service
nsortium matched for strengths and experience in the activity identifi
ctory inspector with over 35 years experience in the UK Health and Saf
aham Walker, who has over 36 years experience in the UK Health and Saf
onal level. They have a variety of experience in the design and delive
works complemented by wide-ranging experience in the implementation an
is presented of the firm 's recent experience in the former Soviet Uni
oyment Service staff trainers. Experience in the Czech and Slovak
ing and Enterprise Council. He has experience in the development and p
UK and international experience in the provision of prac
es extensive
learning programmes. This unit has experience in the areas of: -0
hool finance. s three years of experience in the Phare Programme a
nd Safety Executive. Mr Walker has experience in the field of Occupati
vak Republics. She has a wealth of experience in the provision of trai
She has a wealth experience in the training field
c development. of an
he need to ensure that operational experience in the CSME, which will
implementation which indicate our experience in the field of Envi
dance. Mr. Alan Beresford has wide experience in the employment proble
Office. She has over twenty years experience in the Hungarian Civil S
Mr van der Werf has twenty years experience in the Dutch Civil Servi
tired after more than thirty years experience in the Irish Civil Servi
based on CNA 's very substantial experience in the entrepreneurial a
,
ys use trainers who have extensive experience in their field and, in p
uses on. These are examples of our experience in these areas. Addition
rogrammes We have considerable experience in this area. We provide
odel for the Civil Service Our experience in this field can be des
trepreneurs, based on her previous experience in this area, which she
xperience We have considerable experience in three relevant areas:
but also includes DHV 's experience in training and manageme
,
ological change. He has a range of experience in training and vocation
pment issues and, crucially, their experience in transferring know how
s gathered extensive knowledge and experience in transferring and adap
From many years of world-wide experience in various projects our
iences in Bulgaria into first hand experience in western organisations
iness qualifications and practical experience in working with companie
authority finance in Hungary. His experience includes financial manag
y and Glasgow Development Agency). Experience includes strategies for
ta range of needs consultancy experience including the analysis 0
instruments: turning the training experience into hard programmes: en
GNOS International in Germany. Experience Irish National Train
eory, a heavy element of practical experience is essential. Participan
quality management training. This experience is shared by all WBS per
nt to the Bulgarian situation. Our experience is that it is only by wo

Page369
ation of study tours. However, our experience is that the most effecti
- Practical Approach our experience is that, while it is nec
23. In addition to the UK experience, it has also worked in a
y years and with extensive project experience, it will provide a proje
e Inception Stage. However, in our experience it will be highly desira
t to the pupils ' surroundings and experience. Kent Curriculum Ser
cess of El 5 million. Areas of experience 16. Lancashire E
52 Methodology 52 Experience 53 LIST OF CHART
er of teachers keen to develop and experience new ideas and approaches
Activities 146 Clients 147 Experience 147 1.3.3 NICVA Comp
h local and national level. He has experience of a number of departmen
ducation and training system. -Experience of Active Employment Pol
ion (Innovation Fund, Russia). Experience of Active Employment Pro
mentation. She has over nine years experience of administering fund-ty
and the Baltic Republics. She has experience of all stages of the ten
al network of offices. It has long experience of assisting both Italia
this assignment, as follows: -Experience of Assisting PMUs Implem
this objective is enhanced by the experience of both long-term advise
e of Public Administration. He has experience of both institutional re
this team has significant personal experience of business school train
ader. He has significant practical experience of business management i
xample the LEDA initiatives. - Experience of Central and Eastern E
f the long-term advisers have deep experience of change within institu
hat BFIA do now and in relation to experience of comparable agencies i
- EU specialists can bring working experience of complex technology tr
sources needed to support them experience of consultancy in the to
delivered to a regional market experience of designing and deliver
Six Month Work Plan period. - Experience of Designing Programmes
ng record of implementation. - Experience of Designing Programmes
ing record of implementation. -Experience of Designing Programmes
nt service. Mr Richardson has wide experience of developing integrated
g for new businesses practical experience of developing outreach t
riptions of the qualifications and experience of each team member are
Czech and Slovak Republics. - Experience of Education Policy and
Our programme team combines a wide experience of Environmental Educati
ch is based on ECE 's considerable experience of Environmental Educati
is will be informed by an in-depth experience of Environmental Educati
rts. Team members will share their experience of EU best practice in o
e now of paramount importance. The experience of EU and other funders
be taken to combine knowledge and experience of EU best practice with
staff and, in particular, transfer experience of EU best practice. In
valuation We have considerable experience of evaluation of Program
nformation Unit in Brussels. - Experience of Financial Management
se in the following two areas. Experience of Fund Design and Manag
e EU 's Management Committee. -Experience of Funds Examples of
what it does have to offer, is the experience of having successfully p
n business in the West with direct experience of helping to develop an
nd the European Commission and has experience of institutional develop
oclaw WBS 5 years valuable experience of institutional curricu
a widely shared comprehension and experience of interactive teaching
PMUs, 6 have been in Poland. - Experience of Introducing Change to
ct in Bulgaria. Table 1.1: SQW Experience of Inward Investment and
d by the IT specialist with direct experience of inward investment ope
addition, the school has extensive experience of liaising with other o
erienced business counsellor, with experience of long term assignments
been able to build up significant experience of management training a
t Manager. The wider knowledge and experience of management training i
ally well qualified and with broad experience of management education
son with the ESNRO. The ESNRO have experience of managing the provisio
Kingdom and abroad. We have recent experience of managing two large pr
ltancy team - which has many years experience of managing similar inve
in the UK Employment Service with experience of managing Employment 0
ire Enterprises who has many years experience of managing teams workin
of Birks Sinclair and has in-depth experience of managing complex proj
a lack of sufficient knowledge and experience of modem educational sta
CVA). Mr Pagel has seventeen years experience of NGO activities and ha
son-months of local experts. - Experience of Occupational Health a
for its work which complements the experience of our Irish partner. Th
ext. 29. DHV has a working experience of over twenty years in
national experience as well as the experience of Phare Programmes in o

Page370
of Ireland. This company has wide experience of policy and strategy f

mselves, were very positive. - Experience of Procurement under Pha
r the majority of equipment. - Experience of Professional Training
Central and Eastern Europe. He has experience of programme evaluation
onsultants have over fifteen years experience of project management wi
mentation We have considerable experience of project implementatio
nited Kingdom. Birks Sinclair have experience of projects within the E
that it has substantial practical experience of providing enterprise
ent in the field. Mr Burt has wide experience of providing this manage
es and each member of the team has experience of Public Administration
ning for the Civil Service. He has experience of Public Administration
ompanies ' requirements as well as experience of questionnaire design,
ecent examples of SQW 's long term experience of relevant work through
pport infrastructure, and also has experience of relevant projects in
elopment. We also have substantial experience of relevant work through
roject work in Russia. He also has experience of running his own firm
ing skills, consultancy skills and experience of staff development and
the UK Employment Service. He has experience of structural reorganisa
Birks Sinclair have considerable experience of supporting technical
.
edule 37 1.3 Staff and experience of team (Annex C) 39
schedule Section 1.3 Staff and experience of team (Annex C) a)
of Reference. Section 1.3 (d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
ommitments from experts d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
experts 44 Page d) Experience of tenderer and subcontr
tputs. 16 Section 1.3 (d): Experience of tenderer and subcontr
xperience of EU best practice with experience of the Hungarian public
sed recruitment methods as well as experience of the employment servic
adquarters in Durham. We also have experience of the successful instal
ng within local government. He has experience of the Phare programme i
ne the relevant qualifications and experience of the foreign personnel
the NEF Office Director on the EU experience of the design and conten
in transition. He has considerable experience of the Phare Programme a
training system. Chart 5- Experience of the Implementation of
ble learning to be enhanced by the experience of the participants and
f the pilot Ministry following the experience of the first Ministry] u
School of Business 56. The experience of the consortium partne
Programme in Poland. has wide experience of the Phare Programme i
Agency, Mr Clark gained extensive experience of the development and i
ir. Dr Birks has over twenty years experience of the design and manage
loyment Service. Ms. Bleasdale has experience of the design and delive
Organisation Annex C: and experience of the consulting firm a
f equipment. Mr Lowe has extensive experience of the Phare programme e
Project Team Leader has extensive experience of the organisation of E
95. al. 2 SQW has long term experience of the two main elements
lients in a variety of sectors experience of the development and i
iness School, Poland extensive experience of the nature of managem
agement of complex programmes; experience of the development o
lance of broad based expertise and experience of the issues related to
consortium partners have extensive experience of the role of support s
d office. Staff in Manchester have experience of the management of pro
f the background, organisation and experience of these firms is given
oach is based on the strengths and experience of three EU countries, a
They will then require practical experience of training delivery bef
. has long experience
Table 2. Each consultant of training in skills es
ement committee. Chart 5- Experience of Training Phare PMUs
of NICVA. Mr Pagel has extensive experience of training in other cul
to this task. Ms. Leigh-Doyle has experience of training within the I
ainers. They all have a variety of experience of training within the U
the Czech Republic. (Chart 3) -Experience of Training Phare PMUs
ny members of the team have direct experience of training in the Czech
UK Know How Fund. Mr Csszr has experience of training public offic
emselves, were very positive. -Experience of Training Programmes
path and Mr. Beresford have direct experience of training needs in the
EU 's Management Committee. - Experience of Training Phare PMUs
ovak Republics while Mr. Broad has experience of training Employment S
ce in the UK Civil Service and has experience of UK and other European

Page371
nistry of National Education on EU experience of Vocational Education

rprise development and substantial experience of work in Russia. a
UK. Mr Brazewell has over 20 years experience in economic deve
of work
ly through knowledge of Poland in Central
and experience of work Europ
in the team an IT specialist with experience in inward invest
of work
ce over more than 20 years. He has experience of work with development
central and eastern Europe; - experience of working with central
m in a number of countries and has experience of working with most of
ctives of this programme. All have experience of working in employment
ope, backed by sound knowledge and experience of working with east and
ration of the project as, from our experience of working in Nizhny Nov
ork of 10 regional libraries. Experience of working with Polish c
NGO development strategies. It has experience of working in Poland, Ru
Western and Eastern Europe. He has experience of: managing complex pro
industrial and development agency 20 years.
experience over more than
bilaterally and in consortia experience 5 years
over of successf
ith a wider range of expertise and experience, in the fie
particularly
Durham University PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE 1985-present Dir
ute has considerable international experience providing services both
procurement; and evaluation. EXPERIENCE RELEVANT TO THE PROPOSED
139 Activities 139 Experience Relevant to the Proposed
specialist expertise and practical experience required to assist the P
based on a review of international experience Russian Small Busine
o spread more widely the impact of experience, skills and understandin
nisation 150 International Experience 150 1.1 Stat
ties 26 Clients 27 Experience 27 1.1 State
ficiently and effectively. Our experience, such as that with the P
raising measures. For example, our experience suggests that although p
Where there is a general lack of experience, support organisations t
QUINCE WICKSTEED RELEVANT PROJECT EXPERIENCE Table 1: SME Policy
or each area. Eastern European Experience 1.8 Table 1.2 pr
as their appropriate professional experience. Task 2: Training Su
NCE ANNEX B BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE TECHNICAL APPROACH A
CH AND WORKPLAN BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE The companies partic
s and methodology development. Experience The company 's exper
over of MECU 10. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE The Institute has co
parties and private companies. Experience The range of trainin
research institutes. Areas of experience 4. The Council '
n in action oriented teams. In our experience this approach is far mor
has accumulated the knowledge and experience to assist institutions o
as current and directly comparable experience to bring to this project
lovak colleagues - building on experience to date - transferri
racting Authority. Building on experience to date A significan
Our team has a fund of practical experience to share with their Hung
.
e aiming at transferring Danish EU experience to Sweden. - Sem
is will enable us to transfer that experience to the new cluster of ma
of expert knowledge and practical experience to undertake this assign
al. 5 Taking our skills and experience together, we believe we
ise. We will seek to build on this experience. Transfer of a high
nagement, training and consultancy experience. UK Support Team Pol
y. His education, and earlier work experience, was an industrial chemi
t from Professor Ward in 1994. His experience was enhanced by conducti
aining and education services. Experience We have considerable
with details of the strengths and experience which are to be brought
nomy in the Lublin region and this experience which will be brought to
els of expertise and international experience who will provide an extr
areness issues. This international experience will be complemented by
k which will come from operational experience with the CSME as an impo
cs. In addition, Mr. Beresford has experience with the recruitment of
s. Redpath has a range of training experience within the UK Employment
team also has many years practical experience work in Eastern and Cent

Page372
APPENDIX: experience - sentence initial

N Left context Left I Right context Glas
63 es: <para>-incorporationof local experience <para>-creatingcapacit b
97 d close liaison with NGOs. <para> Experience in Bulgaria <para>We are b
134 project: <para>- extensive project experience in central and eastern Europe b
111 schools. <para>ive: <para> project experience In Poland <para>iencein b
74 of finance. <para>s three years of experience in the Phare Programme and ha b
109 cation and training system. <para> Experience of Active Employment Policies b
-
105 his assignment,as follows: <para> - Experience of AssistingPMUs ImplementP b
93 is assignment, as follows: <para> Experience of Assisting PMUs Implement P b
-
94 Is assignment,as follows: <para> - Experience of AssistingPMUs ImplementP b
96 mple the LEDA initiatives. <para> - Experience of Central and Eastern Europe b
95 record of implementation. <para> Experience of Designing Programmes for t b
-
106 g recordof implementation. <para> - Experience of DesigningProgrammesfort b
100 ix Month Work Plan period. <para> - Experience of Designing Programmes fort b
103 zech and Slovak Republics. <para> Experience of Education Policy and Progr b
-
88 ormationUnit in Brussels. <para> - Experience of FinancialManagementandA b
104 EU's Management Committee. <para> - Experience of Funds <para>Examples b
101 Us, 6 havebeenIn Poland. <para> - Experience of IntroducingChangeto Publ b
92 n-months of local experts. <para> - Experience of Occupational Health and Sa b
102 elves,wereverypositive. <para> - Experience of ProcurementunderPharePM b
90 the majorityof equipment. <para> - Experience of ProfessionalTraining b
145 to supportthe scheme; <para>- the experience of staff, <para>-the ov b
146 to supportthe scheme; <para>- the experience of staff, <para>-the ov b
99 system. <para>Chart5 <para> - Experience of the Implementationof Comp b
107 e Czech Republic. (Chart 3) <para> Experience of Training Phare PMUs < b
98 mittee. <para>Chart5 <para> Experience of TrainingPharePMUs < b
89 U 's ManagementCommittee. <para> - Experience of TrainingPharePMUs < b
108 selves,wereverypositive. <para> - Experience of TrainingProgrammes < b
91 entraland easternEurope; <para> - experience of workingwith centraland e b
75 vak colleagues <para>- building on experience to date <para>- transfer b
b Count 29
152 <para>23. In additionto the UK experience , it has alsoworkedIn a numb 1
.
84 y to be incomplete. On the basis of our experience elsewhere, we would also expe
67 the Boardof Directors.On the basis of experience elsewhere,we knowthat it Is I
153 lopment <para>31. Based on a wide experience in Institutional development
79 discussed in section 2, above. From our experience in Nizhny Novgorod this could I
81 to the InceptionStage.However,in our experience it will be highlydesirableIt
82 pationin actionorientedteams.In our experience this approachis far morerew
4 <para>al.5 Takingour skills and experience together,we believewe offer I
I Count 8
30 sit Vladimir. Bob Hodgson has extensive experience as a policy adviser and econo o
157 ssist regionaldevelopment.It has wide experience both In Western Europeand in o
166 Is assignment.He has overtwenty years experience in businessand enterprisetr o
52 Mrs. Skjelhaug and Ms. Cross also have experience In counselling clients with s o
5 ndards. <para>33. DHV has a broad experience in dealingwith organisationa 0
15 n. <para>Wealsohave considerable experience in deliveringtrainingto key o
10 In addition, Mr. Broad has considerable experience in designing and delivering t o
60 <para>Ithas considerable international experience in developingNGO development o
141 <para>25. RH&H Consulthas substantial experience in developmentof SMES,both o
27 f quality.Birks Sinclairhas extensive experience in diagnosingand advisingon o
26 developmentin Sofia.She has extensive experience In Hungarymainlyin the deve o
25 Trainers.RobertoVanorehas extensive experience In managingand deliveringtr o
11 latesLtd. The companyhas considerable experience in managingcomplexprojects o
138 e Mrs. Priceand Mr. Broadhave similar experience in Poland. <para>Counsel o
131 to this assignment.We have particular experience In providingTechnicalAssist o
49 openlearningprogrammes.This unit has experience in the areasof. - <para> o
71 regionallevel.They havea variety of experience in the designanddeliveryof o
39 Trainingand EnterpriseCouncil.He has experience in the developmentand promot o
154 r guidance.Mr. Alan Beresfordhas wide experience in the employmentproblemsof o
50 Ith and SafetyExecutive.Mr Walker has experience in the field of Occupational o
167 Audit Office. She has over twenty years experience In the Hungarian Civil Servic 0
6 and training.He alsohas considerable experience in the problemsfaced by empl 0
72 d Slovak Republics. She has a wealth of experience In the provision of training 0
73 onomic development. She has a wealth of experience In the training field and has 0
165 y Executive (HSE). She has thirty years experience In the UK Civil Service and h 0
14 erience <para>Wehave considerable experience In threerelevantareas: 0
70 technologicalchange.He has a range of experience In trainingand vocationaled 0
46 t both localand nationallevel.He has experience of a numberof departments,I 0
163 Implementation. She has over nine years experience of administering fund-type op 0
48 garlaand the BalticRepublics.She has experience of all stagesof the tenderin 0
Appendices: Experience_sentence initial

Page373
64 ationalnetworkof offices. It has long experience of assistingboth Italianand 0

42 titute of Public Administration. He has experience of both institutional reform 0
133 am Leader. He has significant practical experience of business management in the 0
162 IEU. - EU specialistscan bring working experience of complextechnologytransfe 0
156 loyment Service. Mr Richardson has wide experience of developing Integrated Info 0
149 terparts. Team members will share their experience of EU best practice In order 0
54 liaisonwith the ESNRO.The ESNRO have experience of managingthe provisionof 0
137 ited Kingdom and abroad. We have recent experience of managing two large program 0
164 n (NICVA).Mr Pagelhas seventeen years experience of NGO activitiesand has par 0
161 text. <para>29. DHV has a working experience of overtwentyyearsIn the f 0
155 s Ltd of Ireland.This companyhas wide experience of policyand strategyfor hu 0
41 n In Centraland EasternEurope.He has experience of programmeevaluationhavin 0
13 ct Implementation. We have considerable experience of projectImplementation. We 0
18 ct Implementation. We have considerable experience of projectImplementation. We 0
17 station <para>Wehave considerable experience of projectimplementation. We 0
56 am, United Kingdom. Birks Sinclair have experience of projects within the EU PHA 0
158 nagementin the field. Mr Burt has wide experience of providingthis management 0
44 training for the Civil Service. He has experience of Public Administration Refo 0
142 1development. We also have substantial experience of relevant work throughout C 0
32 ent projectwork In Russia.He also has experience of runninghis own firm and o 0
43 er of the UK EmploymentService.He has experience of structuralreorganisation 0
16 ngdom. Birks Sinclair have considerable experience of supporting technical assis 0
34 e EmploymentService.Ms. Bleasdale has experience of the designand deliveryof 0
55 field office. Staff in Manchester have experience of the management of projects 0
7 mies In transition.He has considerable experience of the PhareProgrammeand ha 0
28 ent of equipment.Mr Lowehas extensive experience of the Phareprogrammeequipm 0
45 rainingwithin localgovernment.He has experience of the Phareprogrammein an 0
159 rogrammein Poland. <para>has wide experience of the PhareProgrammeIn Hun 0
31 The consortiumpartnershave extensive experience of the roleof supportservic 0
53 ur Headquarters in Durham. We also have experience of the successful installatio 0
143 995. <para>al.2 SQW has long term experience of the two mainelementsof t 0
132 Inted. They will then require practical experience of training delivery before p 0
35 nd Slovak Republics while Mr. Broad has experience of training Employment Servic 0
29 pment)of NICVA.Mr Pagelhas extensive experience of trainingin othercultures 0
65 wn in Table 2. Each consultant has long experience of training in skills essenti 0
22 Redpath and Mr. Beresford have direct experience of training needs In the Empl 0
.
36 KnowHow Fund. <para>MrCsszr has experience of trainingpublicofficials 0
37 texts to this task. Ms. Leigh-Doyle has experience of training within the Irish 0
38 erienceovermorethan 20 years.He has experience of workwith developmentagen 0
51 objectivesof this programme.All have experience of workingin employmentserv 0
47 ping NGO development strategies. It has experience of working In Poland, Russia 0
40 bothWesternand EasternEurope.He has experience of: managingcomplexprojects 0
8 <para>BirksSinclairhas considerable experience relevantto this assignment, 0
9 <para>BirksSinclairhas considerable experience relevantto this assignment,
12 <para>BirksSinclairhas considerable experience relevantto this assignment,
33 publics. In addition, Mr. Beresford has experience with the recruitment of staff
o Count 76
19 are responsiblefor signingcontracts Experience elsewheresuggeststhat an or S
66 nappropriateskills or poormotivation Experience also suggestsover-staffingc S
23 operatewithin an openmarketeconomy . Experience elsewherehas shownus that t S
110 privateconsultants. <para>2. 13 Experience elsewherewouldsuggestthat S
-
1 Agencyand GlasgowDevelopment Agency). Experience Includesstrategiesfor the d S
2 rojectManager.The wider knowledge and experience of managementtrainingInstit S
57 ds; management of training budgets. His experience has spanned Inspection of com S
59 localauthorityfinanceIn Hungary. His experience includesfinancialmanagement S
58 rojectfrom ProfessorWard In 1994. His experience was enhancedby conductinga S
62 is awarenessIssues.This International experience will be complementedby the I S
61 to facilitateInvestment. International experience demonstratesthat simplereli S
127 ara>- PracticalApproach <para> Our experience Is that,while it Is necessar S
83 at are their skills and motivation. Our experience elsewhere is that starting wi S
129 clentlyand effectively. <para> Our experience such as that with the Public S
,In these
85 e focuseson. Theseare examplesof our experience areas.Additionalex S
86 elevantto the Bulgariansituation. Our experience Is that it Is onlyby working S
80 ementationof studytours. However, our experience Is that the most effectivewa S
78 fund raisingmeasures.For example, our experience suggeststhat althoughproper S
77 hem.Theseare discussedbelow.But our experience elsewherein Russia,and In t S
87 ion and CSMEas well as with TACIS. Our experience elsewherestronglyreinforces S
135 <para>al. 4 These examples of project experience demonstrate not only a strong S
136 own overleaf. <para>Recent project experience in Polandis givenat annexD S
144 is are nowof paramountimportance. The experience of EU and otherfunderselsew S
147 School of Business <para>56. The experience of the consortium partners (L S
148 will undertake the Inception Stage. The experience and skills of the teams will S
150 British Enterprise Project (PBEP). This experience can and will be transferred t S
151 high quality management training. This experience is shared by all WBS personne S
Appendices: Experience_sentence initial

Page374
160 ungary. His education, and earlier work experience was an industrial chemist, b s
,
s Count 28
126 and practice. <para> International experience <para>GVG's activities t
24 eacharea. <para>Eastern European Experience <para>1.8 <para>Tab t
68 ss of EI 5 million. <para>Areas of experience <para>16. Lancashire En t
69 esearch institutes. <para>Areas of experience <para>4. The Council's t
130 t trainingprograms. <para> Project experience <para>43.A summaryis g t
3 the proposal. <para>Background and experience <para>A partnership betw t
116 Republicsand the Far East. < para experience <para>BirksSinclairhas t
117 Republicsand the Far East. < para experience <para>BirksSinclairhas t
121 he most successful in Phare. < para Experience <para>Birks Sinclair has t
119 OS International In Germany. < para Experience <para>lrish National Tra t
115 and methodology development. < para Experience <para>The company's exp t
125 er of MECU 10. <para> International Experience <para>TheInstitutehas t
113 rties and privatecompanies. < para Experience <para>Therangeof train t
123 ning and education services. < para Experience <para>We have considerab t
128 nditure, and components. <para> OUR Experience in assisting project manageme t
139 rganisations. <para>Table1.2: SQW experience in Centraland EasternEurope t
114 withintheir homecountries. < para Experience In Poland <para>(para)T t
124 ment Servicestaff trainers. < para Experience in the Czechand SlovakRepub t
122 n (InnovationFund,Russia). < para Experience of ActiveEmploymentProgramm t
112 in the followingtwo areas. < para Experience of FundDesignand Managementt
140 In Bulgaria. <para>Table1.1: SQW Experience of InwardInvestmentand Rela t
20 f Reference. <para>Section1.3 (d ) Experience of tendererand subcontractor t
21 utputs. <para>16 Section1.3 (d ): Experience of tendererand subcontractor t
120 k of 10 regionallibraries. < para Experience of workingwith Polishconsul t
118 procurement;and evaluation. < para Experience relevantto the proposedtask t
76 cting Authority. <para>Building on experience to date <para>Asignific t
t Count 26
Grand Count 167
Appendices: initial
Experience_sentence
Page375
APPENDIX - Extracting colligation information from POS coded text
It took a certain amount of time and thought to carry out the apparentlysimpletask of
identifying and counting POS code patternsin the PP corpus. The procedureis
reported below for the benefit of others (especiallynon-programerslike myself) who

may wish to undertake a similar task.
1. POS Marked corpus format
1.1 As reported in Chapter:Preparingthe corpus, the POS codedversion of PP has
the following format:
Technical [JJ] Proposal [NNI] STATEMENT [NNI] AND [CC]

TERMS [NN2] OF [IO] REFERENCE [NN1] ORGANISATION
[NNJ] AND [CC] METHOD [NN 1] RATIONALE [NP 1] In [II]
Poland [NP1] the [AT] main [JJ] body [NNI] with [1W] responsibility
[NNI] for [IF] the [AT] supervision[NN1] and [CC] enforcement
[NN 1] of [10] legislation [NN 1] on [II] Worker [NP 1] Protection
[NN1] is [VBZ] the [AT] National [JJ] Labour [NNJ] Inspectorate
[NNJ] : [: ] Panstwowa[NP 1] Inspekcja [NP 1] Pracy [NP 1] ([(] PIP
[NN1]) [)]
2. Developing a colligational analysis
2.1 Exploiting the POS codesin an analysisof colligation required the following
steps:
" Use WordSmith to createa KWIC concordanceof the searchword (in this
caseexperience).
" Savethe concordancewith 200 charactersof context. This has the

following appearancewhen viewed in Word:
[CC] organisations[NN2] with [IW] the [AT] specialist[JJ] expertise

[NNI] and [CC] practical [JJ] experience[NN1] required [VVD] to
[TO] assist[VVI] the [AT] Polish [JJ] Ministry [NNJ] of [IO] Env
d [VM] [,] however [RR] [, ] comment [WI] on [II] the [AT] basis
, ,
[NN1] of [IO] substantial[JJ] experience[NN1] elsewhere[RL] that
[CST] the [AT] region [NN1] appears[WZ] to [TO] have [VII] si
NN2] in [II] Russia[NP I] are [VBR] now [RT] of [10] paramount [JJ]
importance [NN1]. [. ] The [AT] experience[NN1] of [I0] EU [NP]
and [CC] other [JJ] funders [NN2] elsewhere[RL] in [II] eastern[J
Appendices: Extracting colligation information from POS coded text

Page376
" Use a Word Macro to reformat this text so that the three POS codesto the
left and right of the searchword are now surroundedby TAB codes.
[CC] organisations[NN2] with [IW] the [AT] specialist[JJ] expertise

[NN1] and [CC] practical [JJ] experience
[NN1] required [WD] to [TO] assist [VVI] the
[AT] Polish [JJ] Ministry [NNJ] of [IO] Env
d [VM] [, ] however [RR] [, ] comment[VVI] on [II] the [AT] basis
, ,
[NNI] of [10] substantial [JJ] experience
[NN1] elsewhere [RL] that [CST] the [AT]
region [NN1] appears[WZ] to [TO] have [VHI] si
NN2] in [II] Russia[NP1] are [VBR] now [RT] of [IO] paramount [JJ]
importance [NNI] [.] The [AT] experience
.
[NN1] of [IO] EU [NP] and [CC] other [JJ]
funders [NN2] elsewhere[RL] in [II] eastern[J
3. Macro listings
3.1 Becauseof limitations in Word Basic (which appearsto have problemsin

handling SearchUpcommands)two macroswere required.
" Macro 1 (altw) positioned the cursor at the third POS code to the right of
the searchword:
Sub MAIN
CharRight 100
EditFind Find = "[", Direction =1, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
. .
PatternMatch= 0, SoundsLike= 0, .Format = 0, Wrap = 2,
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
EditFind Find = "[", Direction = 1, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
.
PatternMatch = 0, SoundsLike = 0, Format = 0, Wrap = 2,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
EditFind Find = "[", Direction = 1, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
.
PatternMatch = 0, SoundsLike= 0, Format = 0, Wrap = 2,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
End Sub
" The main macro placed Tab codesbefore and after eachopening and
closing squarebracket []
Sub MAIN
StartRoutine:

Page377
ToolsMacro Name = "altw", Run

.
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find = "]",. Direction = 0,. MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find = "[", Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
.
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find = "]", Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0,. WholeWord = 0,
.
PatternMatch= 0, SoundsLike= 0, Format = 0, Wrap = 2,
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0, WholeWord = 0,
. .
PatternMatch= 0, SoundsLike= 0, Format = 0, Wrap = 2,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft I
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
. .
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find = "[",. Direction = 0,. MatchCase = 0,. WholeWord = 0,
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find = "]", Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
. .
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)

Page378
EditFind Find = "[", Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,

.
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find = "]", Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
.
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find = "[", Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharLeft 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind. Find = "]",. Direction = 0, MatchCase= 0,. WholeWord = 0,
. . .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
CharRight 1
Insert Chr$(9)
EditFind Find = "^p", Direction = 0, MatchCase = 0, WholeWord = 0,
.
. .
FindAllWordForms =0
.
If EditFindFoundO=0 Then Goto End
Goto StartRoutine
End :
End Sub
4. Using the output in Excel
4.1 Once the concordanceoutput had beenconvertedinto a consistenttab

delimited text it could be exported to Excel for further processing. Each
concordanceline could now be sorted on POS Codesat L3, L2, L1 + Rl (NN1
the code for R2,

experience), R3 as in the examplebelow.
-
L3 L2 LI Centre RI R2 R3
[NN1] of [10] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] Central [JJ]
[. ] From [II] our [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] Nizhny [NP1]
[VVO] 31 [MC] Our [APPGE] Experience [NNI] in [II] Assisting [NP1]
[NP1] ; [;] Our [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [II] Hungary [NPI]
[TO] bear [VVI] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] from [II] elsewhere [RL]
[RR] [,] their [APPGE] experience [NN1] in [I1] transferring [VVG]
4.2 Once the data was in this format it was possibleto use Excel's Sort and Sub-
total tools to generatea range of views of colligation. In order to produce the
tables summarised in the main text, it was necessary to:

Page379
a) hide unwanted columns of data and copy this view to the Windows
clipboard (thereby eliminating data from hidden rows and columns)
b) pastethis data into Word and use Searchand Replaceto strip out Tab codes
c) pastethe reformatted text back into Excel and use Sort to group identical
POS code combinationstogether
d) Use Excel subtotalsto count thesegroups of matchingPOS codes
e) View the subtotal results only and copy this view to the clipboard (againto
eliminatehidden rows)
f) Re-sort on the basisof the counts for the matchingPOS codes
g) Calculate for
percentages eachcount.
4.3 The data used in generatingtheseresultsis in print form in Appendix:

Experiencecolligations - PP + BNC Spoken.
Appendices: Extracting colligation information from POS coded text -,

Page 380
APPENDIX: Interview task - text analysis (Respondent 1)
1.2.3 Methodology
General Approach
x
exible-and-apprepciat response to xxxxx nee
The strUGturin g of thiS GontFaGt is desi g ned to a llo w the u se of

IMOMMMIMM at short notice. The Team Leader will work
closely with colleagues in the MLSW, and in particular with the "c
Director of the PMU, to identify the short-term needs. This
identification will be carried out within the context of the medium-
term strategy developed during the of this
MEL C_ Z.
9-
The purpose of this contract is to assist the MLSW and the to

find xxxxx solutions to xxxxx problems. While it is important to share
EU and other countries' experience and best practice with our xxxxx
colleagues, it is at the same time essential that this be

so that it is relevant to the xxxxx situation.
Our experience is that it is only by working in close partnership with
our that such a translation can take place.
losatiow-of-pcoject-operations-within xxxxx;
It is our practice to develop adequate administrative structures for

the operations in-country. Our intention is that our
experts will live in apartments rather than hotels and we shall employ
sufficient xxxxx staff from our own budget to ensure the efficient
administration of this RINJI§NIM In addition to their important
IN= and administrative our xxxxx employees will
,
provide our with an essential xxxxx perspective and
sensitivity to local needs.
Appendices: Interview Text analysis (Respondent 1)

-
Page 381
1.2.3 Methodology
General Approach
-----------------------------------------------------
-ONVERRM
The structuring of this contract is designed to allow the use of short-term expertise at
short notice. The Team Leader will work closely with colleagues in the MLSW, and in
particular with the Director of the PMU, to identify the short-term TA needs. This
identification will be carried out within the context of the medium-term strategy
developed during the inception phase of this Programme.
liiiiiiiiiiiiii
The purpose of this contract is to assist the MLSW and the PMU to find xxxxx
solutions to xxxxx problems. it is important to share EU and other countries'
experience and best practice with our xxxxx colleagues,

essential that this experience be translated efficiently so that it is relevant to the xxxxx
situation. Our experience is that it is only by working in close partnership with our
local counterparts that such a translation can take place. 'ý
w
NIMBI=
na
A
It-is-ei practice to develop adequate administrative structures for the project
m
N
operations in-country. Our intention is that our long-term experts will live in O
apartments rather than hotels and we shall employ sufficient xxxxx staff from our own N
U,
budget to ensure the efficient administration of this important project. In addition to O
their important technical and administrative contribution, our xxxxx employees will
Q
provide our foreign advisers with an essential xxxxx perspective and sensitivity to CD
ö
local needs.
cD
M.

-
Page 382
1.2.3 Methodology
General Approach
EMON and response to xxxxx needs;
The structuring of this contract is designed to allow the use of sect-term

expertise at short notice. The Team Leader will work closely with colleagues
in the MLSW, and in particular with the Director of the PMU, to identify the
short-term TA needs. This identification will be carried out within the context
of the medium-term strategy developed during the inception phase of this
Programme.
working in with our xxxxx colleagues;
solutions to xxxxx problems. While it is important to share EU and other

countries' experience and with our xxxxx colleagues, it is at the
same time essential that this experience be translated efficiently so that it is
relevant to the xxxxx situation. Our experience is that it is only by working in
close partnership with our local counterparts that such a tra+-slati-on can take
place.
location of project operations within xxxxx;
It is our practice to develop adequate adminiStFative structures for the
project operations in-country. Our intention is that our long-term experts will
live in apartments rather than hotels and we shall employ sufficient xxxxx
staff from our own budget to ensure the of this

important project. In addition to their important technical and administrative
contribution, our xxxxx employees will provide our foreign advisers with an
essential xxxxx INUM and

-
Page383
APPENDIX: Questionnaire
Language use in Technical Proposals
Section 1: writing processes
1. Starting
1.1 What happens in your organisation before project proposal writing begins?
(project identification / team formation )
..
1.2 What happens in your organisation at the beginning of proposal writing? (team
management / task allocation / analysis of TOR / identification of consultants ..)
1.3 What happens in your organisation during the process of proposal writing?
(developing drafts / peer review.. )
2. Writing the technical proposal
2.1 How (if at all) do you make use of the documents provided in the TOR / ITB for a
potential contract?
2.2 How do you (and your colleagues) decide on the main section divisions of the
TP?
2.3 How do you (and your colleagues) decide on the different section headings of the
TP?
Section 2- style and language
TASK
This extractfrom the discussionof GeneralApproachwas written by someone

who is not a memberof staff in your organisation.It has been editedto ensure
anonymity for the contributer.
a) Read the passage and underline any words and phrases, or any examples of use of
English that you think are similar to the sort of language you use in writing a project
proposal.
b) Read the passage again. Are there any features of the passage (organisation, words
and phrases, use of English) which are significantly different from the way in which
you write?
We will be discussing these similarities and differences in the next part of the
interview.
Appendices: Interviews - Questionnaire

Page384
Project Proposal extract
1.2.3 Methodology
General Approach
- flexible and appropriate response to xxxxx needs;
The structuring of this contract is designed to allow the use of short-term

expertise at short notice. The Team Leader will work closely with colleagues
in the MLSW, and in particular with the Director of the PMU, to identify the
short-term TA needs. This identificationwill be carried out within the context
of the medium-term strategy developed during the inception phase of this
Programme.
- working in partnershipwith our xxxxx colleagues;
solutions to xxxxx problems. While it is important to share EU and other
countries' experience and best practice with our xxxxx colleagues, it is at the
same time essential that this experience be translated efficiently so that it is
relevant to the xxxxx situation. Our experience is that it is only by working in
close partnership with our local counterpartsthat such a translation can take
place.
- location of project operations within xxxxx;
It is our practice to develop adequate administrative structures for the project

operations in-country. Our intention is that our long-term experts will live in
apartments rather than hotels and we shall employ sufficient xxxxx staff from
our own budget to ensure the efficient administration of this important project.
In addition to their important technical and administrative contribution, our
xxxxx employees will provide our foreign advisers with an essential xxxxx
perspective and sensitivity to local needs.
Appendices: Interviews - Questionnaire

Page385
APPENDIX: Respondent 1- Interview: 12 May 1998
Questions asked:
Q1. Can you give me an idea of what happensin your organisationbefore you begin
to work on a project proposal?
Q2. How do you decide on the team that will be writing the proposal?
Q3. Have you beeninvolved in any proposalsrecently?
Q5. And as a managerand as a managerof other people'swriting, what was your
responsibility?
Q6. What use do you make of the TOR and the ITB in the developmentof your
proposal?
Q7. I'm interestedin what sort of way the TOR becomea resourcefor the writers...?
Q8. Is that an active strategyon your part?
Q9. Where do you get your sectionheadingtitles from?
Q10. Where do you get the labels for the structuralunits of the Technical Proposal?
Q 11. I've noticed that there are sometimesinteresting momentsin PHARE proposals
when the authors have gone beyond the TOR in terms of the sectionsthey include.
Do you have any experienceof that?
Transcript
bold = question
normal type = notes
italics = verbatim quotation
counter comments
000 - 060 Preamble - explanation of research process. Explanation / rationale for
interviews
Q1. Can you give me an idea of what happens in your organisation
before you begin to work on a project proposal?
061 - 146
1. Pursuit processbegins early - networking / checking at HQ,
Brussels,host country - find out what possibleprojects exist, what
they might be about - make sure able to contactright UK / EU
organisationsto invite as partnersin responseto Invitation to Bit
(ITB). This preparesus to be able to respondquickly.
2. Work is allocated acrossthe team to team members- dependson

how close the deadlinesare. Big emphasison ensuring
involvement of local consultants/ ensuressustainability
Appendices: Interviews - Respondent1

Page386
3. BC role varies depending on whether or not it is taking a lead. If
the BC is leading then it is BC responsibility to project
management the proposal. Scheduling is very important here.
4. One of the criticisms directed at us regularly is that we don't have
time to check thefinal product with all the partners, so they don't
get a final say in the shape of the thing that's submitted But life's
a bit like that, you know, you don't get enough time.
Q2. How do you decide on the team that will be writing the
proposal?
147 - 184 The writing of theproposal is divided into separateparts - usually the
very technical sectionsof theproposal will be written by external
consultants,who we take on our team becauseof their expertise- usually
the approach, mechanicsof delivery, preferred mode of delivery,
structure of the changethat needsto be effectedis somethingthat will be
designedbypartner insttitutions, unlesswe have a specialist interest in
our organisation - and then than individual might be involved in writing
or reviewing. Our organisation- takes responsibility for:
" CVs
" meeting the various formatting / presentationalrequirements
" Financial proposal
" topping / tailing (i. e. introduction / commentson TORs)
Q3. Have you been involved in any proposals recently?
185 - 201 Just trying to think about that - the only thing recently apart from quality
reviewing (so-called as I haven't followed a checklist) -following up a
Know-how proposal -a mini one
Q4. Could you walk me through that?
202 - 225 My overall responsibility was to win theproject
Winning theproject in our proposal meant demonstrating that we knew
what we were doing, that we'd taken account of all aspectsof the Terms
of Reference,and that we were able to illustrate our competence,the
experiencethat was relevant to the implementationof this particular
project and our ability to provide aflexible responseto the terms and
conditions of this particular project.
Q5. And as a manager and as a manager of other people's writing,
what was your responsibility?
226 - 238 Well, my responsibility was to produce a documentthat was coherent,
that had no erratic leaps, that had an internal intellectual logic to it so
that one sectionflowed into another without any gaps. And that a
documenthad different authors contributing could be seenas a single
whole.
Q6. What use do you make of the TOR and the ITB in the
development of your proposal?
239 - 264 The Terms of Reference are central absolutely central to writing a
proposal
Steps - break down the TOR into some kind of structure. First of all
Appendices: Interviews - Respondent 1

Page387
putting togetherthose bits that relate to the over all outcomes,the over-
arching purpose,and then going down to look at the detail until your
looking at any constraintsor definition of your inputs - and financial
structure aswell - so you really needto turn back to the TOR at every
level.
Q7. I'm interested in what sort of way the TOR become a resource
for the writers...?
266 - 274 Theyconstitute a wonderful resource. You do like to echo the words that
are in the TOR or evenphrases, becauseit's a bit like active listening on
paper, isn't it? Thatyour reflecting back to someonesomethingthat they
ought they were very clever to devise,and people always like and can
relate to somethingthat has an elementof themselvesin it.
Q8. Is that an active strategy on your part?
275 - 286 Yes,I think it is on mypart. I don't know if it is in the organisation, but
it's certainly somethingI think you need to do - and whenyou do
commenton the TOR,if you makesomeadjustmentto the TOR,you do
also need to bear in mind that you could also be critical about something
that has beencarefully put through, so you needto bepositive about how
you put across any changesas well.
Comment on structure of PPs
Q9. Where do you get your section heading titles from?
294 - 320 Well, I think quite often you don't have time to invent new things so you
look at other proposals, you look for a model that you want to follow. I
mean there are always some headings that you get to use in the Technical
Proposal. In PHARE projects you might talk about your understanding
of the project, so you're reflecting back the background against which
this work is now being proposed, is going to befunded and certain
,
change needs to be brought about, so there you're drawing on the TOR
quite heavily, but you need to reflect there additional information that
shows that you have actually taken the trouble to find out and you do
actually know something about the context of the country or of the region.
Q10. Where do you get the labels for the structural units of the
Technical Proposal?
323 - 330 The labelsfor PHARE and TACISprojects are almost given - so you have
tofollow the regulations there, that you're giving what they askyou for
and no more, or not too much more. For the KHF there are not such
regulations and you just have to makesure that the documenthas an
internal logic to it.
Q11. I've noticed that there are sometimes interesting moments in
PHARE proposals when the authors have gone beyond the TOR in
terms of the sections they include. Do you have any experience of
that?
337 - 341 I don't, I supposethe people to check that with are the people involved in
the selectionprocedure although my strategy would be to try to fit
....
extra things into the prescribedformat.
COMMENTS ON TEXT SAMPLE
350 - 404 Comment 1: Why's it obviously PHARE? talks about TA, about EU
-
those are the main signals
Comment 2: The bit about accommodation gives an EU flavour -
wouldn't be an issue in KHF in EU projects there's a ceiling for
-
Appendices: Interviews - Respondent I

Page388
consultant days / you might be signalling a commitment to keeping costs

down.
Comment 3: What we do try to have in our proposalsis to have headings
that provide a theme - and usually you try to draw attention to things like
/
partnership transfer of skills / local cooperation- gives that tailor made
feel
...
Comment 4: With theseheadingsI would try to echothe same
grammatical structure, so you'd haveworking in partnership- I'd change
the next to respondingto local needs- so that there'sa sort of echo and
emphasisand a way of making theseheadingsbecomepart of the same
family...... I might also seewhat sort of order they've put it in and see
which one they really want to highlight the most...

Page389
APPENDIX Interview: Respondent 2- 14 May 1998
Questions asked:
Q l. Can you give me an idea of what happensin your organisationbefore you begin
to work on a project proposal?
Q2. Would they becomepart of the writing team?
Q3. What are the principle criteria for the selectionof the membersof the writing
team?
Q4. How important is experiencein writing proposalsfor a particular organisation?
Q5. What are the responsiblitiesof the proposal manager?
Q6. How do you organisethe brainstorm?
Q7. Is the analysis of the TOR a sharedtask or is it the responsibility of the proposal
manager?
Q8. So identification of consultantswill happenbefore you do the proposal,then?
Q9. Writing begins How do you managethat processof drafting and assembling
...
the document?
Q 10. Do you have a set of sectionheadingsthat you work with?
Q 11. Are there patternsthat you are usedto or do you try to be fresh eachtime?
Q 12. Where do you get the buzz words from?
Q 13. Are they changing?
Q14. So - the main divisions of the proposal come mainly from the terms of
reference?
Q15. You've developedyour first draft, you think you've assembledthe parts that are
required by the TOR. What happens to the text in its "semi-assembled"state?
Q 16. Do you have internalised criteria that you use when you say "yes, this is ok" or
"no, I'm not happy with this yet"?
Q 17. What constitutesa documentthat "readsalright"?
Transcript
bold = question
normal type = notes
counter comments
000 - 054 Preamble- explanation of researchprocess. Explanation / rationale for
interviews
Q1. Can you give me an idea of what happens in your organisation
before you begin to work on a project proposal?
055 - 123 How things were with PHARE is slightly differentfrom how things were.
Now the normal process with PHARE is that on the internet we get

Page390
information on projects which are up-coming and express interest in the

first stage, which is a short document where we just give our company
details, address details, turnover figures, staff figures, plus information
on previous project experience as it pertains to the area in which the
expression of interest solicits proposal - or expressions of interest.
Sometimes we do this on our own, sometimes we join up at this stage with
another partner, because there is a perception that the EU looks
favourably on consortia which bring together more than one
organisation from more than one country. And if we are lucky then we
get shortlisted, and then one is normally one of ten, sometimes one of
fifteen which is not right in my view, because it makes competition so
tough that they should limit the shordist to just six in my view, but still
If we are lucky, we get invited to tenderfor that particular project. Then

be
normally everything would seen our managing by director who looks
at everything that comes in f ] who would confirm that I should run
.... handbook
with it. We do have what is called a proposal writing which a
colleague of mineput together which maps out the procedure how one
should go about it, but to be honestwe don't alwaysfollow that which is
unfortunate because it is very sensible the way he has structured it.
124 - 168 Onceyou get the Invitation to Tender,somethingcalled a proposal team
is put together which includes theproposal manager,who's theperson
who will write the bulk of it, but will also have a proposal director who's
theperson who will makesomesort of quality control - reads it hopefully
before it goes out! And then other memberswho might be in a position to
write thingsfor it and who will also later be in the team to do the work.
With Eastern Europeanprojects it dependsvery much whether there'sa

residential componentor not. If there's a residential component [... J we
don't normally thesedays have that kind of person in house,because
we've all done our stint! [... ] So normally we would have to go outside
for somebodyfor a residential assignment[... J And then we would
contact them and see if they were available
Q2. Would they become part of the writing team?
169 - 184 Sometimesyes, sometimesno. It dependson how specialised the area is
and whether we could write it in-house. I mean normally we would write
it in-house, but I've had one or two situations where someonehas written
the bulk of theproposal...
Q3. What are the principle criteria for the selection of the members
of the writing team?
185 - 194 a) expertisein that b)
particular area, experienceof writing that kind of
proposal, and c) availability
Q4. How important is experience in writing proposals for a
particular organisation?
195 - 217 Wesee that as very important, becauseyou have to be experiencedin
reading the TOR and understandingthe TOR and thenputting across the
messageof how you want to do it there is an element of having done
- so
it before which helpsyou do it again. But there's a dangerprobably that
you becometoo stale - we havepersonally in the companyone or two
people whoseproposals I find are just deadly boring because I just feel

Page391
that they are so stereotypical and mechanical and someof thosethat we

haven't won recently! Now I'm not sure why, but sometimes,there comes
a point where wejust churn things our and that's not good either so I
think you need to bring a certainfreshness to it too. [... J
Comment 1: Summary of points made so far
Q5. What are the responsibilities of the proposal manager?
225 - 248 To write the thing, to write it and to subcontract or to delegate things
which other people can write to other people. I mean like for instance
the CVs which sometimes have to be customised or tweaked a bit, the
experience statements, something on the organisation. So the person
who is the proposal manager will get the overview of what needs to be
done, and he or she would then probably get some more junior people to
tidy up the CVs, depending on who's got time, get some people to do the
experience statements, organise things like brain-storming sessions -
tends to be very useful given that we've got such a range of people
working here and that it's proved to be very helpful if one can have an
hour, an hour and a half together to spell out some key points. There's
always a kind of "think-piece " bit in those proposals, where you
demonstrate that you've understood the TOR, that you're competent in the
field and that you can add value to the TOR at this stage
Q6. How do you organise the brainstorm?
249 - 270 Wejust get the people together who we feel can contribute - between 3
and 5 normally - and [after they've been briefed on the TOR] we would
get people's views. Also we might have a session on who the team
members should be - discuss their CVs
Q7. Is the analysis of the TOR a shared task or is it the
responsibility of the proposal manager?
273 - 286 Dependsa bit on how much time we have. Tomorrow we have a meeting
on a proposal and I haven't read the TOR [... ] but I better had tonight
so I can talk more authoritatively tomorrow!
Q8. So identification of consultants will happen before you do the
proposal, then?
288 - 299 During really - we might think about it at the EOI (ExpressionOf
Interest) stage, but it's such a lottery and you don't know which oneyou'll
get ... And I'm not saying this is right - we haven't beenwinning that
manyprojects in ECE lately....
Q9. Writing begins How do you manage that process of drafting
...
and assembling the document
306 - 330 Wellpeople will differ there. We'veall got PCs [... ] For me the earlier I
start writing the better normally and I just start with whatever comesto
my mind.... jot afew things downfor the introduction, directly onto the
PC and I normally think and write at the sametime and I just start. I
might at that stage look through afew documentsjust to get an idea of
the key issuesthat might be relevant, sometimesTOR specify some
...
documentswhich I might have a look at. I would make sure I've got these
to hand and order them if need be. Sometimesfor instance I had quite
....
a large number of telephoneconversationswith people whom I've met by
accident over quite a long time and by chatting with people about the
team and who might be interestedyou start to get a grasp of someof the
key issues. - ..

Page392
Q10. Do you have a set of section headings that you work with?
332 - 340 Well mostly the TOR specify them. I try to reflect the TOR becauseI feel
they've obviously done their work and they want that to be seen,although
the TOR normally reflect the work programme, not the issues. We
normally have an issuessection and a work programme, and the issues
section is whereyou're allowed to put a bit of intellectual input into it.
Q11. Are there patterns that you are used to or do you try to be
fresh each time?
342 Well, what we usually do is say in all our proposals in a regional
-
development programme of this kind in the late 1990s, this kind of
environment, the following issues are relevant. And that's where the
brainstorming session is good because that's what provides the
intellectual input into the project. And then I would normally have bullet
points and say, "Partnership models"for instance, or "Sustainability for
development" or "International networking" or you name ill Say the
-
six key issues which we'd identified in the brainstorm.
And then I'd have in the next section: bold - "Partnership creation" and
then I would have two or threeparagraphs on that issue,and then I
would have the next bold heading [... ] You're given the opportunity to
show that you are experiencedin thisfield, you've worked in similar
areas before,you know what the key issuesare in thisfield, they get the
impression that you are authoritative, experienced,interesting,
innovative [... J
Q12. Where do you get the buzz words from?
Wellfrom working in thisfield
Q13. Are they changing?
Yes - 'partnership" is very much a mid to late nineties word - so's
-385
"sustainability " -yes they're changing all the time, new buzzwords keep
coming in.
Q14. So - the main divisions of the proposal come mainly from the
terms of reference?
393 - 397 I should really say that'sfor the work programme, that's quite specified.
For the issuessection, the headingscome not so muchfrom the TOR [... J
but would comefrom brainstorming.
Q15. You've developed your first draft, you think you've assembled
that parts that are required by the TOR What happens to the text in
its "semi-assembled" state?
402 - 442 Well I would go through it again and again, probably three or four times,
until I'm reasonably happy with it. I like to have time if I can, I hate
working underpressure - but we havepeople in the organisation who
can only really work when they know the bloody thing's got to go out of
the door tomorrow - otherwise their mind doesn'tgetfocused. Sopeople
are different there. I hate working underpressure, I just freeze up there.
So I have to have time to go through say three or four drafts in a
reasonably relaxed way, so if a proposal had to go out - this is a big
proposal by the way [... J a half million or million ecujob. Normally
you're given three to four weeksto respond (betweenwhenyou are
shortlisted and when the proposal has to be in) [... ] Normally I would
hope to have a weekor so to go through thesethree or four drafts - when
I can write something,andprint it out and come back to it the next day
Appendices: Interviews Respondent 2

-
Page393
and look at it and expand it and change it a little bit - so once I'm happy
that I've pushed it as far as I can, normally I would hope to give it then to
the project director to look at it. And really the idea is to get it into as
final a shape as possible because we haven't got enough time to then go
-
through -for him then to say well I don't think this is quite right yet [... ]
go back and do another draft. Ideally he will see it then and will say:
this is ok, you need to do a couple of things, but he won't see it again.
Q16. Do you have internalised criteria that you use when you say
"yes, this is ok" or "no, I'm not happy with this yet"?
443 - 450 No, really, only how it reads? No I don't have such criteria [... ] I think
it's really what if it readsall right
...
Q17. What constitutes a document that "reads alright"?
452 - 460 It will cover the terms of reference-I will be confident that I have
covered the TOR adequately. So ideally after having written it one would
go back to the terms of reference-I would have the terms of referenceby
me anyway - and if I have time -I would ideally checkwhether I've done
justice to the bits that they'vehighlighted in the TOR
And then it's a matter of whetherI feel it hangs together as a document
and it's logical, not too wordy, reads competent[... J

Page394
APPENDIX Interview: Respondent 3- 14 May 1998
Questions asked:
Q 1. Could you tell me briefly about your responsibilitiesthat you have in relation to
proposal writing?
Q2. Do you think that's made you more awareof good plain English in other things
you write?
Q3. Talking about PHARE Projects, what happens in your organisation before you
would begin to write your proposal?
Q4. How do you identify the consultants?
Q5. Will the consultantsalso contribute to the proposalwriting
Q6. Will their contribution be freestandingwithin the proposal, or would be edited
in?
Q7. What sort of time frame do you have for writing the proposal?
Q8. What sort of stepsthat you might follow in pushing through the proposal from
beginning to end?
Q9. So you've got your team, you've got your knowledge - and you're beginning to
go about the writing - you've also got the TOR. How do you work with the
TOR for the project?
Q10. How do you begin to organise the text that you are writing? It's all done on
wordprocessor I assume?
Q11. Do you use a system of headings to write into?
Q 12. How do you make those decisions?
Q13. Do you use things like the outlining featuresin Word - headingnumbersand
stuff like that?
Q 14. How do you as a writer find it affects the way you write?
Q15. As the project managerfor the proposal- How are you keeping all thesebits in
play?
Q16. You've got your 30-50 pages (of text) for a big proposal -written by two or
three different people? - How do you pull it into a coherent document?
Q17. You've finished the whole thing. If you have time, do you a system of peer
review?
Q18. If a colleaguepassessomethingto you to look at a generallevel rather than as a
detailed technical input, do you have a checklist in your head for any things
you will be looking for?
Q19. In terms of the way in which somethinghas beenwritten, the languageitself,
are there things that you're looking for?
Q20. How doesone get clarity?
Q21. How do you and your colleagues decide on the main divisions of the proposal
itself? Where do you get the words, the headings for this?

-
Page395
Q22. Is that a pretty typical approach
Transcript
bold = question
normal type = notes
counter comments
000 - 073 Preamble - explanation of research process. Explanation / rationale for
interviews
Q1. Could you tell me briefly about your responsibilities that you
have in relation to proposal writing?
075 - 115 (talking about EU Phare no major difference betweenapproachto
-
writing for other agencies,other than the managementtime involved in
putting togetherthe team) Thereis a difference betweenPHARE and
KHF in that I think most of us are aware now that one should try and
keep the English a bit more straightforward in the PHARE proposal in
that most of thepeople reading it either in the recipient country or in
Brusselswill not, howevergood their English is, it will not be their first
language. Someof us write in a complicated way left to ourselves,and
it's best to perhaps review what we've written to makesure it comes
across relatively straightforwardly.
Q2. Do you think that's made you more aware of good plain English
in other things you write?
117-128 1 think it may have done -I mean it's not only in proposals, it's in
presentations in other countries. If you're going through an interpreter
you have to make sure that what you are saying is understandable to the
first audience before you hit the big one with the big one you can just
-
gloss over the problem if you're doing it in English, with an interepreter,
you get baffled looks and you realise "whoops! you'd better get back to
basics! "
Q3. Talking about PAARE Projects, what happens in your
organisation before you would begin to write your proposal?
129 - 194 [... ] KHF / Pharediffer in the issue of ITB - PHARE agreeshortlist with
recipient country - Organisation identifies project via internet searchand
presents and expression of interest. If shortlisted the organisationgets
the brief - typically more than one personwill have a view on the project
and the approach- therefore early meeting to bring views together from
informed / interestedparties in the organisation.
In theory, proposalwritten by severalpeople. In practice [... ] it's very

often the same person - because it's quicker - one personthinking
through the approachand assemblingthe bits is better than several.
Organisationensuresit consultswith partners,but prefersto have one
person only writing.
Q4. How do you identify the consultants?
196 - Different levels:
" in-house

-
Page396
" associates
9 out of house- key individuals / organisationswith specialist

information (link up with these
Q5. Will the consultants also contribute to the proposal writing

Yes - especially if it's a more specialist area (e.g. health and safety for
EU accession
Q6. Will their contribution be freestanding within the proposal, or
would be edited in?
Edited in [... ]
Q7. What sort of time frame do you have for writing the proposal?
-219 Typically around 3 weeks
Q8. What sort of steps that you might follow in pushing through the
proposal from beginning to end?
233 - 248 Well first of all identifying the team, and I suppose you're parallel
tracking - building up the team at the same time as you're building up
the approach. You're also gathering information on how to bid - which
may involve a visit to the country and will probably involve speaking on
the phone to people, maybe gathering general country information [... J
Typically if you're dealing with outside people, you're dealing with them
because they have some specialised knowledge either of the country or
the subject, so that is feeding into what you're writing as well.
Q9. So you've got your team, you've got your knowledge - and
you're beginning to go about the writing - you've also got the TOR
How do you work with the TOR for the project?
252 - 277 Well I think what typically happens- which may be true of every one
come to think about it -I supposethat I would read themfirst to get a
sort of overview or what I thought was required Start working that up
and keepgoing back to them during the writing process,partly to check
that your notflying off at some tangent, and also becauseyour reading of
them changesasyou becomemore knowledgeableabout what [... J may
be required in this instance. I mean, in a UK job in economic
development- or in someEC jobs - you'd typically be able to speakto
theperson who wrote them and try to understandwhat was behind them.
That's not usually the casein PHARE -partly becausethey'veusually
recruited someother consultant to write them, [... J In the caseof the
KHF they may be more open, but usually not, soyou're largely
responding to a written brief.
Q10. How do you begin to organise the text that you are writing?
It's all done on wordprocessor I assume?
281 - 289 Yes,we tend to -probably mostpeople do - tend to directly input.
Secretariesmay tidy up some of the layout and do diagrams and so on -
I don't tend to get involved in thosesorts of things. But typically we
directly input. Probably there are different approachesto this - as to
whetheryou start off at the introduction and work to the end or whether
you jump about a bit. Depending on theproject I do both ...
Q11. Do you use a system of headings to write into?
291-301 Well it depends. Someproposals you're expected to do this -looking at
one today which wasn't Phare that has quite a rigid series of
- -
Appendices: Interviews - 3
Respondent
Page397
headingsand - actually do usually thesedays too and KHF do. But

-
theseare overall headingsand within those,how you organise the
information - there's quite a lot offlexibility around what goes into
background, what goes into workprogramme
Q12. How do you make those decisions? ...
302- What I think will be interesting or acceptable to who I think's going to
read it at the other end. I mean at times I think all of us have dumped
too much information, because we've had too much information
ourselves, into these things, but we try and avoid it!
Q13. Do you use things like the outlining features in Word heading
-
numbers and stuff like that?
- 320 Wehave a sort of customisedversion of thatformat an "organisation"
-
template- which was recently revised [... J which gives us an overall
...
Q14. How do you as a writer find it affects the way you write?
-332 It doesn't greatly worry me -I think it's generally helpful - it at least
forces you to think in a hierarchy of headings. I meanI tend to scribble
on paper as I go [... J thinking.
Q15. As the project manager for the proposal How are you
-
keeping all these bits in play?
-350 Largely by keeping on hasslingpeople - and also not allowing yourself
to be diverted too much!
Q16. You've got your 30-50 pages (of text) for a big proposal
-
written by two or three different people? - How do you pull it into a
coherent document?
352 - 372 Very often it's beenmore homogenousthan that - only one other person
typically. I suppose- it dependshow much timeyou've got. At times,
probably, thesethings go in virtually as they come in! -I think we
generally try and avoid that, and try and edit it into afairly consistent
style. I think you do have to be careful with what I would regard as
hostagestofortune in terms of what someoneelse has written about what
theproject will deliver! Soyou're looking to make sure it's somethingwe
can deliver -I meanpresentation is ... but also to make sure the content
is in the right place. I mean the background is in the background, the
work programme is in the work programme. I mean it's just a matter of
cutting and pasting, the technologyis currently being used...
Q17. You've finished the whole thing. If you have time, do you a
system of peer review?
374 - 389 No - weprobably should have, but there never seemsto be time.
Occasionally - no that's not quite true not consistentlydown the line.
-
It dependspartly - if someoneelse has beeninvolved in part of it at an
early stage, it's relatively easyfor them to pick it up. If someone's
coming to it from totally outside they can read it with afresh eye to see
how it comesover, but they won't be able to advise very sensibly on
whetheryou've got the balance of the elementsright ... or why you
changed to doing it that way. So it dependsreally, whetheryou're
looking for a read throughfor if you like a general level of consistency,
or a peer review in the senseI think you meant, of thefull technical
content?
Q18. If a colleague passes something to you to look at a general level
rather than as a detailed technical input, do you have a checklist in

Page398
your head for any things you will be looking for?

397 - 405 Well I suppose you're looking for a certain consistency of approach,
you're looking for something that carries through from what were
apparent in the issues, what the project's trying to address, into how you
get to do that, and some ideas of how that's going to be implemented -
which should also be interesting and achievable! I guess interest and
achievability are going to be two criteria.
Q19. In terms of the way in which something has been written, the
language itself, are there things that you're looking for?
407 - Clarity, mainly I would say?
Q20. How does one get clarity?
410 - 414 In my experience by sticking in more fullstops than the original writer!
[... ] It's partly what I do with my own stuff, so in a sense I probably look
to do it with other people's too.
Q21. How do you and your colleaguesdecide on the main divisions
of the proposal itself? Where do you get the words, the headings for
this?
320 - 434 Well, sometimes- as you suggestedyourself - they're in the brief
anyway. Otherwise, partly because of the approacheswhich thepeople
that set up thisfirm in the beginning, there was always afairly clear idea
that you started off with an analysis of the background,you took out of
that the key issuesthat theproject was trying to address,and you worked
through to what you would do to addresstheseissues,and how you
would do it in terms of inputs, and why you were the right people to do it
in terms of the skills that you brought with you to do it and everything
else. So I mean that logic is pretty well embedded here [... J
Q22. Is that a pretty typical approach?
435- 456 I've never worked directly for other consultants I think it'sfairly
...
typical, I meanI think weprobably do it at least as systematicallyas
most, at times I think it's too rigid I think all of us,particularly on
smaller projects, try and vary it at times,partly to produce something
more interesting, and partly because, sometimes,theproject appears to
demand that. A good exampleis someonewho's looking for somevery
specific input over a couple of monthperiod where really the key thing
deciding theproject, whetheryou win theproject, is theperson that you
put in. Soyou introduce them then upfront, which is not the logic of the
outline, saying why they are theperson to do thejob, that means
someoneinternal or an associate,and going back to the broader issues
and what they'll actually do after that is onepossibility.
471- COMMENTARY
479 I would avoid the word translation because"translation" means
...
language translation, and translating from one situation to another is a
confusing use of language...
543 - there's a bit of a motherhoodstatementin it, we all do it. What's that
...
mean? Apple pie, great, things that are incontrovertibly good things,
and thereforeyou put in anyway! ...Becauseeveryoneexpectsthem
they're only interesting if you can say somethingthat sayshow you'd do
them or give someexampleof how they would work
...
flexibility, appropriate,partnership,best practice, efficient administration
- 558
there's a question here of who you're convincing here. While both
-

-
Page399
PHARE and the counterpart have an interest in efficient administration,

to what extent is that thefactor that they lookfor -probably morefor
PHARE than the local counterpart
...
Appendices: Interviews 3
Respondent
-
Page400
APPENDIX: Keywords PP BNC
WORD FREQ. PP% FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS

TRAINING 1,148 1.00 154 0.01 4478.9
PROJECT 811 0.71 111 0.01 3153.0
DEVELOPMENT 806 0.70 296 0.03 2562.2
MANAGEMENT 628 0.55 140 0.01 2247.2
PROGRAMME 609 0.53 187 0.02 2028.8
WILL 1,347 1.18 3,123 0.29 1483.8
TEAM 437 0.38 172 0.02 1360.6
AND 5,359 4.68 28,900 2.68 1284.8
EXPERIENCE 389 0.34 143 0.01 1235.1
EDUCATION 389 0.34 167 0.02 1179.6
POLAND 300 0.26 44 1153.5
TECHNICAL 270 0.24 45 1017.6
BUSINESS 414 0.36 325 0.03 994.6
STAFF 425 0.37 366 0.03 976.1
IMPLEMENTATION 225 0.20 12 963.1
PMU 193 0.17 0 905.5
POLISH 228 0.20 34 874.4
ENVIRONMENTAL 243 0.21 54 869.4
PROJECTS 232 0.20 46 848.3
PROGRAMMES 256 0.22 82 843.1
SUPPORT 364 0.32 310 0.03 840.5
PHARE 178 0.16 0 835.1
Consultancy 185 0.16 5 822.7
ASSISTANCE 223 0.19 45 812.8
PHASE 206 0.18 39 759.6
OF 5,249 4.58 32,656 3.02 734.7
EU 155 0.14 0 727.2
Consultancy 150 0.13 0 703.7
CONSULTANTS 161 0.14 13 665.5
SKILLS 202 0.18 76 636.9
INTERNATIONAL 263 0.23 230 0.02 599.1
TERM 230 0.20 174 0.02 561.9
SERVICES 262 0.23 268 0.02 548.6
LOCAL 286 0.25 352 0.03 535.2
ADVISER 129 0.11 17 503.5
PROVIDE 246 0.21 270 0.02 494.3
TASK 171 0.15 86 491.9
AGENCY 146 0.13 47 480.1
RESOURCES 164 0.14 80 476.7
MINISTRY 150 0.13 55 476.3
CONSULTANCY 112 0.10 7 473.6
UK 221 0.19 220 0.02 469.8
ORGANISATION 165 0.14 86 468.7
REVIEW 156 0.14 72 462.0
ACTIVITIES 172 0.15 106 458.7
REFERENCE 156 0.14 74 457.8
DELIVERY 127 0.11 26 455.0
EVALUATION 132 0.12 37 449.0
ORGANISATIONS 135 0.12 44 442.5
TECHNOLOGY 153 0.13 77 440.0
REGIONAL 165 0.14 103 437.8
TRAINERS 104 0.09 8 431.8
MATERIALS 159 0.14 97 425.7
ASSIST 125 0.11 37 419.7
CENTRES 137 0.12 57 419.2
Appendices: Keywords_PP' BNC

Page401
N WORD FREQ. PP % FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS

56. DESIGN 175 0.15 144 0.01 410.8
57. INVESTMENT 161 0.14 112 0.01 408.2
58. NEEDS 188 0.16 181 0.02 407.0
59. CZECH 99 0.09 10 399.6
60. EXPERTISE 103 0.09 15 396.3
61. OBJECTIVES 111 0.10 25 395.9
62. COUNCIL 203 0.18 235 0.02 394.8
63. IN 3,299 2.88 21,184 1.96 393.4
64. Consultancy 83 0.07 0 389.3
65. INCEPTION 85 0.07 1 388.0
66. STRATEGY 129 0.11 58 385.2
67. CENTRE 205 0.18 265 0.02 371.2
68. SME 79 0.07 0 370.6
69. SLOVAK 84 0.07 3 368.5
70. ADMINISTRATION 131 0.11 73 363.1
71. ANNEX 81 0.07 2 361.5
72. POLICY 202 0.18 272 0.03 355.7
73. INSTITUTIONAL 92 0.08 13 355.5
74. DEVELOP 126 0.11 71 347.8
75. EMPLOYMENT 177 0.15 203 0.02 346.2
76. VOCATIONAL 79 0.07 3 345.4
77. KEY 136 0.12 102 333.5
78. CLIENT 82 0.07 8 332.3
79. PROPOSAL 101 0.09 37 320.8
80. Consultancy 68 0.06 0 319.0
81. SPECIALISTS 90 0.08 21 318.7
82. PROCUREMENT 73 0.06 3 317.8
83. WARSAW 93 0.08 26 316.5
84. ADVISERS 82 0.07 12 315.3
85. MODULE 73 0.06 4 311.8
86. FOR 1,666 1.46 9,590 0.89 311.5
87. INSTITUTIONS 106 0.09 51 309.5
88. EXPERTS 99 0.09 43 298.9
89. SECTOR 108 0.09 61 297.9
90. TERMS 168 0.15 228 0.02 294.2
91. TENDER 88 0.08 27 292.9
92. INPUTS 70 0.06 5 292.6
93. PROPOSE 75 0.07 12 284.4
94. ADVICE 102 0.09 57 282.4
95. REPUBLICS 82 0.07 22 281.7
96. ANALYSIS 123 0.11 110 0.01 276.9
97. ENTERPRISES 74 0.06 13 276.4
98. AGENCIES 90 0.08 38 274.1
99. CONSORTIUM 70 0.06 9 274.1
100. RESOURCE 77 0.07 20 266.5
101. COURSES 114 0.10 98 261.8
102. TASKS 77 0.07 22 260.7
103. TEAMS 83 0.07 32 259.8
104. BULGARIA 64 0.06 7 255.9
105. WORK 305 0.27 890 0.08 252.6
106. INFORMATION 187 0.16 359 0.03 247.8
107. SENIOR 108 0.09 95 245.2
108. ASSOCIATES 68 0.06 15 243.6
109. APPROPRIATE 113 0.10 110 0.01 243.1
110. PMUS 51 0.04 0 239.2
111. UNDERTAKEN 80 0.07 36 238.8
112. WORKSHOPS 65 0.06 13 237.2
113. OBJECTIVE 74 0.06 28 232.9
114. ENTERPRISE 79 0.07 38 230.7
Appendices: Keywords PP BNC

Page402

115. PARTICIPANTS 68 0.06 21 225.9
116. TEACHERS 77 0.07 40 218.9
117. WORKPLAN 46 0.04 0 215.8
118. ORGANISATIONAL 48 0.04 1 215.6
119. CURRICULUM 54 0.05 6 215.5
120. INNOVATION 59 0.05 12 214.6
121. UNIVERSITY 118 0.10 157 0.01 209.5
122. STUDY 135 0.12 216 0.02 209.1
123. PROPOSED 99 0.09 100 208.7
124. SEMINARS 56 0.05 10 208.5
125. SOCIAL 138 0.12 229 0.02 207.5
126. LABOUR 123 0.11 176 0.02 207.4
127. HUNGARY 82 0.07 58 206.4
128. APPROACH 129 0.11 200 0.02 204.8
129. VISITS 64 0.06 23 204.3
130. PROMOTIONAL 45 0.04 1 201.6
131. MONITORING 59 0.05 17 199.4
132. EASTERN 107 0.09 133 0.01 198.8
133. EXPERT 66 0.06 30 196.4
134. QUALITY 106 0.09 133 0.01 195.7
135. IDENTIFY 77 0.07 54 194.5
136. PREPARATION 66 0.06 31 194.3
137. STRATEGIC 67 0.06 33 194.1
138. DELIVER 62 0.05 24 193.8
139. MINISTRIES 49 0.04 6 193.1
140. DHV 41 0.04 0 192.3
141. COUNSELLING 47 0.04 5 188.5
142. EE 42 0.04 1 187.7
143. INCLUDING 137 0.12 254 0.02 187.3
144. INCLUDE 121 0.11 194 0.02 187.1
145. SPECIALIST 67 0.06 37 186.3
146. NATIONAL 183 0.16 455 0.04 185.4
147. ESTABLISHED 97 0.08 121 0.01 179.8
148. RESEARCH 124 0.11 216 0.02 179.0
149. CENTRAL 128 0.11 235 0.02 176.6
150. SCHEDULE 52 0.05 15 175.7
151. BRITISH 182 0.16 472 0.04 175.4
152. REFORM 80 0.07 76 174.4
153. CONSULTANT 52 0.05 16 172.9
154. RELEVANT 73 0.06 59 172.8
155. ENSURE 108 0.09 166 0.02 172.6
156. PROFESSIONAL 83 0.07 88 170.1
157. LEARNING 75 0.07 67 168.9
158. FNP 36 0.03 0 168.9
159. DSPA 36 0.03 0 168.9
160. PROMOTION 55 0.05 23 168.0
161. Consultancy 50 0.04 15 167.3
162. PLAN 108 0.09 173 0.02 167.1
163. FOREIGN 124 0.11 234 0.02 166.9
164. FIELD 102 0.09 154 0.01 165.2
165. SMES 37 0.03 1 164.5
166. RDA 35 0.03 0 164.2
167. INITIATIVES 51 0.04 18 163.6
168. SUB 76 0.07 74 163.5
169. EUROPEAN 158 0.14 386 0.04 163.4
170. LEADER 104 0.09 165 0.02 162.1
171. EUROPE 138 0.12 303 0.03 160.3
172. KHF 34 0.03 0 159.5
173. ASSESSMENT 63 0.06 44 159.4
Appendices: Keywords_PP BNC

Page403

174. PUBLIC 149 0.13 356 0.03 158.0
175. CLIENTS 48 0.04 16 156.4
176. MANAGERS 79 0.07 89 156.2
177. CONTRACT 65 0.06 51 156.0
178. SCHOOL 132 0.12 287 0.03 154.9
179. RESTRUCTURING 47 0.04 15 154.9
180. FINANCIAL 104 0.09 175 0.02 154.6
181. SERVICE 149 0.13 364 0.03 154.0
182. PRIMARY 53 0.05 28 149.8
183. PROCEDURES 62 0.05 48 149.8
184. METHODOLOGY 37 0.03 4 148.1
185. INVOLVED 98 0.09 162 0.01 147.8
186. EDUCATIONAL 59 0.05 43 146.5
187. FUNDED 53 0.05 30 146.0
188. MONE 31 0.03 0 145.4
189. COUNTRIES 102 0.09 181 0.02 144.9
190. SPECIFIC 78 0.07 97 144.9
191. RESPONSIBLE 75 0.07 88 144.6
192. FIRMS 70 0.06 74 143.7
193. TRANSFER 71 0.06 78 142.5
194. ASSISTING 30 0.03 0 140.7
195. Consultancy 30 0.03 0 140.7
196. WORKING 123 0.11 277 0.03 139.1
197. REPORTS 76 0.07 97 138.8
198. SCIENCE 48 0.04 24 138.3
199. OPPORTUNITIES 62 0.05 57 137.5
200. Consultancy 29 0.03 0 136.0
201. ECONOMIC 128 0.11 306 0.03 135.6
202. DANISH 47 0.04 24 134.4
203. FUND 67 0.06 74 134.1
204. ECU 32 0.03 3 130.2
205. IDENTIFIED 59 0.05 55 129.9
206. STAGE 108 0.09 231 0.02 128.8
207. INVITATION 43 0.04 20 127.0
208. ISSUES 85 0.07 143 0.01 126.4
209. THESE 288 0.25 1,219 0.11 126.3
210. NETHERLANDS 36 0.03 9 125.6
211. LANCASHIRE 36 0.03 9 125.6
212. BULGARIAN 36 0.03 9 125.6
X13. HAS 521 0.46 2,783 0.26 124.9
214. OFFICES 57 0.05 54 124.4
215. CHART 34 0.03 7 123.4
216. PLANNING 81 0.07 134 0.01 122.1
217. UNDERTAKE 37 0.03 12 121.4
218. COURSE 145 0.13 425 0.04 119.3
219. INWARD 37 0.03 13 118.9
220. LATVIA 35 0.03 10 118.5
221. STRATEGIES 38 0.03 15 118.1
222. DRAFT 40 0.03 19 117.3
223. PAO 25 0.02 0 117.3
224. OSH 25 0.02 0 117.3
225. WTC 25 0.02 0 117.3
226. NEEC 25 0.02 0 117.3
227. DEVELOPED 77 0.07 126 0.01 117.1
228. KNOWLEDGE 71 0.06 105 116.8
229. PROVIDING 67 0.06 92 116.3
230. FUNDING 46 0.04 33 115.0
231. WORKSHOP 31 0.03 6 113.8
232. REPORTING 42 0.04 25 113.5
Appendices: Keywords PP BNC

Page404
N WORD FREQ. PP% FREQ. BNC % KEYNESS

233. PRIORITIES 35 0.03 12 113.2
234. IDENTIFICATION 33 0.03 9 113.0
235. INCE 24 0.02 0 112.6
236. ENVIRONMENT 73 0.06' 118 0.01 112.1
237. SCHOOLS 64 0.06 87 111.9
238. WE 536 0.47 Z993 0.28 110.9
239. IMPLEMENT 35 0.03 13 110.7
240. LTD 68 0.06 103 109.9
241. ADVISE 34 0.03 12 109.1
242. OUTPUTS 29 0.03 5 108.6
243. PCU 23 0.02 0 107.9
244. JOBCENTRE 23 0.02 0 107.9
245. EBRD 23 0.02 0 107.9
246. CURRICULA 23 0.02 0 107.9
247. GOM 23 0.02 0 107.9
248. COLLABORATION 34 0.03 13 106.7
249. MS 43 0.04 32 105.8
250. LANGUAGE 67 0.06 105 105.4
251. OPERATIONAL 42 0.04 30 105.2
252. ENTREPRENEURS 31 0.03 9 104.6
253. WROCLAW 24 0.02 1 104.4
254. PROVISION 67 0.06 107 103.9
255. DIRECTOR 77 0.07 145 0.01 103.8
256. FOCUS 47 0.04 44 103.3
257. COORDINATOR 22 0.02 0 103.2
258. REPRESENTATIVES 22 0.02 0 103.2
259. CAN 22 0.02 0 103.2
260. NETWORK 62 0.05 91 102.6
261. PARTNERSHIP 34 0.03 15 102.1
262. COOPERATION 38 0.03 23 102.0
263. CAPABILITY 31 0.03 10 101.9
264. SECTORS 36 0.03 19 101.8
265. POTENTIAL 63 0.06 96 101.3
266. PROGRESS 58 0.05 79 101.3
267. HUNGARIAN 45 0.04 41 100.3
268. MANAGING 43 0.04 36 100.0
269. MODULES 27 0.02 5 99.9
270. DELIVERED 36 0.03 20 99.9
271. JOINT 59 0.05 84 99.8
272. PHASES 24 0.02 2 98.9
273. DEVELOPING 45 0.04 43 97.8
274. CAPACITY 44 0.04 42 95.7
275. COMPETENCE 26 0.02 5 95.6
276. COORDINATION 25 0.02 4 94.8
277. INSPECTORATE 23 0.02 2 94.3
278. INDUSTRIAL 61 0.05 98 94.1
279. CVS 20 0.02 0 93.8
280. NGO 20 0.02 0 93.8
281. PERSONNEL 44 0.04 44 93.2
282. ACTIVITY 62 0.05 103 93.1
283. INVOLVE 36 0.03 24 92.9
284. EFFECTIVE 63 0.06 107 92.9
285. ADDITION 64 0.06 113 0.01 91.3
286. CONTRACTING 25 0.02 5 91.2
287. ADVISING 24 0.02 4 90.4
288. FOUNDATION 39 0.03 33 90.3
289. BASED 112 0.10 334 0.03 89.9
290. OUTCOMES 22 0.02 2 89.8
291. INSTITUTES 22 0.02 2 89.8
Appendices: Keywords-PP BNC

Page405

292. AIMS 35 0.03 24 89.3
293. UCES 19 0.02 0 89.1
294. ITC 19 0.02 0 89.1
295. NGOS 19 0.02 0 89.1
296. FSC 19 0.02 0 89.1
297. RANGE 95 0.08 252 0.02 89.0
298. PILOT 34 0.03 22 88.9
299. DETAILED 53 0.05 77 88.3
300. SHORT 99 0.09 274 0.03 87.9
301. ESTABLISHMENT 44 0.04 49 87.6
302. EC 70 0.06 144 0.01 86.8
303. MARKET 139 0.12 489 0.05 86.6
304. PRACTICAL 50 0.04 69 86.5
305. WIDE 72 0.06 153 0.01 86.5
306. PROMOTE 39 0.03 36 86.3
307. SYSTEMS 97 0.08 268 0.02 86.3
308. REPUBLIC 54 0.05 83 86.3
309. PROVIDED 92 0.08 244 0.02 86.2
310. EXISTING 61 0.05 109 0.01 86.1
311. MEMBERS 86 0.08 217 0.02 85.6
312. INCUBATORS 18 0.02 0 84.4
313. TRAINER 25 0.02 8 82.3
314. ESTABLISH 38 0.03 37 81.7
315. PARA 22 0.02 4 81.7
316. ACCOUNTANCY 19 0.02 1 81.4
317. EACH 199 0.17 870 0.08 81.2
318. ADMINISTRATIVE 39 0.03 41 80.3
319. DURING 150 0.13 575 0.05 80.2
320. REQUIRED 82 0.07 211 0.02 79.7
321. BANK 79 0.07 197 0.02 79.7
322. RESPONSIBILITIES 17 0.01 0 79.7
323. RECOMMENDATIONS 17 0.01 0 79.7
324. REEC 17 0.01 0 79.7
325. LUBLIN 17 0.01 0 79.7
326. MLSW 17 0.01 0 79.7
327. PROCESS 96 0.08 281 0.03 79.1
328. TOURS 24 0.02 8 78.2
329. MARKETING 39 0.03 43 78.1
330. MANAGER 73 0.06 173 0.02 78.1
331. AWARENESS 31 0.03 22 77.9
332. STRUCTURE 59 0.05 114 0.01 77.7
333. LIAISON 25 0.02 10 77.4
334. NEVER 2 473 0.04 78.8
335. SIDE 3 505 0.05 79.1
336. ANOTHER 6 588 0.05 79.6
337. MUST 19 0.02 665 0.08 79.9
338. LEFT 1 449 0.04 81.0
339. OUT 85 0.07 1,923 0.18 82.3
340. THOUGHT 2 492 0.05 82.5
341. VERY 33 0.03 1,138 0.11 83.5
342. THEM 50 0.04 1,428 0.13 85.4
343. WHITE 1 476 0.04 86.3
344. UP 96 0.08 2,117 0.20 86.7
345. MUCH 16 0.01 857 0.08 88.1
346. HEAD 13 0.01 800 0.07 88.9
347. LITTLE 6 656 0.06 92.0
348. MORE 90 0.08 2,095 0.19 94.0
349. ALL 159 0.14 3,052 0.28 95.2
350. NOW 31 0.03 1,187 0.11 95.8
Appendices: Keywords_PP BNC

Page 406

351 THAN 45 C11 144. ' 9 13 98.4
...
FAGH 614 0 999
... ...
;3`.. GO 102.7
3544 GET 0.01: 105.3
..
355 PARTY U06 108.8
356 CAME. :J U06 110.0
357 TOO 075 0.06 =2
358. ABOUT 44" u0 y 523 0.14 117.2
359 AFTER 23 002 7280 0.12 118.7
360, STILL 54 O.07 119.0
361 EVEN 5 102 0.07 1213
362 WHAT 38 0.07 532 0.14 129.2
363 A 1367 1.,. 12 958 20 136.9
364 AT 325 0.2 ' 5 51 0.5:: 139.0
365 THEN 36 0 0;, 1 582 alb 142.6
366 Us 15 0() ` '93 0. i 1 149.4
367 ONLY 31 0 ;' 540 0.14 151.1
368. THEY '. ; 55 U32 158.6
369 DOWN 0,63 15>.8
370 JUST 0.05 6
150
371 THERE ., 0.24
;" 1
372 BACK .424 0.05 172
373 COULD 622 0.15 /4.5
374. WOULD 69 420 0.22 180.7
375 OR 130 .. 424 0.32 180'. 7
.. ...
376 DID 2 5 3'5 0.1) 19ý;.9

377 IF 49 L5.190 U20 919
.....
378. NO 48 0.78 211.8
379 LIKE 249 U12 216.6
380. HIM 799 all 221 5
..
381. DO «67 0. '16 226.4
382. YOUR 8 141 0.1.3 228.9
383. WHEN 26 01)"', '. 917 RIB 232.5
384. SO 28 0.50 7964 0.18 232.9
385, THAT 467 0.4 1 11537 U 79 '. ?.,?
..
386. SHE 47 MCI 7505
505 023 250)
387, ME 2 14 27
388. IT 351 0.:3 : ", 915 0.73 3384
389. WERE. 48 CEO 329 0.37 '. 0
. _....
390. HER 11 :" 468 023 408 3
391 HE 120 Ono: 995 0.45 432 9
.
392. NOT 82 00 454 U4! 40.. i
393. BUT 66 G Q& 360 U40 _
503,2
394. SAID 1 ? 15 0.2, 514
14 .5
395 HAD 663 0 34 620.9
..
396. HIS 28 0.02 1090 0.38 3.21.5
397. YOU 11 .
4 161 0.39 738.9
398. I 91 0.05 315 a58 . 47 0
399. WAS 113 0.15 0362 0.77 1019.5
Appendices: Keywords
_PP_BNC
Page407
APPENDIX: Keywords GDN

_PP
N WORD FREQ PP % FREQ. Guardian % KEYNESS

1. TRAINING 1,148 1.00 15,773 0.02 7091.7
2. PROJECT 811 0.71 9,950 0.01 5181.6
3. DEVELOPMENT 806 0.70 16,687 0.02 4348.1
4. MANAGEMENT 628 0.55 16,497 0.02 3102.5
5. PROGRAMME 609 0.53 22,584 0.02 2611.0
6. PMU 193 0.17 17 2477.4
7. AND 5,359 4.68 2,115,496 2.23 2415.1
8. PHARE 178 0.16 11 2309.8
9. POLAND 300 0.26 3,022 2027.2
10. Consultancy 150 0.13 38 1828.0
11. IMPLEMENTATION 225 0.20 1,153 1802.0
12. EXPERIENCE 389 0.34 15,811 0.02 1600.0
13. WILL 1,347 1.18 297,237 0.31 1597.5
14. Consultancy 185 0.16 743 1562.6
15. TECHNICAL 270 0.24 4,580 1557.8
16. STAFF 425 0.37 23,412 0.02 1507.2
17. POLISH 228 0.20 2,788 1457.0
18. ASSISTANCE 223 0.19 2,867 1403.9
19. PHASE 206 0.18 2,344 1344.5
20. TEAM 437 0.38 32,513 0.03 1309.4
21. PROJECTS 232 0.20 5,201 1215.3
22. EDUCATION 389 0.34 27,842 0.03 1192.7
23. PROGRAMMES 256 0.22 8,301 1161.7
24. ENVIRONMENTAL 243 0.21 6,959 1159.9
25. EVALUATION 132 0.12 482 1137.1
26. Consultancy 83 0.07 0 1116.1
27. OF 5,249 4.58 2,718,004 2.86 1040.4
28. BUSINESS 414 0.36 40,474 0.04 1038.8
29. CONSULTANTS 161 0.14 2,115 1006.9
30. SUPPORT 364 0.32 32,418 0.03 973.1
31. SKILLS 202 0.18 6,138 941.4
32. MATERIALS 159 0.14 2,720 914.6
33. Consultancy 68 0.06 0 914.4
34. ANNEX 81 0.07 64 890.3
35. ASSIST 125 0.11 1,083 879.8
36. SME 79 0.07 58 875.8
37. PROVIDE 246 0.21 14,890 0.02 829.3
38. CONSULTANCY 112 0.10 938 795.4
39. REFERENCE 156 0.14 3,778 794.2
40. INCEPTION 85 0.07 221 781.9
41. EU 155 0.14 4,033 768.0
42. ACTIVITIES 172 0.15 6,226 744.7
43. DESIGN 175 0.15 6,766 735.8
44. INPUTS 70 0.06 86 726.9
45. TASK 171 0.15 6,491 725.0
46. MODULE 73 0.06 129 717.6
47. OBJECTIVES 111 0.10 1,308 717.0
48. TRAINERS 104 0.09 1,003 711.1
49. PMUS 51 0.04 0 685.8
50. DELIVERY 127 0.11 2,635 683.9
51. SERVICES 262 0.23 25,880 0.03 652.4
52. TERM 230 0.20 18,660 0.02 648.5
53. RESOURCES 164 0.14 7,458 639.7
54. EMPLOYMENT 177 0.15 9,585 0.01 633.0
55. ADVISER 129 0.11 3,562 624.6
Appendices: Keywords_PP_GDN
Page408

56. WORKPLAN 46 0.04 0 618.5
57. CENTRES 137 0.12 4,595 612.8
58. REGIONAL 165 0.14 8,630 600.7
59. SLOVAK 84 0.07 691 599.4
60. EXPERTISE 103 0.09 1,763 592.3
61. WARSAW 93 0.08 1,271 574.6
62. PROCUREMENT 73 0.06 459 557.3
63. ORGANISATIONS 135 0.12 5,487 555.0
64. Consultancy 41 0.04 0 551.3
65. MINISTRY 150 0.13 7,743 549.7
66. ORGANISATION 165 0.14 10,385 0.01 544.3
67. ANALYSIS 123 0.11 4,301 540.5
68. UK 221 0.19 22,965 0.02 530.7
69. LOCAL 286 0.25 41,294 0.04 527.3
70. CZECH 99 0.09 2,155 524.0
71. NEEDS 188 0.16 15,699 0.02 523.9
72. SPECIALISTS 90 0.08 1,503 521.8
73. INSTITUTIONAL 92 0.08 1,676 518.2
74. DEVELOP 126 0.11 5,144 516.9
75. INTERNATIONAL 263 0.23 35,688 0.04 511.9
76. TECHNOLOGY 153 0.13 9,527 0.01 507.7
77. TENDER 88 0.08 1,504 506.3
78. UNDERTAKEN 80 0.07 1,043 501.4
79. AGENCY 146 0.13 8,933 489.2
80. REVIEW 156 0.14 10,778 0.01 488.0
81. VOCATIONAL 79 0.07 1,089 486.8
82. Consultancy 36 0.03 0 484.1
83. Consultancy 36 0.03 0 484.1
84. APPROPRIATE 113 0.10 4,244 481.3
85. RESOURCE 77 0.07 1,114 467.4
86. COURSES 114 0.10 4,767 462.6
87. INFORMATION 187 0.16 18,644 0.02 462.5
88. PROPOSE 75 0.07 1,061 458.5
89. STRATEGY 129 0.11 7,332 449.7
90. TASKS 77 0.07 1,271 448.1
91. ADMINISTRATION 131 0.11 7,890 442.7
92. IN 3,299 2.88 1,863,642 1.96 441.8
93. HUNGARY 82 0.07 1,837 429.6
94. RDA 35 0.03 8 429.3
95. CENTRE 205 0.18 25,509 0.03 428.8
96. EE 42 0.04 60 426.7
97. TERMS 168 0.15 16,318 0.02 423.2
98. WORKSHOPS 65 0.06 784 417.0
99. ENTERPRISES 74 0.06 1,349 416.7
100. SEMINARS 56 0.05 438 404.8
101. CSME 30 0.03 0 403.4
102. CLIENT 82 0.07 2,178 403.0
103. STUDY 135 0.12 10,229 0.01 399.7
104. KHF 34 0.03 14 399.3
105. Consultancy 29 0.03 0 389.9
106. PROPOSAL 101 0.09 4,720 388.8
107. ASSOCIATES 68 0.06 1,185 388.7
108. PARTICIPANTS 68 0.06 1,201 387.0
109. EXPERTS 99 0.09 4,515 385.6
110. WORK 305 0.27 65,222 0.07 374.3
111. Consultancy 31 0.03 9 374.2
112. BULGARIA 64 0.06 1,105 367.0
113. INVESTMENT 161 0.14 17,987 0.02 366.3
114. SMES 37 0.03 74 356.4
Page409

115. INSTITUTIONS 106 0.09 6,567 352.7
116. IDENTIFY 77 0.07 2,514 348.3
117. POLICY 202 0.18 31,592 0.03 346.0
118. OBJECTIVE 74 0.06 2,265 343.8
119. APPROACH 129 0.11 11,556 0.01 343.3
120. NEEC 25 0.02 0 336.2
121. LTD 68 0.06 1,806 334.2
122. COUNCIL 203 0.18 33,376 0.04 331.4
123. AGENCIES 90 0.08 4,647 329.7
124. RELEVANT 73 0.06 2,421 328.1
125. ENSURE 108 0.09 7,856 327.7
126. ORGANISATIONAL 48 0.04 466 327.6
127. CONSORTIUM 70 0.06 2,124 326.4
128. INNOVATION 59 0.05 1,166 323.1
129. MINISTRIES 49 0.04 544 322.0
130. OSH 25 0.02 2 321.9
131. ADVISERS 82 0.07 3,699 321.1
132. THESE 288 0.25 67,546 0.07 314.7
133. KEY 136 0.12 14,978 0.02 312.8
134. PCU 23 0.02 0 309.3
135. PREPARATION 66 0.06 1,989 308.6
136. REPUBLICS 82 0.07 4,033 307.8
137. EACH 199 0.17 35,260 0.04 301.2
138. METHODOLOGY 37 0.03 182 299.0
139. SYSTEMS 97 0.08 6,989 296.0
140. REPRESENTATIVES 22 0.02 0 295.8
141. ENTERPRISE 79 0.07 3,906 295.8
142. SUB 76 0.07 3,518 293.9
143. OUTPUTS 29 0.03 45 291.0
144. WTC 25 0.02 12 289.6
145. SPECIFIC 78 0.07 3,932 289.2
146. PROPOSED 99 0.09 7,686 288.8
147. EASTERN 107 0.09 9,449 287.5
148. GOM 23 0.02 4 286.6
149. INCLUDE 121 0.11 12,856 0.01 285.8
150. PROMOTIONAL 45 0.04 613 278.3
151. ESTABLISHED 97 0.08 8,067 271.0
152. ADVICE 102 0.09 9,222 269.8
153. TEAMS 83 0.07 5,574 263.9
154. LEARNING 75 0.07 4,240 262.2
155. EXPERT 66 0.06 2,946 259.7
156. WE 536 0.47 203,117 0.21 258.5
157. VISITS 64 0.06 2,707 258.3
158. UCES 19 0.02 0 255.5
159. CNA 22 0.02 11 253.8
160. FOR 1,666 1.46 913,570 0.96 253.5
161. MONITORING 59 0.05 2,184 252.9
162. STRATEGIC 67 0.06 3,260 252.9
163. PAO 25 0.02 38 251.6
164. WROCLAW 24 0.02 31 247.4
165. SECTOR 108 0.09 12,309 0.01 242.0
166. PROVISION 67 0.06 3,582 241.1
167. COOPERATION 38 0.03 478 240.7
168. RESEARCH 124 0.11 16,892 0.02 240.4
169. PROCEDURES 62 0.05 2,985 235.2
170. INITIATIVES 51 0.04 1,643 232.0
171. SPECIALIST 67 0.06 3,888 231.0
172. FIELD 102 0.09 11,622 0.01 228.6
173. REEC 17 0.01 0 228.6
Page410

174. RECOMMENDATIONS 17 0.01 0 228.6
175. RESPONSIBILITIES 17 0.01 0 228.6
176. MLSW 17 0.01 0 228.6
177. SCHEDULE 52 0.05 1,832 227.7
178. QUALITY 106 0.09 12,859 0.01 226.2
179. FSC 19 0.02 8 222.7
180. DELIVER 62 0.05 3,389 220.6
181. COUNSELLING 47 0.04 1,416 219.7
182. METHOD 57 0.05 2,686 218.5
183. TRANSFER 71 0.06 5,122 216.5
184. OPERATIONAL 42 0.04 998 215.3
185. Consultancy 16 0.01 0 215.1
186. Consultancy 16 0.01 0 215.1
187. Consultancy 16 0.01 0 215.1
188. INWARD 37 0.03 622 214.0
189. CENTRAL 128 0.11 20,625 0.02 213.0
190. ADDITION 64 0.06 4,010 211.6
191. CURRICULA 23 0.02 60 211.4
192. BULGARIAN 36 0.03 580 211.2
193. PROVIDED 92 0.08 10,163 0.01 211.1
194. MANAGERS 79 0.07 7,115 209.5
195. COORDINATION 25 0.02 108 207.9
196. MODULES 27 0.02 165 207.5
197. REQUIRED 82 0.07 7,910 207.5
198. EDUCATIONAL 59 0.05 3,369 205.1
199. HUNGARIAN 45 0.04 1,448 204.8
200. JOBCENTRE 23 0.02 72 204.3
201. DEVELOPED 77 0.07 6,947 203.9
202. ASSESSMENT 63 0.06 4,112 203.6
203. ASSISTING 30 0.03 307 201.8
204. TACIS 15 0.01 0 201.7
205. Consultancy 15 0.01 0 201.7
206. MIDEP 15 0.01 0 201.7
207. KRIJNEN 15 0.01 0 201.7
208. PROVIDING 67 0.06 5,038 199.3
209. UNDERTAKE 37 0.03 773 198.7
210. LATVIA 35 0.03 649 195.9
211. FUNDED 53 0.05 2,697 195.6
212. IDENTIFIED 59 0.05 3,690 195.3
213. STUDIES 69 0.06 5,675 194.1
214. SENIOR 108 0.09 16,081 0.02 193.5
215. STRATEGIES 38 0.03 954 190.8
216. RANGE 95 0.08 12,418 0.01 190.7
217. UNIVERSITY 118 0.10 19,623 0.02 190.4
218. NGO 20 0.02 43 190.3
219. KNOWLEDGE 71 0.06 6,293 190.3
220. REQUIREMENTS 49 0.04 2,262 189.7
221. SERVICE 149 0.13 30,974 0.03 189.0
222. WBS 14 0.01 0 188.2
223. PLANNING 81 0.07 8,949 185.8
224. DANISH 47 0.04 2,080 185.7
225. PROFESSIONAL 83 0.07 9,668 0.01 182.9
226. CONSULTANT 52 0.05 Z922 182.3
227. OPPORTUNITIES 62 0.05 4,754 182.2
228. PROMOTION 55 0.05 3,441 182.0
229. RESTRUCTURING 47 0.04 2,201 180.7
230. COURSE 145 0.13 30,624 0.03 180.5
231. Consultancy 50 0.04 12,660 180.4
232. ECU 32 0.03 590 179.5
Appendices: Keywords PP_GDN

Page411

233. ASSIGNMENTS 23 0.02 133 179.1
234. INCLUDING 137 0.12 27,939 0.03 177.7
235. LUBLIN 17 0.01 21 176.4
236. PLAN 108 0.09 17,838 0.02 175.4
237. STAGE 108 0.09 17,996 0.02 173.9
238. INCUBATORS 18 0.02 37 172.6
239. TORS 16 0.01 15 172.2
240. INVITATION 43 0.04 1,853 172.0
241. REFORM 80 0.07 9,661 0.01 171.3
242. BE 1,002 0.88 534,556 0.56 171.1
243. DETAILED 53 0.05 3,466 171.1
244. COORDINATOR 22 0.02 135 168.9
245. EUROPE 138 0.12 29,607 0.03 168.6
246. ACTIVITY 62 0.05 5,418 167.7
247. III 34 0.03 905 167.0
248. PROCESS 96 0.08 14,866 0.02 165.9
249. TRIALLING 16 0.01 21 164.6
250. PAPPS 14 0.01 6 163.8
251. SECTION 63 0.06 5,841 163.8
252. RESPONSIBLE 75 0.07 8,871 163.3
253. INVOLVED 98 0.09 15,798 0.02 163.0
254. OFFICES 57 0.05 4,612 162.0
255. ISSUES 85 0.07 11,842 0.01 161.6
256. WICKSTEED 12 0.01 0 161.4
257. WORKING 123 0.11 24,854 0.03 161.3
258. ENTREPRENEURS 31 0.03 710 161.1
259. IDENTIFICATION 33 0.03 915 159.5
260. CAPABILITY 31 0.03 730 159.4
261. ECE 14 0.01 9 157.5
262. CVS 20 0.02 116 155.6
263. DISSEMINATION 19 0.02 90 154.8
264. TENDERER 13 0.01 5 153.5
265. SOCIAL 138 0.12 31,973 0.03 153.1
266. PHASES 24 0.02 297 152.8
267. STRUCTURE 59 0.05 5,539 152.1
268. PERSONNEL 44 0.04 2,547 151.9
269. ASSIGNMENT 25 0.02 361 151.8
270. PRACTICAL 50 0.04 3,633 151.8
271. COLLABORATION 34 0.03 1,162 150.9
272. WOM 13 0.01 7 148.9
273. NIZHNY 15 0.01 25 148.8
274. FOREIGN 124 0.11 27,226 0.03 147.3
275. FIRMS 70 0.06 8,662 147.0
276. WORKSHOP 31 0.03 909 146.5
277. WIDE 72 0.06 9,269 146.4
278. ADVISE 34 0.03 1,260 145.7
279. ADMINISTRATIVE 39 0.03 1,951 145.2
280. COMPONENT 30 0.03 830 145.1
281. IMPLEMENT 35 0.03 1,402 144.8
282. TECHNIQUES 41 0.04 2,278 144.6
283. BASED 112 0.10 22,933 0.02 144.6
284. DURING 150 0.13 38,579 0.04 144.4
285. CLIENTS 48 0.04 3,552 144.2
286. PARTICULAR 76 0.07 10,644 0.01 143.8
287. EFFECTIVE 63 0.06 7,014 143.7
288. AREAS 86 0.08 13,678 0.01 142.9
289. PARA 22 0.02 257 142.5
290. CHART 34 0.03 1,332 142.1
291. EXISTING 61 0.05 6,657 141.2
Page412

292. RH 14 0.01 23 139.2
293. EDC 12 0.01 6 138.5
294. OUTCOMES 22 0.02 289 137.6
295. TOPICS 27 0.02 659 137.0
296. INSTITUTES 22 0.02 294 136.9
297. WOODGRANGE 11 2 136.8
298. ECONOMIC 128 0.11 30,530 0.03 136.7
299. EXTENSIVE 37 0.03 1,879 136.7
300. PRIMARY 53 0.05 4,986 136.4
301. TEACHERS 77 0.07 11,612 0.01 136.4
302. ACCOUNTING 37 0.03 1,888 136.4
303. II 40 0.03 2,379 136.1
304. OUR 216 0.19 72,033 0.08 135.5
305. CURRICULUM 54 0.05 5,305 134.9
306. ESD 10 0 134.5
307. ENTREPRENEURSHIP 10 0 134.5
308. WUELS 10 0 134.5
309. SECTORS 36 0.03 1,791 134.4
310. COUNTRIES 102 0.09 20,546 0.02 134.2
311. SECONDMENTS 13 0.01 17 133.8
312. SCHOOL 132 0.12 32,745 0.03 133.7
313. NATIONAL 183 0.16 56,283 0.06 133.0
314. NOVGOROD 15 0.01 48 132.7
315. EBRD 23 0.02 401 131.5
316. WORKBOOK 12 0.01 10 131.1
317. NETHERLANDS 36 0.03 1,890 130.8
318. ENVIRONMENT 73 0.06 10,901 0.01 130.5
319. CONSORTIA 18 0.02 142 129.8
320. NGOS 19 0.02 184 129.7
321. APPENDIX 18 0.02 145 129.1
322. PRIORITIES 35 0.03 1,810 128.1
323. REPORTING 42 0.04 3,046 127.7
324. THIS 659 0.58 340,598 0.36 127.7
325. CONTRACT 65 0.06 8,837 126.2
326. BIALYSTOK 11 6 125.9
327. TAT 20 0.02 274 123.5
328. OVERALL 56 0.05 6,560 122.8
329. MEDIUM 43 0.04 3,492 121.9
330. FOLLOWING 85 0.07 15,874 0.02 121.7
331. EQUIPMENT 54 0.05 6,143 121.2
332. BASIS 61 0.05 8,082 121.1
333. NETWORK 62 0.05 8,376 121.1
334. WSIP 9 0 121.0
335. SRODOWISKA 9 0 121.0
336. VOIVODSHIP 9 0 121.0
337. BSAL 9 0 121.0
338. ENTREPRENEURIAL 9 0 121.0
339. PBICA 9 0 121.0
340. BACKSTOPPING 9 0 121.0
341. NLI 9 0 121.0
342. LIAISON 25 0.02 691 121.0
343. PARTICIPATE 29 0.03 1,144 120.8
344. QUINCE 15 0.01 76 120.4
345. DURATION 23 0.02 519 120.2
346. FINANCIAL 104 0.09 23,411 0.02 119.7
347. DRAFT 40 0.03 3,022 118.6
348. EUROPEAN 158 0.14 47,749 0.05 118.3
349. ROMANIA 34 0.03 1,962 117.6
350. FOCUS 47 0.04 4,646 116.9

Page413

351. LANGUAGE 67 0.06 10,317 0.01 116.4
352. JOINT 59 0.05 7,971 115.2
353. PROGRESS 58 0.05 7,727 114.6
354. REPUBLIC 54 0.05 6,630 114.1
355. CONTRACTING 25 0.02 799 114.1
356. GMBH 12 0.01 26 114.0
357. PROMOTE 39 0.03 3,046 113.3
358. COMPETENCE 26 0.02 945 112.3
359. INCE 24 0.02 725 112.1
360. B 62 0.05 9,208 111.4
361. PREPARE 36 0.03 2,637 108.8
362. INVOLVE 36 0.03 2,657 108.3
363. ESTABLISHMENT 44 0.04 4,423 108.1
364. ESNRO 8 0 107.6
365. NBSERROR 8 0 107.6
366. MECU 8 0 107.6
367. REECS 8 0 107.6
368. ESSENTIAL 48 0.04 5,491 107.2
369. ASSISTED 25 0.02 934 106.7
370. AWARENESS 31 0.03 1,830 105.9
371. ADVISING 24 0.02 837 105.6
372. DEVELOPING 45 0.04 4,832 105.4
373. UNDERSTANDING 45 0.04 4,864 104.9
374. SUMMARY 22 0.02 634 104.7
375. POTENTIAL 63 0.06 10,169 0.01 104.6
376. NETWORKING 18 0.02 301 104.3
377. INTRODUCTION 39 0.03 3,487 103.9
378. WITHIN 110 0.10 28,685 0.03 103.8
379. SZCZECIN 10 13 103.0
380. LEADER 104 0.09 26,358 0.03 102.2
381. KINGDOM 33 0.03 2,329 101.9
382. SWOT 12 0.01 47 101.9
383. LITHUANIA 23 0.02 797 101.4
384. SHORT 99 0.09 24,353 0.03 101.4
385. REPORTS 76 0.07 15,342 0.02 99.7
386. FRAMEWORK 31 0.03 2,042 99.7
387. SUBMITTED 28 0.02 1,534 99.5
388. FACILITATE 18 0.02 347 99.4
389. DG 16 0.01 215 99.4
390. FUND 67 0.06 12,167 0.01 98.8
391. LIAISE 13 0.01 84 98.6
392. FOUNDATION 39 0.03 3,769 98.5
393. ELEMENTS 35 0.03 2,893 98.1
394. LEVEL 90 0.08 21,197 0.02 97.7
395. PILOT 34 0.03 2,709 97.6
396. NATUUR 8 2 97.6
397. NEF 9 8 97.5
398. MANUAL 24 0.02 1,013 96.9
399. TA 14 0.01 129 96.9
400. CONSIDERABLE 43 0.04 4,879 96.7
401. INSPECTORATE 23 0.02 891 96.6
402. SUPPORTING 35 0.03 2,976 96.4
403. INCUBATOR 11 38 95.8
404. SELECTED 34 0.03 2,795 95.7
405. INPUT 21 0.02 686 95.0
406. THEREFORE 51 0.04 7,286 94.8
407. SUPPORTED 44 0.04 5,279 94.7
408. CRITERIA 29 0.03 1,867 94.4
409. LANCASHIRE 36 0.03 3,296 94.4

Page414

410. COMPLEMENTARITY 7 0 94.1
411. WIELKOPOLSKA 7 0 94.1
412. KALINOWSKA 7 0 94.1
413. KLN 7 0 94.1
414. WROCAW 7 0 94.1
415. INTERNATIONALLY 7 0 94.1
416. BEHALF 36 0.03 3,324 93.9
417. AVAILABLE 74 0.06 15,393 0.02 93.8
418. OCCUPATIONAL 21 0.02 707 93.8
419. WORKBOOKS 9 11 93.5
420. BOTH 155 0.14 52,858 0.06 93.1
421. TRAINEES 17 0.01 338 92.9
422. PLACEMENT 17 0.01 339 92.8
423. CAPACITY 44 0.04 5,433 92.6
424. MANAGING 43 0.04 5,192 92.1
425. CAPABILITIES 18 0.02 433 91.8
426. INTEGRATED 25 0.02 1,288 91.7
427. AIMS 35 0.03 3,233 91.2
428. ACCOUNTANCY 19 0.02 537 91.1
429. VITAE 13 0.01 116 90.8
430. MARKET 139 0.12 45,375 0.05 90.8
431. ACCREDITATION 14 0.01 167 90.1
432. STAKEHOLDERS 14 0.01 168 89.9
433. EC 70 0.06 14,420 0.02 89.7
434. VARIOUS 45 0.04 5,969 89.2
435. OUTLINE 21 0.02 803 88.7
436. NECESSARY 55 0.05 9,154 88.7
437. ARRANGEMENTS 37 0.03 3,884 88.1
438. WWF 14 0.01 180 88.1
439. WELFARE 40 0.03 4,675 87.9
440. ITC 19 0.02 590 87.7
441. DELIVERED 36 0.03 3,671 87.6
442. CONJUNCTION 19 0.02 616 86.2
443. STRUCTURED 19 0.02 637 85.0
444. INDUSTRIAL 61 0.05 11,681 0.01 84.9
445. ENABLE 31 0.03 2,660 84.9
446. ESTABLISH 38 0.03 4,375 84.5
447. EXAMPLES 29 0.03 2,265 84.3
448. UNDERTAKING 21 0.02 903 84.1
449. INTENSIVE 26 0.02 1,713 83.6
450. STEERING 21 0.02 922 83.3
451. PROTECTION 48 0.04 7,436 82.9
452. LINKAGES 10 44 82.8
453. PARTICIPATION 26 0.02 1,759 82.3
454. TOURS 24 0.02 1,408 82.2
455. MARKETING 39 0.03 4,801 82.2
456. FINANCING 24 0.02 1,439 81.3
457. CONSTRAINTS 20 0.02 834 81.2
458. ACTIVE 37 0.03 4,356 80.8
459. ADMINISTRATIONS 6 0 80.7
460. OCHRONY 6 0 80.7
461. Consultancy 6 0 80.7
464. LUBAN 6 0 80.7
465. EDUCATIONALISTS 6 0 80.7
467. CHERPOVRETS 6 0 80.7
468. TOOLONG 6 0 80.7
Page 415

469. BORSOD 6 0 80.7
470. PUBLIC 149 0.13 53,719 0.06 79.9
471. CREATION 35 0.03 3,893 79.9
472. SEMINAR 19 0.02 739 79.7
473. RECRUITMENT 22 0.02 1,175 79.2
474. MANAGER 73 0.06 17,217 0.02 79.1
475. IMPORTANT 84 0.07 21,959 0.02 78.9
476. STRENGTHENING 19 0.02 755 78.9
477. PROVIDES 37 0.03 4,493 78.9
478. DOSSIERS 10 55 78.8
479. PARTNERSHIP 34 0.03 3,723 78.5
480. RELATION 25 0.02 1,721 78.4
481. SEGAL 12 0.01 139 77.9
482. TEMPUS 7 5 77.8
483. FUNDING 46 0.04 7,289 77.8
F 216,8/6 02
4863 GOING .43.246 0

487. WANT X8.003 0,;"..* 3
488 MR a? 683 0. F°'. 3':) 2
4$9 MONEY 72 0,0 : 83.3
490 CAME 15 0.6.1 84 2
491 THEM r: ' .i 392 0.7 1
492 TITLE '1
493 PEOPLE 50 C}0 "__.3866 0 6
494 JOHN 1a 472 0,01' ;32,3
.;.
495 BEFORE ? i, U2 63.511 0.09 93.3
496 NIGHT 1 43,861 0.05 97
497 LONDON I C} 65,772 0.0: ' 97.0
498 RIGHT ,5%?. 911 0. 98.5
499, GO i 261 0 99.4
/
500 ANOTHE c ; 69
501 NEVER ;: 341 0, C
502 LEFT t 1' 41 0
503, MUCH 48 0 3
504, OUT 85 U0 r 962 0' 3
505. OFF 12 0 f) f 78,973 0
31 761 0 ,5
506. PARTY 4 7.3
507 BECAUSE 15 0 6: .3 157 01 14:17
508 1S 824 0 65 ' 542 1"
..
509, 'TOO 3 5 973 0 «. 3.9
510 YEAR 63 C 1 371 0` :. 0
511, SHE 47 930 0 5
512. ME 2 6"). 346 0 ':. 9
96 0 616
...
513. UP :
514. DO 21 681 0' 129.2
515. DID 2 25564 0 1,30.0
516. AGAINST 1 ;7 0 +.2
517, GET i 63 638 0 i'S
5 .5
518. STILL 1:1699 0 3.7
519. US 15 0 ü' .15 1169 0 44.3
520. COULD 28 0 0 147.8
-4.22
521. WHAT 38 0.03 1)5) 363 0 1533
522. NOW 31 0.0-1 :i' 369 U 1.4
523. THERE 88 0. U 556 G'
524. MORE 90 00,11", 2:'ý 633 C 1.5
BACK 4 .`
525. 8;., 705 0. ".; 3.1
526. DOWN 2 76,867 0.
527. LAST 50 Cl 011 '168.472 4. 135.8
Appendices: Keywords_PPGDN
Page 416

2
529
7- 530 j ..
5
530 WHO 8,433 02,. ?.9

531 JUST 4 89,271 7
532 EVEN `2
r3.ßfýý.
aý. 7
ONLY .. w
533.
.
ýJ. J 1ý/ 002 141306 0
534 IF 49 0 04 17: 30 0 4.9
535. THAN 45 0 011" 1 71,233 aid 45
53 c>(:) 118 ;. '?.53,3 03. '. 4
537 ABOU.. I 42 .
() ; '80 756 a 1; 2112
538. THEY 150 0 982
)1982 Cä 21 0
539 AFTER 28 0 0: 1 ... 756 701 0 . '7
540. WOULD 69 0 us in 1 256 024 . :,.(3

541 HIRA 2 '3 ,z tr
542 NO -0
'71 0 $
rý
,
543 LIKE 4 ' C67 0
541 CENT .. ,..
194 0.1. 4
541'', .,... ,' 575 02,
,..... '.. , .
..
546 HER 931 o ,: 27T3
547. WHEN 635 021 0&9
548. A . .D, 851 11
'r'.
..... .. .0
549. WE_RE:. . ,, n an AN 53 0. 10.4
550. S(',)IJRCE: ?83 8
551 YCXJ 617 0
552. PAGE 22 :.: 164 0.1 i
553 I 91 0 P21 X52
' t.. Cl, '. 0
,is:_
554 IT 351 0., it1 199 074 >
555. THAT 467 0 4" 3 7.' 191 0 9.: .3
418.9
556. NOT 82 3Y1 934 0.41 49; x8
557. HAD . .
;, 567 0 32 6225
558 SAID M? ' 949 0 0227
559 :.
31J' P? 81 0 ''; 0
..
560. HE 120 504 0U 05 r
501 ? (3C 27 0 457
- 0
,:. 266
Appendices: Keywords_PPGDN
Page417
APPENDIX - Nominalisations
TOTAL 5583 BUSINESS 414 EDUCATION 389

IMPLEMENTATION 225 INFORMATION 187 ACTIVITIES 172
ORGANISATION 165 EVALUATION 132 ADMINISTRATION 131
UNIVERSITY 118 QUALITY 106 COUNTRIES 102
AGENCIES 90 INCEPTION 85 COMPANIES 71
STUDIES 69 PREPARATION 66 ADDITION 64
SECTION 63 OPERATION 62 OPPORTUNITIES 62
ACTIVITY 62 INNOVATION 59 ACTION 56
PROMOTION 55 MINISTRIES 49 REQUIREMENTS 49
PROTECTION 48 ASSOCIATION 44 CAPACITY 44
INVITATION 43 FOUNDATION 39 INTRODUCTION 39
COOPERATION 38 STRATEGIES 38 ARRANGEMENTS 37
CREATION 35 PRIORITIES 35 ELEMENTS 35
COLLABORATION 34 IDENTIFICATION 33 RESPONSIBILITY 33
SITUATION 32 AWARENESS 31 CAPABILITY 31
POLICIES 30 OPPORTUNITY 27 PARTICIPATION 26
DEPARTMENTS 26 RELATION 25 COORDINATION 25
SERIES 25 INTENTION 24 COMMUNITY 24
DURATION 23 UNIVERSITIES 23 ASSIGNMENTS 23
SELECTION 22 PRODUCTION 22 INSTITUTION 22
BUSINESSES 22 COMMUNICATION 20 CONSULTATION 20
COMPLETION 20 EFFECTIVENESS 20 LOCATION 19
DISSEMINATION 19 CONJUNCTION 19 COMMUNITIES 19
GOVERNMENTS 19 AVAILABILITY 19 MOTIVATION 18
BODIES 18 CAPABILITIES 18 DEVELOPMENTS 18
RESPONSIBILITIES 17 AUTHORITY 17 PRIORITY 17
AUTHORITIES 16 PRIVATISATION 15 INSTRUMENTS 15
CONSIDERATION 14 ACCREDITATION 14 DOCUMENTS 14
FLEXIBILITY 14 FACILITY 14 DOCUMENTATION 13
DESCRIPTION 13 INDUSTRIES 13 WEAKNESSES 13
SECONDMENTS 13 COMMENTS 13 COMMITMENTS 13
INVESTMENTS 13 CONFORMITY 13 COLLECTION 12
TECHNOLOGIES 12 STATEMENTS 12 FEASIBILITY 12
LEGISLATION 11 REGENERATION 11 ATTRACTION 11
INSPECTION 11 BENEFICIARIES 11 MAJORITY 11
REPUTATION 10 DIRECTION 10 TRANSITION 10
COPIES 10 FACILITIES 10 ATTACHMENTS 10
APPLICATION 9 FORMATION 9 RECONSTRUCTION 9
DEFINITION 9 ATTENTION 9 CITIES 9
FUNCTION 8 POSITION 8 CONTRIBUTION 8
ECONOMIES 8 SUSTAINABILITY 8 SECURITY 8
PUBLICATION 7 ALLOCATION 7 FORMULATION 7
FEDERATION 7 ACQUISITION 7 PLACEMENTS 7
ACHIEVEMENTS 7 COMPLEMENTARITY 7 CONTINUITY 7
SPECIFICATION 6 ACCOMMODATION 6 DELEGATION 6
TRANSLATION 6 ORDINATION 6 INTEGRATION 6
INSTRUCTION 6 RECOGNITION 6 CONSULTANCIES 6
COMPETENCIES 6 SUPPLIES 6 ADJUSTMENTS 6
QUALIFICATION 5 TRANSFORMATION 5 COMBINATION 5
DECENTRALISATION 5 MODERNISATION 5 TAXATION 5
CONNECTION 5 ASSUMPTION 5 EXECUTION 5
ENQUIRIES 5 FACULTIES 5 PARTIES 5
AGREEMENTS 5 IMPROVEMENTS 5 PUBLICITY 5
ABILITY 5 CREDIBILITY 5 SENSITIVITY 5
INSTALLATION 4 EXAMINATION 4 INCORPORATION 4
DEMONSTRATION 4 COMMERCIALISATION4 INTERPRETATION 4
EXHIBITION 4 COMPOSITION 4 COMPETITION 4
DISRUPTION 4 DEFICIENCIES 4 LIBRARIES 4
MUNICIPALITIES 4 POSSIBILITIES 4 CHARITY 4
FAMILIARITY 4 MODIFICATION 3 CERTIFICATION 3
VALIDATION 3 NEGOTIATION 3 CONCENTRATION 3
MOBILISATION 3 UTILISATION 3 REORGANISATION 3
Appendices: Nominalisations
Page418
EXPECTATION 3 EXPLOITATION 3 ORIENTATION 3

PRESENTATION 3 STATION 3 INDUCTION 3
TRADITION 3 DISPOSITION 3 ABSORPTION 3
DISTRIBUTION 3 EVOLUTION 3 METHODOLOGIES 3
SOCIETIES 3 DISABILITIES 3 DIFFICULTIES 3
COMPETITIVENESS 3 ESTABLISHMENTS 3 EQUALITY 3
VIABILITY 3 PROFITABILITY 3 STABILITY 3
POSSIBILITY 3 MINORITY 3 EQUITY 3
PRODUCTIVITY 3 COMPLEXITY 3 INCUBATION 2
INDICATION 2 VERIFICATION 2 NOTIFICATION 2
APPRECIATION 2 INITIATION 2 ESTIMATION 2
GENERATION 2 CORPORATION 2 REGISTRATION 2
SPECIALISATION 2 RATIONALISATION 2 DEMOCRATISATION 2
REHABILITATION 2 OBSERVATION 2 SATISFACTION 2
REDUCTION 2 PERCEPTION 2 ADOPTION 2
PROPORTION 2 POLLUTION 2 PUBLISHES 2
TRANSPARENCIES 2 INCONSISTENCIES 2 LIES 2
RELIES 2 CARRIES 2 COMPLETENESS 2
ASSERTIVENESS 2 WILLINGNESS 2 FITNESS 2
IMPLEMENTS 2 LOCALITY 2 NATIONALITY 2
LIABILITY 2 RELIABILITY 2 ACCEPTABILITY 2
ACCESSIBILITY 2 CLARITY 2 CREATIVITY 2
CLARIFICATION 1 CLASSIFICATION 1 JUSTIFICATION I
REPLICATION 1 DUPLICATION 1 DISLOCATION 1
UCATION I DUCATION 1 CONSOLIDATION 1
RECOMMENDATION 1 RECREATION 1 INVESTIGATION 1
RADIATION 1 REPATRIATION 1 ALLEVIATION 1
ARTICULATION 1 REGULATION 1 DEREGULATION 1
ACCUMULATION 1 POPULATION 1 CONFIRMATION 1
NATION 1 EXPLANATION 1 PATION 1
ANTICIPATION I ARATION 1 SEPARATION 1
CONFEDERATION 1 REINTEGRATION I AMELIORATION 1
PENETRATION 1 REALISATION 1 FINALISATION 1
LIBERALISATION 1 INDIVIDUALISATION 1 CONTEXTUALISATION1
FERTILISATION I MECHANISATION 1 FAMILIARISATION 1
VALORISATION 1 CONVERSATION 1 FACILITATION 1
REPRESENTATION 1 UNDERREPRESENTATION 1 ADAPTATION 1
CONTINUATION 1 CONSERVATION 1 INTERACTION 1
PROJECTION 1 REFLECTION 1 JURISDICTION 1
DISTINCTION 1 CONSTRUCTION 1 CONDITION 1
PROPOSITION 1 TUITION I MENTION 1
CONVENTION 1 INTERVENTION 1 RECEPTION 1
SUBSCRIPTION 1 CONSUMPTION 1 OPTION 1
CORRUPTION 1 QUESTION 1 LEGACIES 1
BUREAUCRACIES 1 INTERDEPENDENCIE S1 QUALIFIES I
FAMILIES 1 IMPLIES 1 APPLIES 1
CATEGORIES 1 LABORATORIES I DIRECTORIES 1
TRIES 1 EMBASSIES I TIES 1
CAPACITIES 1 LOCALITIES I MODALITIES 1
POTENTIALITIES 1 COMPLEMENTARITIES 1 MINORITIES 1
ENTITIES I SENSITIVITIES 1 COUNTIES I
PROPERTIES 1 ATTRACTIVENESS 1 READINESS 1
ILLNESS 1 USEFULNESS 1 OPENNESS 1
EXACTNESS 1 SLOWNESS 1 AMENDMENTS I
COMPLEMENTS 1 REFINEMENTS 1 PROCUREMENTS I
MOVEMENTS I ENVIRONMENTS 1 ASSESSMENTS I
APARTMENTS 1 PERIODICITY 1 ELECTRICITY I
VALIDITY 1 REALITY 1 SPECIALITY 1
INABILITY 1 COMPARABILITY 1 DESIRABILITY 1
SUITABILITY I ACCOUNTABILITY 1 SUBSTITUTABILITY 1
UTILITY 1 PROXIMITY I UNIFORMITY 1
TRINITY 1 SOLIDARITY 1 UNFAMILIARITY I
PARITY I INTEGRITY 1 NECESSITY 1
QUANTITY 1 ENTITY I
Page419
Page420
APPENDIX: Not only.... but

...
1. Not only - but....
1 art of the work. Working with other businessservicesuppliers 2.10 The

point was made earlier that the market for all businessservices,notonl the subsidised
support services which a regional business centremight offer, is immature. In Vladimir,
an important start has been made,thr
2 ting the policy input will achieveearly an in-depth local knowledge, and full
awareness of the roles of key individuals and organisations.This will not only be
useful for later policy advice,but enablethe support and backstoppingfunction for the
CSME to be carried out more effectively. Trai
3s for the area,and to assessin economicterms the implications of the proposed
plans. a1.4 Theseexamplesof project experiencedemonstratenail a strong
backgroundin regional developmentbit also substantialinvolvement in development
of local capabilities. A key consultancy skill in
4 ring that Phareconditions are met. -companysupport for the long-term
advisor; We believe that it is essential that the HRDF PMU have accessnail to
the expertiseof the ImplementationAdvisor b also to that of the Contractor. Where
difficult decisionsof interpretation arise,the Imp
5 standingof the detailed objectives 17 of the training modules and agreed
criteria for their success. It is also important to remember it is ply MONE as a
but the individual training, _ to feet
whole, also staff undergoing who need commitment
and ownership if the project is to be success
6 cifically the Departmentof PersonnelOrganisationand Training - will develop
the project outputs. For that reasonthe Departmentshouldbe involved in the
design stageImt also, through delivery, as observersand participants. A unified
project 19. There are a number of differ
7e unrelated.Managementtraining should take account of the particular policy
contexts that managers will be working in; moreover it provides insight n nl into
the running of the central ministry, hut also into educationmanagementthroughout the
system. Education topics, in turn can not be exam
8 lusters: eg organisationaldevelopment;leadership;team building. Each cluster
will be delivered by both EU and Polish consultants, and will involve
presentations bid also case study exercises, discussions based on the coursemembers
own professionalpractice and practical activities of sm
9 ltants, and identify with all stakeholdersthe aims and objectivesof the training
programmes and the criteria for success. Stakeholders will include the TERM
PMU 21 and the relevant Departmentsof MONE, but also, where possible,the
individuals who are to receivetraining. Below ar
10 participation of beneficiariesand organisationalculture, The most important
prerequisite for is
successfulsupport that the organisationitself is dedicated
for improvement but feels the needfor institutional changeas well. 55 Human
resources development 34. Human resou
11 ns, DHV's experts examine in detail the components that are influential and
how they are integrated in order to produce instrumentsthat are a effective
Appendices: Not only but

Page421
hut efficient and workable as well. DHV provides instruction and assistancefor
managers, operators, maintenance crew and super
12 them, particularly in the inception phase.They will take the lead, however, in
the delivery of briefing and training to managersof incubators.This nl means
that the languagebarrier (oral and written) will be lessof a problem, but also that with
their pre-existingknowledge and a needsana
13 the three components developing independently of each other. An essential
characteristic of our approach is to ensure full integration at the outset. are
links and integrating activity built in from day one, bam,what is more the process to
,
be followed during the Inception Stage is unifo
2. But in other patterns
1 This is a pre-condition for economictransformation, and in all countries,it has

been es iall spontaneous.But the degreeand the speedof developmentof the
SME sector, has dependedon the extent to which people in eachcountry have had
businessand other
2 It will be difficult to separateout the impact of this project from other
economic changes and new initiatives, but the starting point is to have an agreed
framework within which inputs and throughputs can be measured,progressassessed
and changesproposed.
3 The main functions of the Employment Serviceare placing people into jobs
and the payment of unemployment benefits,but the ESNRO has promoted numerous
efforts and initiatives to combat unemployment, in various forms. Specialprogrammes
have beenlaunchedto combat
4 Theseprojects are largely funded by multilateral and bilateral agencies,but the
British Council also managesprojects on a collaborative funding basiswith Polish
institutions. Field managementis provided by a project uni
5 There will, of course,be local variations but the principle will remainthe same.
The developmentof highly skilled trainers and consultantswill follow the linear
progressionrequired to eg t
6 Theseprojects are lar l funded by multilateral and bilateral agencies,but the
British Council also managesprojects on a collaborativefunding basiswith Polish
institutions. Field managementis provided by a project uni
Appendices: Not only but

Page 422
APPENDIX: Organisation - content elements
nistration 1 COMMITMENTS FROM EXPERTS

nistration 2 SIGNED COMMITMENT
nistration 1 STATEMENT AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
nistration 1 STATEMENT OF INTENTION
nistration 2 STATEMENT OF INTENTION
nistration 1 STATEMENT OF UNDERTAKING
nistration 1 STATEMENTS AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
nistration 1 STATEMENTS AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
nistration 2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
Context 2 BACKGROUND
Context 2 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
Context 2 EMPLOYMENT SERVICES IN THE [PLACE NAME] & [PLACE
NAME] REPUBLICS - THE CURRENT SITUATION
Context 2 INTRODUCTION
Context 2 INTRODUCTION
Context 2 THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT
Context 2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SME SECTOR
Context 2 THE TRADING OF MATERIALS
Expertise of the Firm 2 [CONSULTANCY COMPANY PROFILE] -- ----------

Expertise of the Firm 2 [Consultancy Group]
Expertise of the Firm 2 [Consultancy Group] 1
Expertise of the Firm 2 [Consultancy Group] 2
Expertise of the Firm 1 BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE
Expertise of the Firm 2 CONTRACTOR'S INPUTS
Expertise of the Firm 1 EXPERIENCE OF TENDERER AND SUBCONTRACTORS
Expertise of the Firm 2 EXPERTISE AVAILABLE
Expertise of the Firm 1 EXPERTISE OF [Consultancy Group] 1& [Consultancy Group] 2
Expertise of the Firm 2 FIRM'S EXPERIENCE
Expertise of the Firm 2 MOTIVATION AND SKILLS OF [Consultancy Group]
Expertise of the Firm 2 ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES, ROLES AND STRUCTURE OF
[Consultancy Group]
Expertise of the Firm Total 14
Obligatory element 2 AIM
Obligatory element 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Obligatory element 2 APPROACH
Appendices: Organisation - content elements

Page 423
Obligatory element 2 APPROACH

Obligatory element 2 APPROACH AND REMARKS ON THE TERMS OF REFERENCE
Obligatory element 2 APPROACH AND STRUCTURE
Obligatory element 2 EVALUATION AND MONITORING
Obligatory element 2 GENERAL APPROACH
Obligatory element 2 GENERAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
Obligatory element 1 GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR SERVICE CONTRACTS
Obligatory element 2 GENERAL METHODOLOGY
Obligatory element 1 INTRODUCTION
Obligatory element 1 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Obligatory element 1 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Obligatory element 2 MAIN TASKS
Obligatory element 2 METHOD OF WORK
Obligatory element 2 METHODOLOGY
Obligatory element 2 METHODOLOGY
Obligatory element 2 METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED PROGRAMME
Obligatory element 2 OBJECTIVE
Obligatory element 2 OBJECTIVES, METHOD AND APPROACH
Obligatory element 2 ORGANISATION
Obligatory element 2 ORGANISATION
Obligatory element 1 ORGANISATION AND METHOD
Obligatory element 1 ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT
Obligatory element 2 OUR APPROACH - MAIN THEMES
Obligatory element 1 PROPOSED APPROACH
Obligatory element 2 RATIONALE
Obligatory element 2 REPORTING
Obligatory element 2 REPORTING
Obligatory element 2 REPORTING ARRANGEMENTS
Obligatory element 2 REPORTS
Obligatory element 1 SUMMARY
Obligatory element 1 TECHNICAL APPROACH AND WORKPLAN
Obligatory element 1 TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
Obligatory element 1 TECHNICAL RESPONSE
Obligatory element 1 TECHNICAL RESPONSE
Obligatory element 2 THE MAIN TASKS AND THE RATIONALE FOR THIS PROJECT
Obligatory element 2 TIME REQUIRED
Obligatory element 2 TIME SCHEDULE

Page 424

Obligatory element 2 TIMING
Obligatory element 2 TIMING OF THE PROJECT
Obligatory element 1 WORK PROGRAMME
Obligatory element 1 WORK PROGRAMME
Obligatory element 1 WORK PROGRAMME RESOURCES AND SCHEDULE
Obligatory element 1 WORKPLAN
Obligatory element 2 WORKPLAN, TIMESCALE AND IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
wii 11"N ; eaez;
:::::::::: »)) ) U,,,
........... . ...::..... .
», ".,, v,,, »vv»v»)»v:.,:::: N:::::: )):: ): ))))) ))): :: i: i::: ip))) )) ))))))})\ ).\ ' )))y)}))))) )))))M)))) x >)))))). 4ý 4... ). )......... )\\. 11. A111....?..... ) ' 6.. ý i
Optional element 2 ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES

Optional element 2 ANALYSIS OF NEED
Optional element 1 ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES
Optional element 2 BACKSTOPPING
Optional element 2 BACKSTOPPING, SUPPORT AND MANAGEMENT
Optional element 2 BUILDING ON EXISTING FRAMEWORKS
Optional element 2 CAPACITY BUILDING
Optional element 1 COMMENTS ON THE TERMS OF REFERENCE
Optional element 2 COMPANY SUPPORT
Optional element 2 COMPANY SUPPORT
Optional element 2 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE.
Optional element 2 CONSTRAINTS ON FOREIGN INVESTMENT
Optional element 2 DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE STRATEGIES
Optional element 2 DISPOSITION OF EXPERT TIME
Optional element 2 GOAL
Optional element 2 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
Optional element 2 INPUTS
Optional element 1 INPUTS
Optional element 2 INSTITUTIONALISING CHANGE
Optional element 2 INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION INTO THE
SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Optional element 2 KEY FEATURES OF THE TRAINING APPROACH
Optional element 1 KEY ISSUES
Optional element 1 KEY ISSUES
Optional element 1 KEY ISSUES AND APPROACH
Optional element 2 KEY MILESTONES
Optional element 2 LOGISTICS PLAN
Optional element 2 MANAGEMENT AND REPORTING STRUCTURE
Optional element 2 MANAGEMENT SUPPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL
Optional element 2 MANPOWER RESOURCES
Optional element 2 MARKET FOR SME SUPPORT SERVICES
Optional element 2 MATERIALS ALREADY AVAILABLE IN POLAND
Optional element 2 NATIONAL EXPERTS
Optional element 2 OUTPUTS
Optional element 2 OUTPUTS
Optional element 2 OVERALL STRUCTURE
Optional element 2 PARTICULAR OBJECTIVES
Optional element 2 PHASE I: MONTHS 1 TO 2.
Optional element 2 PHASE II : MONTHS 3 TO 8.
Optional element 2 PHASE III : MONTHS 9 TO 12.
Optional element 2 PHASED APPROACH
Optional element 2 POLICY ADVICE AND CSME SUPPORT
Optional element 2 PRIMARY WORKBOOK FOR STUDENTS

Page 425
Optional element 1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Optional element 2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Optional element 2 PROJECT REPORTING
Optional element 1 PROPOSED RESPONSE
Optional element 2 PROPOSED WORKPLAN FOR THE FIRST SIX MONTHS
Optional element 1 QUALIFICATION OF TERMS OF REFERENCE AND SCOPE OF
WORK
Optional element 1 RATIONALE
Optional element 2 REMARKS
Optional element 2 REMARKS
Optional element 2 RESEARCH PHASE
Optional element 2 RESOURCES
Optional element 2 REVIEW TEAMS
Optional element 2 RISK ANALYSIS
Optional element 2 STRATEGY
Optional element 2 STRUCTURED EVALUATION
Optional element 2 SUBMISSION OF REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS
Optional element 2 SUMMARY
Optional element 2 SUSTAINABILITY OF THE MATERIALS AND THE PRODUCTION
PROCESS
Optional element 2 TASKS
Optional element 2 TASKS TO BE COMPLETED
Optional element 2 TEAM LEADER
Optional element 2 TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE AVAILABLE
Optional element 2 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TEAM
Optional element 2 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Optional element 2 TERMINOLOGY
Optional element 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SME SUPPORT STRUCTURES
Optional element 2 THE ROLE OF THE REECS
Optional element 2 TRAINED TEACHERS AND TRAINERS
Optional element 2 TRAINING MANUAL
Optional element 2 TRAINING PROGRAMME STRUCTURE
Optional element 2 TRANSFER OF "KNOW-HOW°.
Optional element 2 UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
Optional element 2 WORK PROGRAMME
Optional element 2 WORKBOOK
Optional element 2 WORKING WITH OTHER BUSINESS SERVICE SUPPLIERS
Project Team and 1 ADVISERS

Consultants
Project Team and 2 ADVISERS PROPOSED
Consultants
Project Team and 2 CONSULTANCY TEAM
Consultants
Project Team and 1 CURRICULA VITAE
Consultants
Project Team and 1 CURRICULA VITAE OF PROFESSIONAL STAFF
Consultants
Project Team and 2 INTERNATIONAL ADVISERS
Consultants
Project Team and 2 INTERNATIONAL ADVISERS
Consultants
Project Team and 2 INTERNATIONAL ADVISERS' INPUTS
Consultants
Project Team and 1 LIST OF STAFF
Consultants
Consultants

Page 426

Consultants
Consultants
Consultants
Project Team and 1 LIST OF STAFF + CVS
Consultants
Project Team and 2 LONG TERM ADVISER
Consultants
Project Team and 2 PROJECT COORDINATOR
Consultants
Project Team and 1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND STRUCTURE OF TEAM
Consultants
Project Team and 2 PROJECT TEAM MEMBERS - FOREIGN ADVISERS
Consultants
Project Team and 1 PROPOSED PROJECT TEAM
Consultants
Project Team and 2 SHORT TERM ADVISERS
Consultants
Project Team and 1 STAFF AND EXPERIENCE OF TEAM
Consultants
Project Team and 2 THE LONG TERM ADVISER
Consultants
Project Team and 2 THE PROJECT TEAM
Consultants
Project Team and 2 THE SHORT TERM ADVISERS
Consultant,

Page 427
APPENDIX - Organisation: Section Counts
pr©p sat level normalised

count (per 1000
words)
1. CGA ENV 55 13,263 4.15
2. CGA LAB 29 2,861 10.14
3 CGA MIDEP 27 8,597 3.14
4. CGA SCIT 20 10,510 1.90
5 CGA TERM 12 13,824 0.87
6. CGB BK-11 13 10,867 1.20
7. CGB BK-162 15 7,434 2.02
8. CGB BK-178 16 6,458 2.48
9 CGB BK65 20 3,413 5.86
10. CGB BK182 20 2,873 6.96
11. CGB BK47 16 5,171 3.09
12. CGC BULG 68 12,879 5.28
13. CGC CHEREPOV 17 4,345 3.91
14. CGC VLAD 28 11,703 2.39
# ptdpO$ I Jeve oh
33 1. CGA ENV 1 ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES

13 1. CGA ENV 1 COMMENTS ON THE TERMS OF REFERENCE
4 1. CGA ENV 1 GENERAL APPROACH
2 1. CGA ENV 1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
27 1. CGA ENV 1 PROPOSED APPROACH
42 1. CGA ENV 1 PROPOSED RESPONSE
1 1. CGA ENV 1 SUMMARY
52 1. CGA ENV 1 WORKPLAN
28 1. CGA ENV 2 AIM
29 1. CGA ENV 2 ANALYSIS OF NEED
9 1. CGA ENV 2 BUILDING ON EXISTING FRAMEWORKS
8 1. CGA ENV 2 DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE STRATEGIES
5 1. CGA ENV 2 GOAL
12 1. CGA ENV 2 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
7 1. CGA ENV 2 INSTITUTIONALISING CHANGE
26 1. CGA ENV 2 INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION INTO THE
SCHOOL CURRICULUM
41 1. CGA ENV 2 MATERIALS ALREADY AVAILABLE IN POLAND
14 1. CGA ENV 2 ORGANISATION
10 1. CGA ENV 2 PHASED APPROACH
18 1. CGA ENV 2 PRIMARY WORKBOOK FOR STUDENTS
16 1. CGA ENV 2 PROJECT COORDINATOR
3 1. CGA ENV 2 PROJECT REPORTING
53 1. CGA ENV 2 RESEARCH PHASE
17 1. CGA ENV 2 RESOURCES
19 1. CGA ENV 2 REVIEW TEAMS
6 1. CGA ENV 2 STRATEGY
11 1. CGA ENV 2 STRUCTURED EVALUATION
34 1. CGA ENV 2 SUMMARY
24 1. CGA ENV 2 SUSTAINABILITY OF THE MATERIALS AND THE
PRODUCTION PROCESS
15 1. CGA ENV 2 TEAM LEADER
20 1. CGA ENV 2 TERMINOLOGY
22 1 CGA ENV 2 THE ROLE OF THE REECS
. 2 THE TRADING OF MATERIALS
23 1 CGA ENV
. 2 TIMING OF THE PROJECT
25 1 CGA ENV
. TRAINED TEACHERS AND TRAINERS
40 1 CGA ENV 2
. TRAINING MANUAL
39 1 CGA ENV 2
. ENV 2 WORKBOOK
21 1 CGA
. 3 CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN POLAND
30 1 CGA ENV
.
Appendices: Organisation Section Counts

-
Page428
46 1. CGA ENV 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, PRIMARY EDUCATION;

CURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT,VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
54 1. CGA ENV 3 DEVELOPMENTPHASE
55 1. CGA ENV 3 DISSEMINATION PHASE
37 1. CGA ENV 3 PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS/ WORKBOOKS - "SEALS,
COMMUNITYAND ENVIRONMENT"
44 1. CGA ENV 3 PROJECT COORDINATOR
50 1. CGA ENV 3 PUBLISHER
49 1. CGA ENV 3 READERS
45 1. CGA ENV 3 RESEARCHASSISTANT
35 1. CGA ENV 3 REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND EE
RESOURCES
47 1. CGA ENV 3 REVIEW TEAM
51 1. CGA ENV 3 STEERING COMMITTEE
31 1. CGA ENV 3 STRENGTHS OF EE IN POLAND
36 1. CGA ENV 3 TEACHERS HANDBOOKS ON ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
43 1. CGA ENV 3 TEAM LEADERS
38 1. CGA ENV 3 VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS I WORKBOOK
48 1. CGA ENV 3 VOIVODSHIP
32 1. CGA ENV 3 WEAKNESSESOF EE IN POLAND
1. CGA ENV Count 55
227 10. CGB BK182 I LIST OF STAFF
211 10. CGB BK182 1 ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
208 10. CGB BK182 1 STATEMENTAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
213 10. CGB BK182 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
212 10. CGB BK182 2 BACKGROUND
214 10. CGB BK182 2 GENERALAPPROACH
222 10. CGB BK182 2 INPUTS
216 10. CGB BK182 2 MANAGEMENTSUPPORTAND QUALITY CONTROL
226 10. CGB BK182 2 OUTPUTS
221 10. CGB BK182 2 REPORTINGARRANGEMENTS
209 10. CGB BK182 2 STATEMENTOF INTENTION
215 10. CGB BK182 2 TASKS
210 10. CGB BK182 2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
225 10. CGB BK182 2 TIMING
224 10. CGB BK182 3 COMPANYEXPERTISE
219 10. CGB BK182 3 LOGISTICALSUPPORT
217 10. CGB BK182 3 MANAGEMENTSUPPORT
223 10. CGB BK1 82 3 PERSONNEL
220 10. CGB BK182 3 QUALITY CONTROL
218 10. CGB BK182 3 TECHNICALSUPPORT
10. CGB BK182 20
Count
241 11. CGB BK47 1 ADVISERS
229 11. CGB BK47 I ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
228 11. CGB BK47 1 STATEMENTOF UNDERTAKING
238 11. CGB BK47 2 ADVISERS PROPOSED
234 11. CGB BK47 2 BACKSTOPPING
237 11. CGB BK47 2 EVALUATION AND MONITORING
242 11. CGB BK47 2 LONG TERM ADVISER
235 11. CGB BK47 2 METHOD OF WORK
231 11. CGB BK47 2 ORGANISATIONOF THE PROJECT
236 11. CGB BK47 2 PARTICULAROBJECTIVES
230 11. CGB BK47 2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
240 11. CGB BK47 2 REPORTING
243 11. CGB BK47 2 SHORT TERM ADVISERS
232 11. CGB BK47 2 THE LONG TERM ADVISER
233 11. CGB BK47 2 THE SHORT TERM ADVISERS
239 11. CGB BK47 2 TIME SCHEDULE
11. CGB BK47 16
Count
244 12. CGC BULG I INTRODUCTION
250 12. CGC BULG 1 KEY ISSUESAND APPROACH
311 12. CGC BULG 1 PROPOSED PROJECT TEAM
256 12. CGC BULG I WORK PROGRAMME
Appendices: Organisation- Section Counts

Page429
310 12. CGC BULG 1 WORK PROGRAMME RESOURCES AND SCHEDULE

245 12. CGC BULG 2 [Consultancy Group]
252 12. CGC BULG 2 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE.
251 12. CGC BULG 2 CONSTRAINTSON FOREIGN INVESTMENT
254 12. CGC BULG 2 MOTIVATION AND SKILLS OF [Consultancy Group]
253 12. CGC BULG 2 ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES, ROLES AND STRUCTURE
OF [Consultancy Group]
257 12. CGC BULG 2 PHASE 1: MONTHS 1 TO 2.
272 12. CGC BULG 2 PHASE 11 : MONTHS 3 TO 8.
292 12. CGC BULG 2 PHASE III : MONTHS 9 TO 12.
255 12. CGC BULG 2 TRANSFER OF "KNOW-HOW".
247 12. CGC BULG 3 EASTERNEUROPEANEXPERIENCE
246 12. CGC BULG 3 INVESTMENT AND TRADE PROMOTION
293 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULEA: STRATEGY (PHASE III).
273 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULEA: STRATEGY(PHASE II).
258 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE A: STRATEGY (PHASE I).
264 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE B: TRAINING (PHASE I).
277 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE B: TRAINING (PHASE II).
297 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE B: TRAINING (PHASE III).
266 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE C: ADMINISTRATION(PHASE 1).
282 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE C: ADMINISTRATION(PHASE II).
301 12. CGC BULL 3 MODULE C: ADMINISTRATION(PHASE III).
268 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE D: PROMOTION (PHASE I).
284 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE D: PROMOTION(PHASE II).
303 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE D: PROMOTION(PHASE III).
270 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE E: EQUIPMENT(PHASE I).
290 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE E: EQUIPMENT(PHASE 11).
308 12. CGC BULG 3 MODULE E: EQUIPMENT(PHASE III).
259 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK Al : IDENTIFYOBJECTIVESAND KEY ISSUES
295 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A10 : SECTOR STUDY FOLLOW-UP PROGRAMME
296 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK Al l: PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
260 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A2: PRELIMINARYSWOT ANALYSIS OF INVESTMENT
ENVIRONMENTFOR BULGARIA
261 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A3: REVIEW OF [Consultancy Group] ORGANISATION
AND MANAGEMENTSTRUCTURE
262 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A4: [Consultancy Group] STRATEGY
263 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A5: [Consultancy Group] BUSINESS PLAN AND WORK
PROGRESS PROGRAMME (WPP)
274 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A6: DETAILEDANALYSIS OF STRENGTHSAND
WEAKNESSES
275 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A7: STRATEGYDEVELOPMENT
276 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A8: SECTOR STUDIES AND INDUSTRIAL INITIATIVES
294 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK A9: BUSINESSPLAN REVIEW
265 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK B1 : REVIEW OF OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
278 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK B2: INTERNALINFORMATIONSYSTEMS.
279 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK B3: EXTERNALINFORMATIONSYSTEMS
280 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK 134: MANAGEMENTDEVELOPMENT
281 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK B5: OPERATIONALTRAINING
298 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK B6: PERFORMANCEREVIEW
299 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK 137: STUDY TOURS AND SECONDMENTS
300 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK 88: OPERATIONALTRAINING
267 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK Cl : AGREE ADMINISTRATIVEARRANGEMENTS
283 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK C2: STEERING GROUP MEETINGSAND REPORTING.
302 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK C3: STEERING GROUP MEETINGS AND REPORTING
269 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D1 : PROMOTIONAND PR STRATEGY
307 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D10: PROMOTIONALEVENTS
285 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D2: INTERNATIONALBENCHMARKING
286 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D3: PROMOTIONAL TRAINING
287 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D4: PROMOTIONALTRAINING SEMINARS
288 12. CGC BULL 4 TASK D5: PROMOTIONALMATERIALS
289 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D6: PROMOTIONAL EVENTS
304 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D7: STUDY TOURS AND SECONDMENTS.

Page430
305 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK D8: PROMOTIONAL PLAN REVIEW.

306 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK Dg: PROMOTIONALMATERIALS
271 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK El : REVIEW IT REQUIREMENTSAND SPECIFY
EQUIPMENT PACKAGES
291 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK E2: IT TRAINING
309 12. CGC BULG 4 TASK E3: IT NETWORKING.
12. CGC BULG 68
Count
312 13. CGC 1 INTRODUCTION
CHEREPOV
328 13. CGC 1 KEY ISSUES
CHEREPOV
313 13. CGC I TECHNICAL RESPONSE
CHEREPOV
327 13. CGC 2 CONSULTANCY TEAM
CHEREPOV
314 13. CGC 2 INTRODUCTION
CHEREPOV
315 13. CGC 2 WORK PROGRAMME
CHEREPOV
316 13. CGC 3 PHASE 1: INITIAL REVIEW
CHEREPOV
321 13. CGC 3 PHASE 2: IMPLEMENTATION
CHEREPOV
317 13. CGC 4 TASK 1: REVIEW CURRENT ACTIVITIES AND PLANS
CHEREPOV
318 13. CGC 4 TASK 2: ASSESS TRAINING REQUIREMENTS
CHEREPOV
319 13. CGC 4 TASK 3: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATIONPROGRAMME
CHEREPOV
320 13. CGC 4 TASK 4: PHASE ONE REPORT
CHEREPOV
322 13. CGC 4 TASK 5: DESIGN PLANNING PROCESSES AND
CHEREPOV PROCEDURES
323 13. CGC 4 TASK 6: DEVELOP MANAGEMENTINFORMATIONAND
CHEREPOV FINANCIALCONTROL SYSTEMS
324 13. CGC 4 TASK 7: REVIEW AND DETAIL IMPLEMENTATION
CHEREPOV PROGRAMME
325 13. CGC 4 TASK 8: DEVELOPTRAINING MODULES
CHEREPOV
326 13. CGC 4 TASK 9: REPORTING
CHEREPOV
13. CGC 17
CHEREPOVCount
341 14. CGC VLAD I EXPERTISEOF [Consultancy Group] I& [Consultancy Group] 2
333 14. CGC VLAD I KEY ISSUES
344 14. CGC VLAD 1 PROJECT MANAGEMENTAND STRUCTUREOF TEAM
329 14. CGC VLAD 1 RATIONALE
352 14. CGC VLAD 1 WORK PROGRAMME
342 14. CGC VLAD 2 [Consultancy Group] 1
343 14. CGC VLAD 2 [Consultancy Group] 2
356 14. CGC VLAD 2 KEY FEATURESOF THE TRAINING APPROACH
334 14. CGC VLAD 2 MARKET FOR SME SUPPORT SERVICES
337 14. CGC VLAD 2 OUR APPROACH - MAIN THEMES
353 14. CGC VLAD 2 OVERALL STRUCTURE
354 14. CGC VLAD 2 POLICY ADVICE AND CSME SUPPORT
346 14. CGC VLAD 2 PROJECTTEAM MEMBERS- FOREIGN ADVISERS
331 14. CGC VLAD 2 THE DEVELOPMENTOF SME SUPPORT STRUCTURES
335 14. CGC VLAD 2 THE ECONOMICCONTEXT
332 14. CGC VLAD 2 THE MAIN TASKS AND THE RATIONALE FOR THIS PROJECT
330 14. CGC VLAD 2 THE SIGNIFICANCEOF THE SME SECTOR
355 14. CGC VLAD 2 TRAINING PROGRAMMESTRUCTURE
345 14. CGC VLAD 2 UNDERLYINGPRINCIPLES
336 14. CGC VLAD 2 WORKING WITH OTHER BUSINESS SERVICESUPPLIERS
338 14. CGC VLAD 3 ADDING VALUE

Page431
339 14. CGC VLAD 3 BUILDING TRUST

350 14. CGC VLAD 3 BUSINESS ADVICE (INCLUDING SOME LOCAL
CONSULTANTSTRAINING)
340 14. CGC VLAD 3 IMPROVINGTHE IMAGE OF ENTREPRENEURIALACTIVITY
347 14. CGC VLAD 3 POLICY ADVICE
351 14. CGC VLAD 3 PROJECTTEAM MEMBERS- RUSSIANADVISORS
348 14. CGC VLAD 3 SUPPORT FOR CSME - BUSINESSSUPPORT CENTRE
349 14. CGC VLAD 3 TRAINING TEAM (ENTREPRENEURS, CSME)
82 2. CGA LAB 1 LIST OF STAFF + CVS
57 2. CGA LAB 1 ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
56 2. CGA LAB 1 STATEMENTAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
84 2. CGA LAB 2 FIRM'S EXPERIENCE
75 2. CGA LAB 2 LOGISTICS PLAN
59 2. CGA LAB 2 MAIN TASKS
60 2. CGA LAB 2 ORGANISATION
58 2. CGA LAB 2 RATIONALE
81 2. CGA LAB 2 REMARKS
76 2. CGA LAB 2 RISK ANALYSIS
83 2. CGA LAB 2 SIGNED COMMITMENT
70 2. CGA LAB 2 TIME REQUIRED
80 2. CGA LAB 2 TIME SCHEDULE
73 2. CGA LAB 3 [Consultancy Group]
72 2. CGA LAB 3 [PLACE NAME]
64 2. CGA LAB 3 AS TRAINING PROGRAMME
79 2. CGA LAB 3 DELAYSTO THE START OF THE PROJECT
71 2. CGA LAB 3 LEAD CONSULTANT
68 2. CGA LAB 3 MPS INTENSIVETRAINING IN THE UK
65 2. CGA LAB 3 MPS TRAINING - [COUNTRY NAME]
66 2. CGA LAB 3 SELF STUDY AND TUTORIAL SUPPORT
69 2. CGA LAB 3 SELF-ACCESSENGLISH LANGUAGE RESOURCEIN WTC
62 2. CGA LAB 3 THE [PLACE NAME] TRAINING PROVIDER:[PLACE NAME]
UNIVERSITYENGLISH LANGUAGESTUDIUM (WUELS)
77 2. CGA LAB 3 THE AVAILABILITYOF STAFF TO ATTEND TRAINING
78 2. CGA LAB 3 THE CAPACITYOF ANALOGUE INSTITUTIONS/ STAFF TO
RECEIVEVISITORS
61 2. CGA LAB 3 THE PROJECT TEAM LEADER
63 2. CGA LAB 3 THE UK TRAINING PROVIDER:NAME OF SCHOOL
74 2. CGA LAB 3 UK TRAINING INSTITUTION
67 2. CGA LAB 3 WUELS COURSE CERTIFICATION
2. CGA LAB Count 29
85 3. CGA MIDEP I INTRODUCTION
108 3. CGA MIDEP 1 QUALIFICATIONOF TERMS OF REFERENCEAND SCOPE
OF WORK
89 3. CGA MIDEP I TECHNICAL RESPONSE
90 3. CGA MIDEP 2 APPROACH
103 3. CGA MIDEP 2 THE PROJECTTEAM
105 3. CGA MIDEP 3 [CONSULTANCYGROUP] SUPPORTING[PLACE NAME]
107 3. CGA MIDEP 3 [Consultancy Group] SUPPORTING[PLACE NAME] SCHOOL
OF BUSINESS
88 3. CGA MIDEP 3 APPROACH
100 3. CGA MIDEP 3 APPROACHTO DELIVERYSTAGE
95 3. CGA MIDEP 3 APPROACHTO INCEPTIONSTAGE
. 3. CGA MIDEP 3 CONSORTIUMORGANISATION
93
91 3. CGA MIDEP 3 CONTRACTINGAND FINANCIALSERVICES
109 3. CGA MIDEP 3 INCEPTIONSTAGE TO INCLUDE PRE-INCEPTIONAND TO
BE EXTENDED
101 3. CGA MIDEP 3 JOINT NETWORK INITIATIVES
106 3. CGA MIDEP 3 MANAGEMENTMATTERSPARTNERSHIPCONSORTIUM
SUPPORTINGTHE [PLACE NAME] BUSINESSSCHOOL
110 3. CGA MIDEP 3 NETWORKINGAND OTHER CROSS-CENTRE
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
97 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PHASE 1: PREPARATIONOF THE [PLACE NAME]
BENEFICIARYINSTITUTIONS
98 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PHASE 3: DEFINITION OF STRATEGIC GOALS
99 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PHASE 4: PREPARATION OF BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT
Appendices: Organisation- SectionCounts

Page432
PLANS
94 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
86 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
111 3. CGA MIDEP 3 PROJECT TERM
92 3. CGA MIDEP 3 QUALITY CONTROL AND COMPLEMENTARITY
102 3. CGA MIDEP 3 REPORTINGAND MONITORING
104 3. CGA MIDEP 3 THE [CONSULTANCY GROUP]
96 3. CGA MIDEP 3 THE INCEPTION STAGE TEAMS
87 3. CGA MIDEP 3 THE PROJECTTEAM
3. CGA MIDEP 27
Count
131 4. CGA SCIT 1 EXPERIENCE OF TENDERER AND SUBCONTRACTORS
112 4. CGA SCIT 1 INTRODUCTIONAND SUMMARY
113 4. CGA SCIT 1 ORGANISATIONOF THE PROJECT
117 4. CGA SCIT 2 APPROACH
114 4. CGA SCIT 2 BACKGROUND
116 4. CGA SCIT 2 CURRENTDEVELOPMENTS
127 4. CGA SCIT 2 METHODOF WORK
130 4. CGA SCIT 2 REPORTING
115 4. CGA SCIT 2 TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER
118 4. CGA SCIT 2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
122 4. CGA SCIT 3 INCORPORATIONOF TECHNICAL KNOW-HOW IN
PRODUCT,PROCESSAND SERVICE CREATION
121 4. CGA SCIT 3 METHODOLOGYFOR VALIDATINGTHE PROPOSALSOF
SMALL COMPANIES TO GROW COMMERCIALLY
120 4. CGA SCIT 3 METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE COMMERCIAL VIABILITY
OF TECHNOLOGIES.
128 4. CGA SCIT 3 PHASE ONE
129 4. CGA SCIT 3 PHASE TWO
119 4. CGA SCIT 3 PROJECT SCREENINGTOOLS
124 4. CGA SCIT 3 STAGE ONE. - CONSULTANCY VISIT
126 4. CGA SCIT 3 STAGE THREE: PROJECT MANAGEMENT
123 4. CGA SCIT 3 TO ADVISE ON THE SELECTIONOF PARTICULARPILOT
HIGH TECH PROJECTSTO BE SUPPORTEDAND TO
MONITORTHEIR IMPLEMENTATION.
125 4. CGA SCIT 4 STAGE IA: INFORMATIONAND RESEARCH
4. CGA SCIT Count 20
143 5. CGA TERM 1 COMMITMENTSFROM EXPERTS
142 5. CGA TERM I CURRICULA VITAE
132 5. CGA TERM 1 INTRODUCTIONAND SUMMARY
141 5. CGA TERM 1 LIST OF STAFF
134 5. CGA TERM I ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
140 5. CGA TERM 1 STAFF AND EXPERIENCEOF TEAM
133 5. CGA TERM 1 STATEMENTSAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
137 5. CGA TERM 2 APPROACHAND REMARKSON THE TERMS OF
REFERENCE
136 5. CGA TERM 2 BACKGROUND
138 5. CGA TERM 2 METHOD OF WORK
135 5. CGA TERM 2 ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT
139 5. CGA TERM 2 TIME SCHEDULE
5. CGA TERM 12
Count
145 6. CGB BK-11 1 BACKGROUNDAND EXPERIENCE
156 6. CGB BK-11 1 CURRICULAVITAE OF PROFESSIONALSTAFF
146 6. CGB BK-11 I TECHNICALAPPROACHAND WORKPLAN
144 6. CGB BK-11 1 TERMS OF REFERENCE
149 6. CGB BK-11 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
150 6. CGB BK-11 2 APPROACHAND STRUCTURE
152 6. CGB BK-11 2 CAPACITY BUILDING
148 6. CGB BK-11 2 EMPLOYMENT SERVICES IN THE [PLACE NAME] & [PLACE
NAME] REPUBLICS - THE CURRENT SITUATION
147 6. CGB BK-11 2 INTRODUCTION
154 6. CGB BK-11 2 MANPOWERRESOURCES
151 6. CGB BK-11 2 METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED PROGRAMME
155 6. CGB BK-11 2 TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE AVAILABLE
Appendices: Organisation- Section Counts,

Page433
153 6. CGB BK-11 2 WORKPLAN, TIMESCALE AND IMPLEMENTATION

SCHEDULE
6. CGB BK-11 13
Count
171 7. CGB BK-162 1 LIST OF STAFF
158 7. CGB BK-162 1 ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
157 7. CGB BK-162 1 STATEMENTAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
163 7. CGB BK-162 2 ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
159 7. CGB BK-162 2 BACKGROUND
169 7. CGB BK-162 2 COMPANYSUPPORT
166 7. CGB BK-162 2 CONTRACTOR'S INPUTS
162 7. CGB BK-162 2 GENERALAPPROACH
167 7. CGB BK-162 2 INTERNATIONALADVISERS
164 7. CGB BK-162 2 MANAGEMENT AND REPORTING STRUCTURE
161 7. CGB BK-162 2 METHODOLOGY
168 7. CGB BK-162 2 NATIONAL EXPERTS
170 7. CGB BK-162 2 OUTPUTS
165 7. CGB BK-162 2 WORKPLAN
7. CGB BK-162 15
Count
184 8. CGB BK-178 1 INPUTS
187 8. CGB BK-178 1 LIST OF STAFF
174 8. CGB BK-178 1 ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
173 8. CGB BK-178 1 STATEMENTAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
172 8. CGB BK-178 1 TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
180 8. CGB BK-178 1 WORKPLAN
175 8. CGB BK-178 2 BACKGROUND
186 8. CGB BK-178 2 COMPANYSUPPORT
178 8. CGB BK-178 2 GENERALAPPROACH
177 8. CGB BK-178 2 GENERALAPPROACHAND METHODOLOGY
185 8. CGB BK-178 2 INTERNATIONALADVISERS
182 8. CGB BK-178 2 INTERNATIONALADVISERS' INPUTS
181 8. CGB BK-178 2 KEY MILESTONES
179 8. CGB BK-178 2 METHODOLOGY
183 8. CGB BK-178 2 REPORTS
8. CGB BK-178 16
Count
191 9. CGB BK65 I GENERAL CONDITIONSFOR SERVICE CONTRACTS
207 9. CGB BK65 I LIST OF STAFF
192 9. CGB BK65 I ORGANISATIONAND METHOD
189 9. CGB BK65 1 STATEMENTOF INTENTION
188 9. CGB BK65 1 STATEMENTSAND TERMS OF REFERENCE
190 9. CGB BK65 1 TERMS OF REFERENCE
205 9. CGB BK65 2 [CONSULTANCYCOMPANY PROFILE]
202 9. CGB BK65 2 BACKSTOPPING,SUPPORTAND MANAGEMENT
200 9. CGB BK65 2 DISPOSITIONOF EXPERTTIME
203 9. CGB BK65 2 EXPERTISEAVAILABLE
196 9. CGB BK65 2 GENERAL METHODOLOGY
195 9. CGB BK65 2 OBJECTIVE
194 9. CGB BK65 2 OBJECTIVES,METHODAND APPROACH
193 9. CGB BK65 2 ORGANISATIONOF THE PROJECT
199 9. CGB BK65 2 PROPOSED WORKPLAN FOR THE FIRST SIX MONTHS
206 9. CGB BK65 2 REMARKS
201 9. CGB BK65 2 SUBMISSIONOF REPORTSAND DOCUMENTS
197 9. CGB BK65 2 TASKS TO BE COMPLETED
204 9. CGB BK65 2 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TEAM
198 9. CGB BK65 2 TIME SCHEDULE
9. CGB BK65 20
Count
Appendices: Organisation- SectionCounts

Page 434
27 51 52.94
OK TorLang
1 approach
1 bar chart
1 comments
1 commitment
1 criteria of evaluation
1 Curriculum Vitae
1 delivery
1 draft time-table
1 expert
1 experts
1 financial evaluation
1 1 firm's experience
1 firm's structure
1 Fixed Term Expert Assignment
1 freight forwarding terms
1 headquarter ability of back-stopping
1 human resources
1 1 inception report
1 INCOTERMS
1 1 individual experts
1 job titles
1 key factors
1 1 List of Staff
1 1 Logistics Plan
1 1 manning requirements
1 1 method of work
1 narrative and chart form
1 1 Organisation and Method
1 1 Organisation of the project
1 physical means
1 procurement
1 professionals
1 programme implementation
1 1 project implementation
1 1 Remarks
1 1 Risk Analysis
1 Route maps
1 services
1 specific meetings
1 1 statement of intention
1 1 Statements and Terms of Reference
1 sub-contractors
1 1 submission of reports
1 suggestions
1 1 technical assistance
1 1 technical evaluation
1 1 technical proposal
1 1 time period
1 1 Time Schedule
1 1 total amount of man-day / man-months / man-years
1 transport arragements
Appendices: Organisation - Section Counts

Page435
APPENDIX: Organisation - summary of proposal sections
1. ENV
1) Introduction and summary 1

2) Annex A: Terms of Reference 12
3) Annex B: Organisationand method
Generalapproach
Commentson the Terms of Reference
Proposedapproach
Anticipated outcomes
Proposedresponse
Workplan
1) Annex C Institutional backgroundand experienceand proposed staff 68
2) Annex D: Project experiencein Poland . 173
3) Annex E: Examplesof proposedtypes of materialsto be produced: 178
2. SCIT
Section 1.1 Statementand Terms of Reference(Annex A)

Section 1.2 Organisationand method (Annex B)
" Background
" Approach
" Commentson Terms of Reference
" Method of Work
" Reporting
" Experience
" Time schedule
Section 1.3 Staff and experienceof team (Annex C)
3. TERM
Introduction and summary 1

1.1 Statementsand Terms of Reference(Annex A) 4
a) Statementof intention to provide the services 5
b) Terms of Reference 6
c) Generalconditions for servicecontracts 7
d) Statementof contracting and subcontractingarrangements 8
1.2 Organisationand method (Annex B) 11
1) Organisationof the project 12
2) Background 13
3) Approach and remarks on the Terms of Reference 16
4) Method of work 26
5) Time schedule 37
1.3 Staff and experienceof team (Annex C) 39
a) List of staff 40
Appendices: Organisation- summaryof proposal sections

Page436
b) Curricula Vitae 43
c) Commitmentsfrom experts 44
4. BK-11
ANNEX A TERMS OF REFERENCE I

ANNEX B
BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE 13
TECHNICAL APPROACH AND WORKPLAN 23
Introduction 24
1. Employment Servicesin the Czech and Slovak Republics The Current Situation
-
25
2. Aims and Objectives 26
3. Approach and Structure 27
4. Methodology of the ProposedProgramme 30
5. CapacityBuilding 34
6. Workplan, Timescaleand ImplementationSchedule 35
7. Manpower Resources 50
8. Technicaland ProfessionalExpertise Available 54
ANNEX C
CURRICULA VITAE OF PROFESSIONAL STAFF 57
5. BK-162
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
1.1 STATEMENT AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
" Statementof Intention
" Terms of Reference
" General Conditions for ServiceContracts
" Statementof Sub-contractingEnvisagedUnder this Contract
1.2 ORGANISATION AND METHOD
1.2.1 Background 1
1.2.2 Aims and Objectives 1
1.2.3 Methodology 2
" General Approach 2
" Achievementof Objectives 6
" Management and Reporting Structure 6
" Workplan 9
1.2.4 Contractor's Inputs 19
" International Advisers 19
" National Experts 21
" Company Support 21
" Outputs 22
Technical Annex 1: ProcurementStrategy 23
Technical Annex 2: Training and Study Visits 25
Technical Annex 3: Evaluation Report 28
Technical Annex 4: Workshops and Public Education 29
1.3 LIST OF STAFF

Page437
6. BK-178
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
" GeneralConditions for ServiceContracts
" StatementConcerningthe Bank Account
" Signatureby the Tenderer
1.2.1 Background 1
1.2.3 GeneralApproach and Methodology 2
" GeneralApproach 2
" Methodology 4
1.2.4 Workplan 8
Key Milestones 8
International Advisers' Inputs 8
Reports 8
1.2.5 Inputs 12
International Advisers 12
Company Support 15
LIST OF STAFF
7. BK 65
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
1.1 STATEMENTS AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
" General Conditions for Service Contracts
1.2.1 Organisationof the Project 1
1.2.2 Objectives,Method and Approach 1
Objective 1
GeneralMethodology 1
Tasksto be Completed 1
1.2.3 Time Schedule 8
ProposedWorkplan for the First Six Months 8
Disposition of Expert Time 9
Submissionof Reports and Documents 9
1.2.4 Backstopping, Support and Management 9
1.2.5 Expertise Available 14
TechnicalAssistanceTeam 14
[Consultancycompanyprofile] 15
1.2.6 Remarks 16
1.3 LIST OF STAFF

Page438
8. BK 182
TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
" Statement of Intention
1.2.1 Background 1
1.2.3 GeneralApproach 2
1.2.4 Tasks 2
1.2.5 ManagementSupport and Quality Control 5
ManagementSupport 6
Technical Support 6
Logistical Support 6
Quality Control 6
1.2.6 Reporting Arrangements 6
1.2.7 Inputs 7
Personnel 7
CompanyExpertise 7
1.2.8 Timing 8
1.2.9 Outputs 10
1.3 LIST OF STAFF
9. BK 47
1. TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
1.1 STATEMENT OF UNDERTAKING
TERMS OF REFERENCE
GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR SERVICE CONTRACTS
" Project Management 1
" Organisation of the Project 1
" The Long Term Adviser 1
" The Short Term Advisers 1
" Backstopping 1
" Method of Work 1
Particular Objectives 3
1. In Respectof the Overall Programme 3
2. In Respectof the Implementationof the Programme 3
3. Institutional Development 3
4. In Relation to Other External Donors 3
5. Evaluation and Monitoring 3
" Approach to be Taken 4
" Advisers Proposed 4
" Time Schedule 4
" Reporting 4
1.3 ADVISERS
Appendices: Organisation - summary of proposal sections

Page439
" Long Term Adviser

" Short Term Advisers
SIGNED COMMITMENTS FROM EXPERTS
10. BULG
Annex A: Terms of Reference

Annex B: Organisation and Method
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. WORK PROGRAMME 14
3. PROPOSEDPROJECT TEAM 42
Annex C: List of Staff
11. Cherepov
a.1 Introduction I
a.2 Technicalresponse 4
" Introduction
" Work programme
" Consultancy team
a.3 Key issues 15
Annex
A Relevantproject experience
B CVs for project team
12. Vladprop

Annex B: Organisationand Method
Annex C: List of Staff

Page 440
APPENDIX - "our" in PPs
61 instances out of 216 = 28t
experience 21
approach 20
understanding 4
view 3
aim 2
intention 2
initial 1
input 1
knowledge 1
objective 1
use 1
nmental Studies. 3. Throughout, our aim will be to maintain quality and

ange of promotion and PR activities and our aim will be to provide a coherent fr
aim 2
he project, and so provide a flavour of our approach These issues remain within
n marketing and financial planning. Our approach main themes 2.14
ether here have been presented fully in our approach and methods of implementati
ties 4. Many of the elements of our approach draw on our knowledge and u
eakdown of consultancy time. 2. Our approach is based on ECE 's consider
eA European consortium 11. Our approach is based on the strengths a
th analysis of each centre can proceed. Our approach is therefore based on the a
h other. An essential characteristic of our approach is to ensure full integrati
even ries, including Bulgaria. Our approach is to meet the needs of the
even ries, including Bulgaria. Our approach is to meet the needs of the
ete with the ' baggage ' of their past. Our approach to the Delivery Stage descr
sional development training programmes. Our approach to the project emphasises t
identified three themes which underlie our approach to the project. These are.
ntensify beyond the end of the project. Our approach to the technical assistance
conjunction with Bulgarian experts. Our approach to the training strategy wi
n. " 1.2.3 GENERAL APPROACH Our approach to this important assignmen
tres. 3. APPROACH AND STRUCTURE approach will be characterised by th
ion of the Worker Protection Programme. Our approach will be to assist the PMU f
within a particular geographical area. Our approach will be to undertake a thor
ement structures and systems 9. Our approach will take into ac the
approach 20
mation efficiently and effectively. Our experience such as that with the Pu
,
Study Follow-Up Programme 3.52 Our experience elsewhere has demonstrate
to them. These are discussed below. But our experience elsewhere in Russia, and
d what are their skills and motivation. Our experience elsewhere is that startin
tration and CSME as well as with TACIS. Our experience elsewhere strongly reinfo
ikely to be incomplete. On the basis of our experience elsewhere, we would also
ent 31 What We Offer 31 Our Experience in Assisting Project Mana
pes of expenditure, and components. OUR EXPERIENCE IN ASSISTING PROJECT
MANA
THE PROPOSED TASK We here summarise experience in each of the four areas
our
ertise already existing in Hungary; Our experience in Hungary has made us aw
are discussed in section 2, above. From our experience in Nizhny Novgorod this c
ramme focuses on. These are examples of our experience in these areas. Additiona
Our in this field can be desc
cturing Model for the Civil Service experience
Appendices: 'our' in PPs

Page 441
is relevant to the Bulgarian situation. Our experience is that it is only by wor

implementation of study tours. However, our experience is that the most effectiv
titioners. - Practical Approach Our experience is that, while it is nece
for to the Inception Stage. However, in our experience it will be highly desirab
lanned duration of the project as, from our experience of working in Nizhny Novg
to fund raising measures. For example, our experience suggests that although pr
ticipation in action oriented teams. In our experience this approach is far more
tly under implementation which indicate our experience in the field of Envir
experience 21
of the project; - an outline of our general (approach) approach to meeting the obje
METHODOLOGY General Approach Our general (approach) approach to this project wil
.3
ND METHODOLOGY General Approach general (approach) approach will be characteris
Our
tives of the proposed programme; 3. our general (approach) approach; 4. the methodo
cialist assistance for various periods. Our initial work will focus on establish
initial
t resources, and monitoring and review. Our input will be to draw on successful
input 1
for the project operations in-ry. Our intention is that our long-term expe
e intend to deploy local personnel, and our intention to involve at the start of
intention 2
of the elements of our approach draw on our knowledge and understanding of the d
knowledge
efore proposing a procurement strategy. Our objective will be to identify a proc
objective
e for your consideration. These clarify our understanding of the terms used and
ke an important difference. 1.9 Our understanding is that the' Centre f
the Czech and Slovak Republics; 2. our understanding of the aims and object
t is an investment in the future. It is our understanding that this project form
understanding 4
ion or quality control. For this reason our use of local Polish management
train
use 1
that could meet these requirements. In our view it is important to understand
,
ion and impact of specific projects. In our view the main focus after one year s
tract and retain high calibre staff. In our view these factors are pre-condition
view 3
Grand 61
Appendices: 'our' in PPs

Page442
APPENDIX: PHARE Contract - ITB
TENDER DOSSIER
Worker Protection Programme xxx

Project Number: xxx
Reference Number xxx
Training Language Training
Appendices: PHARE Contract - ITB

Page443
WORKER PROTECTION PROGRAMME xxt

Project Number: xxx
ReferenceNumber xxx
Training Language Training
INVITATION TO TENDER
(Including List of Firms Invited to Tender)
INVITATION TO TENDER ISSUED BY [organisation name] (PIP) ON BEHALF

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF [COUNTRY] FOR A PROJECT FINANCED FROM
PHARE FUNDS
The Governmentof [country] National Labour Inspectorate(the Contracting
Authority) invites you to submit a tender for the provision of English Language
Training for the Worker Protection Programme[country], National Labour
Inspectorateaccordingto the enclosedtender dossier.The following documentsare
issuedto enableyou to tender:
I. This Invitation to Tender (including list of firms invited to tender)
II. Instructions to Tenderers
III. GeneralRegulationsfor Tendersand the Award of ServiceContracts financed
from PHARE Funds
IV. Draft Contract with annexes:
Annex B: Organisationand Methods -Tenderer'sProposal
Annex C: List of Staff (including CV's) -TenderedProposal
Annex D: Breakdown of Prices-formatto be filled in by Tenderer
Annex E: GeneralConditions for ServiceContractsFinancedfrom
PHARE/TACIS Funds.
Additional Information
Thesedocumentsconstitute the completetender dossier.
The total budget availablefor this contract amountsto is ECU 145,000 ( One hundred
and ford five thousand ).
Receipt of this letter should be acknowledgedby fax or telex. Pleaseinform us within
10 daysof receipt whether you intend to submit a tender.

Page444
Instructions to tenderers
By submitting a tender, the Tendereracceptsin full all the Specialand General
Conditions containedin this tender dossierasthe solebasisfor this tender, waiving his
own conditions of contract. TheseInstructions to Tendererstake precedenceover the
GeneralRegulations.
Tenderers are expected to carefully examine and respect all instructions' forms, Terms
of Reference and specifications contained in this tender dossier. Failure to submit a
tender containing all the required information and documentation within the deadline
specified will generally result in rejection of the tender.
1. Participation
Entering into a consortium with one or more firms eligible for PHARE contracts is
permitted provided that conditions for adequate competition are preserved. The
consortium must clearly indicate which firm has been appointed by the others as the
lead firm (the contact point for the Contracting Authority), and w ill present only one
joint offer.
Subcontractingis permitted providing that the contractualliability remainswith the
Tenderer.It must be statedclearly in the offer if the Tendererintendsto sub-contract
one or severalparts of the Contract. The proposedsub-contractors must be eligible for
PHARE contracts and can be rejectedby the Contracting Authority.
2. Conditions for Submission of Tenders -
Tenderswill be acceptedonly if they comply with the following conditions:
2.1 Tendersmust be submittedto the National Labour Inspectorate(PIP) and have
beenreceived on Friday, 27/09/1996 at 11.00 am local time at the latest, at the
following address:
address
(Tendersmay be sentby registeredpost with advice of reception, expressmail or
deliveredby hand againstreceipt signedby the Contracting Authority's representative).
2.2 All tendersmust be submittedin a sealedenvelopebearing only:
a) The name and address specified for submission of tenders at point 1
b) The project title and number
c) Name of the Tenderer
d) The indication: "Not to be openedbefore the tender opening session"
2.3 This envelopemust contain two separatelysealedenvelopes("double
envelopedsystem"):
2.4 One sealedenvelopecontainingthe technicalproposal (one original and 4
copies) as described below (C. 1). This envelope must be marked "technical
proposal", and indicate the project title and number and the nameof the
Tenderer; and
2.5 One sealedenvelopecontainingthe financial proposal (one original and 4
copies) as described below (C.2). This envelopemust be marked "financial
proposal" and indicate the project title and numberand the nameof the
Tenderer.
2.6 The tender shall be drawn up in any EU official language.
3. Content of Tenders
The tender submittedby the Tenderer shall fully comply with the requirementsset out
in the tender dossierand comprise:
3.1 A technical proposal consistingof
3.1.1 Statementsand Terms of Reference(future Annex A to the Contract):

Page445
3.1.2 A statementof intention to provide the servicesin conformity with this tender
dossierby the Tendereror his duly authorisedagent.
3.1.3 The Terms of Referencefor the servicesas they appearin the tender dossier,
initialled on eachpageby the Tenderer.
3.1.4 A copy of the first page of the GeneralConditions for ServiceContracts
financedfrom PHARE Funds, signedby the Tenderer.
3.1.5 A statementconcerningthe sub-contractingenvisagedfor parts of the services,
if sub-contractingis envisaged,signedby the Tenderer.
3.1.6 A statementconcerningthe bank account to which paymentsmay be made.
3.1.7 A signatureby the Tendereror his duly authorisedagent
3.2 Organisationand Method (future Annex B to the Contract): This part shall
in
cover particular:
a) Organisation of the project, method of work and experts proposed by the
Tenderer as well as proposed human resources, sub-contractors and physical
means to be provided by the Tenderer for the project implementation. This
shall include a description in narrative and chart form of the consultant's
distinctive approach to the requirements outlined in ANNEX A. The criteria
of evaluation should take into consideration the categories which form the
basis of the contractor's inception report.
b) A preciseindication must be given concerningthe total amount of manday/
man-months/man years proposedfor eachexpert, and whether these
experts are EC or local experts.The proposal must be coherentwith the
Terms of Reference.The tenderer should indicate that the candidates
proposed and the quantity of servicesoffered; The number and the job titles
of the staff concerned will be provided, with a description of the foundation
and specific tasks assigned to the nominated team leader and individual
experts,a bar chart indicating the professionals,shoving periods on the duty
station and in the home county, and estimatesof total numbersof
man-months required broken down by individual staff. The financial
evaluation will consist in comparingthe global price of comparableoffers.
With regard to humanresources,the Tenderer should note that the Terms of
Referencebelong into one of the following categories,dependingon the
nature of the project:
Fixed Term Expert Assignment (for instance for typical technical
-
assistanceoriented projects): In this casemanningrequirementsin
quantity is clearly given in the Terms of Referenceand Tenderers
must provide exactly the requestedmanning.The technical
evaluationwill concentrateon the candidatesproposedby the
Tenderer.The financial evaluationwill consist in comparingthe
global prices (total prices minus reimbursables).
Other composite services, where the Contracting Authority does
-
not fix the inputs in
needed advanceand the Tenderersthemselves
must evaluate (and justify) the optimum manningneeded.The
technical evaluationwill take into considerationboth the candidates
proposed and the quantity of services in
offered. this case,the
number and job titles of the staff concerned will be provided, with a
description of the function and specific tasks assignedto the
nominated team leader and individual expert, a bar chart indicating
the professionals,showing periods to be in duty in
station and the

Page446
home country' and estimatesof total numbersof man/months

required broken down by individual staff. The financial evaluation
will consistin comparingthe unit prices (total prices minus
reimbursables,divided by the number of offered working
man-monthsof EC experts).
c) Logistics Plan: A description of the logistics planning foreseen for the whole
programme implementation. Particular attention should be paid to transport
arrangements, freight forwarding terms, and INCOTERMS in accordance
with PHARE procedures. Route maps for overland travelling should be
included.
d) Risk Analysis: On the basisof Annex A's requirements,the contractor
should provide a risk analysisoutlining the probability of successin the time
period and highlighting key factors which have a bearing on the efficient and
economic implementation of the project.
e) Time Schedule:The Tenderermust submit a workplan with envisaged
specific referenceto mobilisation of the team?submissionof reports and
documents,specific meetings,and draft time to methodsof acceleratingthe
procurementand delivery of goods without associatedcost escalating
factors.
f) Remarks,commentsand suggestionswhich the Tenderermay considerit
advisableto raise.
g) A List of Staff, including Curriculum Vitae (future Annex C to the
Contract) following the standardmodel enclosedin the tender dossier
should be included.
h) Furthermore,the following shouldbe included:
-A signed commitment from each of the expertsto acceptthe work
proposedby the Tenderer,if the Tendereris awardedthe contract,
-A document showing the firms experience in the relevant field, and
other information such as the firms structure and size or the firm's
Headquarterability of back-stoppingthe on-site operations(the
sameappliesto the proposedsub-contractor(s),if there is any).
4. A financial proposal comprising:
4.1 A detailedbreakdown of prices (the future Annex D to the Contract) basedon
the format enclosedin the tender dossierand expressedin ECU. Tendersin any
other currency or not following the format shallbe rejected. The Breakdown of
Prices shall include as appropriate: a) Fees
4.2 The unit prices for eachproposedexpert in expert man-daysmust be indicated.
If the fees are expressedin man-years,they shallbe calculatedon basisof 10.5
working man-monthsper calendaryear of the Contract. A working man-month
equals22 working man-days.The required serviceswill be quoted for the
whole duration of the provision of servicesin prices of the year of receipt of
the proposal.
a) Allowances
- Daily subsistence allowances for short term assignments less than 6
calendar months,following the EU rates; monthly accommodation
allowancesfor long-term assignmentsof 6 calendar months or
more.
b) Direct Costs

Page447
- The direct costs include provision for the experts'administrative

support and all other supporting services.
c) Reimbursables
- All costs will be quoted free from any taxes.
4.3 The Draft Contract initialled for acceptance.
5. Variant Solutions
Variant solutions are allowed. However, the submissionof a tender basedon a variant
solution is conditional upon the submission of a tender based on the conforming
solution. Variant solutions may not derogate from the requirements of the General
Regulationsfor Tendersand the Award of ServiceContracts financedfrom
PHARE/TACIS Funds.
6. Opening of Tenders
6.1 The envelopescontainingthe tenders'withdrawals or amendmentsshallbe
openedon the date chosenby the Contracting Authority, by a committee
whose composition shall be determined by the Contracting Authority.
However, envelopeswhich bear the words "financial proposal" in accordance
with B. 3.2. shall not be openeduntil the work of evaluatingthe content of
tendersother than the prices, has beencompleted.
6.2 Minutes of the envelope-openingsessionshallbe drawn up, giving details of
a) the number and condition of the envelopesreceived;
b) the identity of the candidateswho havetendered;
c) the documents in
contained the envelopes;
d) any amendmentsto or withdrawals of tenders
e) any declarationsby candidateswho havetendered.
6.3 The minutes shall be signedby the Chairperson,who shall endorsethe
documentscontainedin the envelopesand numberthem consecutively.The
minuteswill be communicated to the if
candidates so requestedby them.
7. Selection of the Contractor
Firstly, the committeewill carry out an initial examinationof the conformity of tenders,
excludingprices and, where necessary, shall request tenderers by telex or fax to give
further details or to supplementthe content of their tenders.Tenderswhich remain
incompletewith regard to major items or which contain reservationsconsideredbit the
committeereferred to in E. 1. to be substantial could be rejected.
7.1 The technical proposalsshallbe evaluated,in particular, with regardsto:
a) The organisation, time schedule, methods and plan of work proposed for
providing the services. (Weight 20% )
b) The experienceof the Tenderer(s)and sub-contractor(s)for the provision of
the servicesrequired. (Weight 30%)
c) The qualification, experience and skills of the staff proposed for the
provision of the services. (Weight 50%)
7.2 On the basisof this technical evaluation,the financial proposalsshall be opened
for those tenderswhich are technically acceptable,that is ranked minimum 65
out of 100; the economicallymost advantageousoffer shall be proposedfor the
conclusion of a contract, provided that (i) the total price is within the scopeof
the funds availableand (ii) the unit prices are all in line with the market. The
economic rating is found by weighting the technical proposal 70 and the
financial proposal 30.
7.3 The technical evaluationwill include interviews of the person/ persons,
proposer / defender. If required, these interviews will take place at PMU office

Page448
by
as arranged mutual agreement. The results of theseinterviews would be
integratedinto the final assessmentof the tendersand the original ranking of
the tendersbe adjustedas appropriate.
7.4 The Contracting Authority is not bound to acceptthe lowest offer or to award
any contract.
7.5 Tenderers will be informed of the decision on their bid(s). The Contracting
Authority shall not be obliged to state the reasons for its choice nor enter into
any discussion or correspondence with Tenderers on the results of the
Invitation to Tender.
8. Validity and Conditions of Tenders
8.1 The Tendereris bound by its offer for a period of 60 working days as from the
final date for the submissionof tenders. The Tenderer selectedshall be bound
by his tender for a further period of 30 days.
8.2 Any request for supplementary information by any Tenderer during the
tendering period should be submitted to the Contracting Authority in written
form (letter, telex or fax). The Contracting Authority will, where appropriate,
answer such requests in the form of an addendum to the tender dossier which
will be sent simultaneously to all invited firms. If is
no answer given, the tender
conditions remain unchanged.

Page449
APPENDIX: PHARE Contract - Technical Proposal
Technical Proposal
1. STATEMENT AND TERMS OF REFERENCE
A copy of the original terms of referencewas bound into theproposal at this point
2. ORGANISATION AND METHOD

2.1 RATIONALE
In [country name] the main body with responsibility for the supervision and
enforcement of legislation on Worker Protection is the [organisation name] (PIP).
The efficient performance of the PIP is essential if National and EU standards are
to be applied in this field. It is planned that the PIP's training centre in [place
name] (WTC) will, apart from maintaining its key role as the PIP's main training
resource, obtain an increased share of its income through institutions other than the
Inspectorate. As a means of achieving this objective, the WTC is to be provided
with a Resource / Information Centre which will offer access to a wide range of
information on occupational health and safety through EU databases and specialist
CD ROM material. Additionally, and in order to ensure that the PIP can fulfil its
mandate effectively, it is also planned that selected WTC staff will be trained in an
EU language. English is considered to be an appropriate EU language for these
purposes as it will enable them to:
a) participate in EU training where English will be an important language
b) communicatedirectly with other training centresin the EU
c) makebestuseof the Centre

Resource andto its
maximise useby the PIP
d) play a catalytic role in the introduction of new ideasand practicesin Worker
Protection through its training activities (such training being informed by
EU experienceand best practice)
2.2 MAIN TASKS

Two groups of participantswill be involved in the training programme. The first
group (17 participants) will be selected from Management and Programme Staff
(MPS) at the WTC. The secondgroup (10 participants)will come from
Administrative Staff (AS). Thesetwo setsof participantswill follow different
training programmes. The main tasks to be in
undertaken delivering the contract
are:
to
a) undertake a Training Needs Analysis (TNA) for MPS and AS participants
b) to designintensive and extensiveprogrammesof languagetraining for MPS
and AS groups
c) to deliver these training programmesin [place name] and one of the EU

countries- in this instance,the UK
Appendices: PHARE Contract - TechnicalProposal

Page450
d) during the training period in the UK, to provide appropriate visits to the
National Health and Safety Executive, and to a training organisation similar
to WTC.
to
e) ensurethe quality of all training deliveredin [country name] and in the
UK
f) to arrangefor the appropriateand efficient administrationof all thesetasks
2.3 ORGANISATION
2.3.1 The Project Team Leader
[consultant name], The Project Team Leader has extensiveexperienceof the
organisation of English Language Training projects in Europe, the UK and other
regions. He is basedin [country name] and will be in a position to maintain close
contact with the Project throughout all stages. (see CVs below)
2.3.2 The [country] training provider: [place name] University [training

institution name] (WUELS)
The [place name] [training institution name] is a teachingunit of [place name]

University. It has a British Director of Studies,recruited by the [organisation
name] and a highly qualified team of [country] and British teachers. As part of its
support to the enhancement of English language teaching in [country] universities,
the [organisation name] hasprovided extensivetraining opportunities to staff from
the [training institution name], aswell as contributing towards the developmentof
the [training institution namef s educationaltechnology systemsand training
materials. This combinationof [country] and British professional in
expertise the
[training institution name] makesit ideally placedto provide a flexible and
comprehensivetraining service.
2.3.3 The UK training provider: NAME OF SCHOOL
The UK training provider is a [organisation name] Recognised school. A
language school which conforms to these recognition standards has highly qualified.
and professionally competent teaching staff, excellent teaching premises and
learning resources, electronic and paper self-access resources and offers a high
level of administrative support to the student, both in terms of their travel and
accommodation arrangements. In addition, the school has extensive experience of
liaising with other organisations and agencies in the UK in order to provide
appropriate professional placements, and a proven track record in providing
specialist language training services for learners from professional organisations in
[country name] and other similar European countries. The school is also in easy
travelling distance of the analogue organisations in the UK which MPS participants
will visit during the intensive training period.
2.3.4 AS training programme
content - this will be established following the TNA and will conform to the
standardsand objectives laid out in the TOR. Particular attention will be
given to ensuringthat the AS group attain appropriate conversationalskills
to be ableto fulfill their professionalroles. In addition, the coursewill
allow individual students to build a more broadly based competence in

Page451
English languageand to acquire skills in areassuch as administrative

writing and reception functions.
" total training hours -within the 10 month period of the project each
member of the AS training group will receive a 160 hour training
programme of a minimum of 4 class hours (50 minute units) per week..
" placement / levels - participantswill study in groups with other WUELS

studentsat a level appropriateto their level of competencein English. This
competence will be assessed by entry testing at the beginning of the training
programme.
" timing - the time at which training takes place will be prioritised according
to:
a) the professionalneedsof the WTC
b) the professionaland personalneedsof the AS participant
c) the professionalopinion of the Project Team Leader and WUELS

d) the administrativerequirementsof WUELS
" assessment- quarterly attainmentreports will be by

prepared the WUELS
for eachAS participant. Thesereports will focus on the learning priorities
which have beenagreedwith the WTC.
2.3.5 MPS training - [country name]
" content - this will be established following the TNA and will conform to the
standards and objectives laid out in the TOR. Particular attention will be
given to maintaining a balance between the needsof the MPS group to
develop a broad range of languageskills relevant to their professional
needs, and the need to extend their knowledge of technical language and
terminology.
" total training hours - within the 9.5 month period of training in [country
name] eachmemberof the MPS training group will receive a minimum of 5
classhours (50 minute units) per week. This representsa 190 training hour
programme.
" placement / levels - participantswill study in groups at a level appropriate
to their level of competencein English at the beginning of the training
programme.The 17 MPS participantswill be taught as 5 groups of three or
four trainees. The criteria that can be used for grouping are:
a) current commandof English (the main criterion)

b) professionalinterest
c) availability
" timing - criteria for the timing of the MPS training programme are more
complex. Such staff will, typically, be away from base on assignments
during the training period, or will have unavoidable and unpredictable
professional obligations to which they have will have to give priority.

Page452
Various options exist for the delivery of training to the MPS group. Some
examples are given below, along with a summaryof their advantagesand
disadvantages.
OPTION Advantages Disadvantages
a) Three training sessions per week (1 x f regularinput f veryvulnerableto disruption
1 hour +2x2 hours) + structured self f simple administration f disruptive for the learner
study work f accords with learner f students are over-dependent
expectationof language on the teacher.
learning
b) Two training sessions per week (1 x f regularinput f veryvulnerableto disruption
3 hours +1x2 hours) + structured f simple administration f students are over-dependent
self study work f accords with learner on the teacher.
expectationof language
learning
c) I training session per week (1 x5 f regularinput f does not accordwith learner
hours) + structured self study work f less vulnerableto disruption expectations
f simpleadministration f not appropriatefor lowerlevel
f allowsfor intensiveinputwith students
time followup self study
d) 2 training sessions per month at f maximumflexibility f doesnot accordwith learner
times agreed at the beginning of each f maximumscopefor learner expectations
month (2 x 10 per month) + extensive autonomy f not appropriatefor lowerlevel
and guided self study work students
" internal assessment- quarterly attainmentreports will be preparedby

WUELS for eachMPS participant. Thesereports will focus on the
learning priorities which have beenagreedwith the WTC.
2.3.6 Self Study and Tutorial Support
" in addition to classbasedlearning, it will be important for AS and MPS

participants to have accessto appropriateself study material at their place
of work. This self study learning will be supervised by tutors in the
organisationwhich provides language training and materialsrequired for
self study will be specifiedas part of the course design.
" tutorial counselling(linked to self-study) - Each AS and MPS participant

will have a personal tutor (who may be their classteacher)with whom they
will have 30
monthly minute tutorials. The tutor will be responsible for
agreeingand reviewing the MPS participant'sself-studyprogrammeand
providing counsellingon other matters related to language learning. The
tutor will also be ableto provide a detailed attainmentreport on the learner
at the end of the training programme.
2.3.7 WUELS Course Certification
" rationale - the WTC and its staff are making a considerable investment of
time in the training programme.Participantswill be interestedin gaining an
internationally recognisedqualification at the end of the training period.
This will have three main advantages:
it
a) will enhancethe motivation of the participantsto maintain attendanceon
the training programme
b) it will provide an objective measureof the level of attainmentof participants
at the end of the training period.

Page453
it
c) will make enable WTC to refer to the level in
of qualification English
languageof its training staff when promoting WTC servicesto other clients
examination- subject to the approval of the PharePMU and the WTC, the
identification of an appropriatesuite of examinationswill be an output from
the TNA. Appropriate examinationsare provided by the University of
CambridgeLocal Examination Syndicate,Trinity College, Oxford
University ExaminationsBoard and other organisations
2.3.8 MPS Intensive Training in the UK
" training time - intensivetraining in the UK will be madeup of at least 24

hours of instruction eachweek (spreadover four days). One day each
week will be reservedfor the professionalvisits.
" additional activities -a programmeof appropriateactivities will be arranged
for the middle week-end of the intensivetraining. The content of this
programmewill be agreed before the training group departs.
" timing - in TOR paragraph D 1.5.3 is stated that "the intensive training in
English will take place at a suitable time during a ten month period! ". The
final timing of these visits will depend on the results of the TNA, the
availability of staff and the availability of training resources in the UK. In
order to ensure maximum impact for the intensive training, it is envisaged
that it will take place after between March and October of 1997 - assuming
project approval in October 1996
" groups - intensive training in the UK will be provided for four cohorts -
three groups of four studentsand one group of five. Ideal groupings for the
UK intensivetraining will be decidedonce the programmehasbeen
established in [place name]. The criteria for deciding on the make up of
thesegroups will be:
a) commandof English by the time of the UK intensive training course
b) the professionalrequirementsof WTC
c) professionalneedsand interestsof the trainees
" course design- following consultatationswith WTC, MPS traineesand

WUELS, the designof the intensivecoursewill be decidedby the the Team
Leader and the UK Training Institution. The training will be designedto
give maximum opportunity for MPS traineesto perfect skills and
understandingthat have core professionalvalue. Two main options exist
for intensivetraining delivery
01)tions Advantages Disadvantages
A Morning f less expensive f less individualisation
group instruction f ensures common of the training
Afternoon programme for all programme
instruction participants
group f givessome
Structured Self Study opportunityfor
individual support

Page454
during self study

B Morning f ensures common f more expensive
group instruction programme for all
Afternoon participants
f ensuresthat all
1: 1 instruction learners have
Structured Self Study maximum opportunity
to focus on special
needs
2.3.9 Self-accessEnglish language resource in WTC

A key elementin the coursedesignwill be the developmentof a specialistEnglish
resourcefor self study within the WTC. This will be dedicatedto the use of
traineesduring the 10 months of the project. Dependingon the decisionof the
PharePMU and the WTC, this resourececan then becomeavailableto other WTC
staff for the purpose of enhancingEnglish languageskills. The self study resource
will contain:
- audio and video materials
- grammarand vocabularypractice materials

languagereferencematerials(paper and electronic)
-
- multimedia learningresources
2.4 TIME REQUIRED
2.4.1 Lead Consultant
seeschedule
2.4.2 [place name]
seeschedule
2.4.3 [organisation name]
seeschedule
2.4.4 UK Training Institution
seeschedule
2.5 LOGISTICS PLAN
Logistics required for this project are educationalmaterialsfor the WTC and
Traineesat WUELS. The ordering schedulefor thesematerialsis detailed on the
Project Schedule.
2.6 RISK ANALYSIS

Threatsto the project fall under three heads. Theseare:
a) The availability of staff to attend training

b) The capacity of analogueinstitutions / staff to receivevisitors
c) delaysto the start of the project

Page455
2.6.1 The availability of staff to attend training

TOR Objective C2 refers to the fact that the languagetraining programmemust
be deliveredeffectively while "reflecting the needfor WTC to continueto fulfil
its regular programmes".One of the main problemsthat arisein the delivery of
extensive training of the sort proposed in the TOR is that of ensuringa fit
betweenthe times when staff are availablefor training, and the times when
training is offered. Availability for training can be affectedby three factors:
" lack of institutional support - if traineesdo not have the full support of line
it
management, will be difficult to in
assureconsistentattendance the
training programme. The full cooperationof managementwill be
absolutelycritical if training involves the releaseof trainees during working
time.
RESPONSE- During the TNA it will be essentialthat the Project Team Leader
wins the confidence of WTC managementand that the timing of the teaching
programme has full WTC approval. In liaison
subsequent with WTC, the
Project Team Leader and WUELS must ensurethat managementis kept fully
informed with regard to the developmentof the project and that the Project
Team continuesto be fully aware of and responsiveto the needsof WTC.
" lack of motivation on the part of trainees - if trainees fail to achieve the
progress that they hope for at the beginning of training, motivation is
reducedand there is a high risk of drop out from the programme
RESPONSE- Accurate placementtesting and effective programmedesign
reduce the risk of failure. Regular counsellingsessionswith the personaltutor
it
make possible to identify any problems which arise at an early stage. Such
problems can be overcomethrough the setting of attainabletargets,
adjustments in the learner's training programmeand the effective use of the
study resource.
" professionalobligations - senior staff will not be able to avoid professional

obligations such as assignments away from base, VIP visits or disruptions
to work plans as a result of illness or other unavoidablecauses.
RESPONSE - the designof the MPS training programmemust provide for
necessaryprofessional absences.Monthly course scheduling and a flexible
approachon the part of the training supplier, combinedwith professional
foresight on the part of WTC will minimisethe risk of non-attendanceor lost
training time.
2.6.2 The capacity of analogue institutions / staff to receive visitors
" the absenceof key staff from analogueorganisations in the UK may

threatenthe usefulnessof study visits - as may the inability of these
organisationsto receivevisitors as a result of diary clashes.
RESPONSE - careful planning of the visit programmeand close liaison with
analogueorganisationswill minimise this risk

Page456
2.6.3 Delays to the start of the project
" If project approval is delayed beyond mid October it may create difficulties
to the project when it comes to making arrangements for the study visits to
the UK and to ensure full attendance of participants during the summer
period. The summer period will become particularly critical as it will be
difficult to ensure the participation of all trainees during July and August.
It will also be very difficult to arrange intensive training in the UK during
these months as this is the busiest period of the year for suppliers of
training.
RESPONSE- There is a strong argumentfor planning a two month break in
the training programmeduring July and August 1997- although specific
languagelearning assignmentswould be set in order to ensurethat learners
continue to make progressduring this period. If such an approachis adopted,
there could be significant educationaladvantagesin such a period for reflection
and consolidationaway from the training room.
2.7 TIME SCHEDULE
SeeProject Schedulein Appendix XX
2.8 REMARKS
3. LIST OF STAFF + CVS

3.1 Signed Commitment
3.2 Firm's Experience

Page457
APPENDIX: PAARE contract - TOR
ANNEX A- TERMS OF REFERENCE

Project Number: xxx
Reference Number xxx
Training LanguageTraining
PROGRAMME for WORKER PROTECTION IN /COUNTRYI xxx
TERMS OF REFERENCE
CONTENTS
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 458
......................................................................................................
B. PURPOSE OF THE CONTRACT: ....................................................................................................... 459
C. OBJECTIVES OF THE CONTRACT 460

.................................................................................................
D. SCOPE OF THE WORK .............. 460
E. BUDGET 461
........................................
F. OUTPUTS 461
......................................
G. ARRANGEMENTS FOR REPORTING 462

..............................................................................................
H. INPUTS 463
..........................................
L SUPPORT TO THE CONTRACTOR: 464

..................................................................................................
J. ADVANCES 464
....................................
K PAYMENTS 464
..................................
L. JOB DESCRIPTIONS: 464

..................
M. PROFILE OF THE CONTRACTOR 465

..................................................................................................
N. PROFILE OF THE EXPERT (S).. 465
Appendices: PHARE Contract - TOR

Page458
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A. I. Recipient Institution - [name + address],[country]
A. 2. Project Beneficiary National Labour Inspectorate [name + address],
[country]
A. 3. [country] & PIP
[country] faces the challenge of adjusting its system of worker protection to one that
is compatible with that of a market economy and the requirements of European
integration. Worker protection covers a vast area, including in particular occupational
safety, on which there is now considerable common agreement. For approximation of
laws to be meaningful, however, adequate enforcement is necessary. In [country] the
main body with responsibility for the supervision and enforcement of legislation on
Worker Protection is the [organisation name] PIP. It was created in 1919 and since
1989 is accountable to Parliament. Efficient performance of PIP is essential to ensure
application of both National and EU standards.
A. 4. Programme
The Worker Protection Programme,which is firmly rooted in the Europe Agreement,
reflects the strategic choicesmade by the [country] authorities for this first phaseof
support. A threepronged approachhas as its objectives:
A. 4.1. undertaking an independent review of all aspects of the existing system
of worker protection, with a view to preparing the ground for future
action;
A. 4.2. strengtheningthe capacityof PIP, and its Training Centre in [place
name], to final their mandatemore effectively;
A. 4.3. reinforcing efforts by PIP to promote a preventive approachto
occupational safety at enterpriselevel.
The Worker Protection programmehas beendesignedwith the intention of bringing to
[country] the experienceof best EU policy and practice, from which PIP is expressly
willing to benefit.
A. S. [place name] Training Centre

A. 5.1. Background
PIP is an establishingbody for WTC and is its main sourceof financing through
it
entrusting with training. It is anticipatedthat the WTC will obtain an increased share
of its income through institutions other than the Inspectorate.Improvement in the
quality of inspections and in the observanceof worker protection regulations,aswell
as gradual preparation for an enlargementof PIP's mandate,require a major effort in
the initial and continuing training of inspectorsand personnelconcernedwith safetyin
enterprises.
[place name] Training Centre, which hasthe responsibility for this training, was
establishedunder the Act of 8th March 1981, operating training activities for PIP and
for other clients from outside PIP.
A. 5.2. Training Staff, Resourcesand Programmes

Page459
Programmeand Methods departmentemployssix chief specialistswho are also

lecturerswith labour inspectorcompetencies.They organisetraining activities of the
Centre and supervisethe merits of work of about 150 lecturers from outsideWTC.
The Centre employsa staff of 50 including the hotel staff, administrativeand technical
sections,financial department'programmeand methodsdepartmentand the managerial
stafff.
WTC is located at the edgeof a municipal park with convenienttransport connections
to the centre of [place name].The Centre'sfacilities, the educationalbuilding and hotel
are situatedon a 1.3 hectaresite with the educationalbuilding consistingof a 200
personhall, 7 classrooms,2 laboratories,a library and offices.
Refer appendix 1 for an organogrammeof the Centre.
A. 5.3. Training Programmes
Four main types of training programmesare held at the Centre.
- training for labour inspector candidates,

- continuing training for inspectors,
- civic inspectors training,
- training for specialistsin safety
In addition the Centre organisestraining programmesfor employersand for
managerialstaff
Training for labour inspector candidatesis divided into two stages
- unified training lasting up to 10 months

specialist training lasting up to 6 months
-
The list of participantswill be introduced to the EU Delegation [place name] for it's
ex-anteapproval
A. 5.4. Need for languagetraining
As part of this Worker Protection programmeWTC is to be provided with a Resource
(information) Centre which will provide accessto a wide range of information on
occupationalhealth and safetythrough EU databasesand specialistCD Rom material.
WTC will play an important role in training the staff of PIP in the use of this
information, and in disseminationof the information on a wider basisas part of the PIP
training strategyfor industry. A large part of the availableinformation is written in
English.
The staff of WTC need sufficient English to derive benefit from the Information Centre
Network for PIP, and need also to participate in other EU training where English will
be an important language.
B. PURPOSE OF THE CONTRACT:

The main purpose of this contract is to:
Design and deliver appropriateprogrammesof English languagetraining to meetthe

needsof the WTC Managementand Programmestaff, incorporating intensive
residentiallanguage training combinedwith regular training at the centrein [place

Page460
name] which will move them towards in-depth knowledge of English, and of WTC
Administrative staff by providing basic conversationlevel English
C. OBJECTIVES OF THE CONTRACT

C. 1. identify the languagetraining needsof the staff of WTC taking account
of their tasks planned and foreseen, and of their current abilities
C.2. designprogrammesof languagetraining to meet those needsin a way
that effectively deliversthe training while reflecting the needfor WTC
to continue to fulfill its regular programmes
C.3. deliver the programmesso as to meet the identified needsof the
Managementand Programmestaff of the WTC for an in-depth level of
English languageskills which would allow them to make full use of the
materialsbecomingavailableto them through the establishmentof a
ResourceCentre, communicatedirect with other training centreswithin
the EU and assistInspectorsin training to understandbest information
publishedin English
C.4. provide the administrativestaff with a conversationalunderstandingof
English
C.5. enable WTC to play a catalytic role in the introduction of new ideas and
practicesin Worker Protection, through it's training activities taking EU
experience into consideration.
D. SCOPE OF THE WORK

Tasks to be Undertaken
D. 1. The Contractor will.
D. 1.1. Complete a training needsanalysis(TNA) of the 17 participantsfrom
the membersof the Managementand Programmestaff of WTC and the
10 participantsfrom the Administration staff.
D. 1.2. Following the TNA preparea programmeof training in English (to also
include period of residentialintensivetraining), using modem methods
and best practice in this field, for the Managementand Programme
staff, and taking into accountthe availability of WTC groups from their
routine duties. The programme design should take account of the
preferencesset out below, insofar as they are feasibleto achievethe
objectiveswithin the financial constraints. The Programme should set
out performanceobjectives to be reached,and the by
means which that
will be assessed
D. 1.3. Following TNA preparea conversationalEnglish training programme
for the Administrative staff
D. 1.4. Provide the necessarytextbooks and training materials,including
computer software if required, to ensureeffective delivery of all of the
training
D. 1.5. Deliver the training in accordancewith the following generaloutline:

Page461
D. 1.5.1. The training for the Managementand Programmeparticipants,

should be delivered in small groups (say of three people)
complementedby individual cone- to- one" teachingsessions
D. 1.5.2. The intensive training in English will take place at a suitable time
during a ten month period, for up to a two week period in one
of the EU countries, and be supported by weekly tuition in [place
name] over the ten month period (During the 2 week intensive
training period visits should be arranged to the National Health
and Safety body of the country concerned and also to a training
organisation similar to WTC. Each visit will be for a period of one
day)
D. 1.5.3. The conversationalEnglish for the Administrative staff will take
in
place [place name] over a period of 10 months,working as a
singlegroup
D. 1.5.4. The intensivetraining in English should cover learning of
everydaylanguage(conversational),more in-depth training on
official (Civil Service)English and learning of vocabulary and
teminology used within the legal and technical fields of Health and
Safety. The participantsshould haveboth good written and verbal
skills following training.
D. 1.5.5. All travel and accomodationto, from the country will be economy
classand collection andto from airports will be included
D. 1.5.6. Languagetraining will concentrateon topics closely or directly
related to the field of Worker Protection and will include visits to
a variety of venuesto allow the group to practice their English in
real life situations
D. 2. The project will be based in [place name] with intensive residential
training for 2 week, in an English speaking environment for the
Management and Programme staff.
E. BUDGET
E. 1. The maximum budget availablefor the complete contract is ECU
145,000 (One hundred and forty five thousand ECU)
E. 2. The consultant will be expectedto start work thirty days after
Contract signature
F. OUTPUTS
Initial Phase
F. 1. The consultants will be required to meet with the Project Manager
and the PMU team to obtain approval of the initial workplan The
consultant will provide a report to beprepared after two weeks
outlining the work plan for the preparatory phase of TNA and
programme design which will include; to
persons meet, tasks to be
accomplished, dates by which the tasks will be done, dates on which
reports will be submitted, and projected datefor the training
programme to commence

Page462
F. 2. A further report will be submitted no later than one month from

acceptanceof the initial workplan setting out a proposedprogramme
of English language training derived from the TNA and from the
negotiations about availibility of WTC staff to attend study sessions
in different possiblepatterns of training delivery, and confirming the
date on which the programme should commence
G. ARRANGEMENTS FOR REPORTING

Programmedelivery phase
G. 1. Periodic Reports
G.2. Subsequently the consultant will arrange regular briefings by fax or
by meeting with the Project Manager and the Project Management
Unit to advise on progress, issues, and next steps to be taken, as
appropriate In particular a written report should be provided by the
contractors confirming the commencement of programme delivery
on the previously agreed date. Thereafter quarterly reports should
indicate the extent to which performance objectives are being met,
together with any factors affecting ability to achieve those objectives
and any perceived need for modification of programme
arrangements
G.3. Final Report on Programme delivery in [place name]
G.3.1. A report shallbe submittd to PIP [address], [place name], [country]
no later than one month after the end of the provision of services by the
Contractor. This report shall include, where appropriatea financial
analysisof the Project and a critical study of any major problemswhich
may have arisenduring the performance of the contract. In addition it
should indicate the priorities to be addressedas part of any continuing
languagetraining.
G.3.2. The final report should be submittedwithin 15 months of contract
notification
G.4. Reports on intensive training programme
G.4.1. Reports on the developmentof residentialintensivetraining and
associatedvisits will be submitted to Project Manager and PMU on a
monthly basis,with final for
programme the residentialtraining and
visits to be for
completedand submitted acceptancewithin two months
of contract signature. ofAll thesereports should indicate what is
proposed,what has been achieved,andwhat remains to be done. Dates
for the residentialtraining and visits are to be proposedand agreedto
the convenienceof WTC and recipient organisationswithin three
months of contract signature
G. 4.2. Reports on the outcome of the residential training and study visits will
be submitted to Project Manager and PMU within one month of the
completion of the tour

Page463
G.S. Project reports - Content

G.5.1. All of thesereports will include the surveys/ strategydesignand
implementationas appropriateand will be accordingto a standardEC
format, providing information on:
G. 5.1.1. General progress (actions, meetings with Recipient Institutions,
suppliers, customers, etc )
G. 5.1.2. Problems encountered ( and the solutions found or not)
G. 5.1.3. Recommendations ( short term and within the life of the
programmes as well as long-term and beyond the programme )
G. 5.1.4. Requests
G.5.2. The reports should distinguishbetweenactivities achievedand
consideredfinished and activities currently underway so that the
evolution of the programmeis clear.
G.6. General Requirementsfor Reporting
G.6.1. Six copiesof the reportsshouldbe provided,threein English,threein
[country]
G.6.2. All reports will be deliveredin hard copy format and on a diskette in
Microsoft Word software
G.7. Satisfactory completion of the programme
G. 7.1. The contract will be completed satisfactorily if the outputs set out
above, namely the language training programme in [place name] and
the residential training and visits are completed as planned, if reports
are submitted on time, and if the recipient bodies, namely PIP, WTC,
and the Project Management Unit in [place name] accept that the
project specifications have been met
H. INPUTS
The contractor shall provide
H. 1. for the training programme in [place name]
H. 1.1. Experts capableof carrying out languagestudy TNA for staff et WTC
and of cooperatingwith them to design a training programmewhich
will take account of those needs
H. 1.2. English languageteacherscapableof delivering the programmeas
designedand to the standardsexpectedin [place name] in the
associatedintensiveresidentialvisits.
Unlessthe contract provides otherwise the Contractor shall have 22 working daysper
calendarmonth. Only the man months worked are payable.
For eachof theseexpertsthe contract shall make provision for
- local travel
- daily subsistenceallowances- at the UN rates
- cost of travel to and from [country]

Page464
H. 2. Backgound material to be supplied to the Contractor
- Worker Protection Programme Financing Memorandum
- Briefing from long term TA on developmentof project

- Paperspreparedby [place name] Training Centre for strategicpurposesincluding
proposalsfor the provision of a Resource(information) centre and its use.
1. SUPPORT TO THE CONTRACTOR:
- assistancewith the support from PIP and WTC staff

- assistancewith initial meetingswith key staff in PIP and the WTC
- assistancewith arrangementsfor subsequentmeetingswith PIP and the WTC
J. ADVANCES
An advancepaymentof 20% will be availablesevendaysafter contract signature.All
monies advancedwill be repayedin accordancewith the paymentschedule.
K. PAYMENTS
K. 1. The paymentscheduleexpressedin % valuesof the total value of fees
and direct expensesis as follows
K. 2. on confirmation of the programmeof training including the residential
training and visit plan, to include venuesto be visited and confirmation
by the host organisationsauthorisingthe visits and acceptanceof the
plan by the Project Manager and PMU team?a paymentof 10%
K. 3. on receipt of eachof four quarterly reports and acceptanceby the
Project Manager and the PMU team?a paymentof 20%
K. 4. on receipt and acceptance of the main and final report on the training
and study visits, a paymentof 10%.
L. JOB DESCRIPTIONS:
Duties of the Contractor: The Contractor's duties are:
L. 1. To ensurethat tasks set out above are carried out. This will be fulfilled
by attendingmeetings,complyingwith TORs, liasing with the PMU,
preparing reports, discussingdraft proposalswith [place name] staff
and the PMU and resolving difficulties which arise.
L. 2. To pay for all costs incurred in the undertaking of this assignment
including for eachof the managementand Programmestaff taking part
in the overseastraining and study visits; all accommodationand travel
costs, to, from and within the country, including to and from airports
and also the costs of daily subsistenceper diem at [country]
Governmentrates.
L. 3. The Contractor will be accountableto the EuropeanCommissionand
will contribute to the enhancementof the image of the PHARE
programme,an aid measureaimed at deepeningknowledge about
in
systems the 15 membercountries.

Page465
M. PROFILE OF THE CONTRACTOR
M. 1. The general prof le of the Contractor will provide:

M. 1.1. evidenceof experiencein the organisation?designand delivery of
languagetraining in English
M. 1.2. evidence of experience in analysis of training needs for language tuition
and of designing appropriate programmes
M. 1.3. evidenceof experiencein the planning and carrying through of
residentialtraining with a visits programmeas part of languagetraining
M. 1.4. evidenceof experienceof the delivery of suchprogrammes.
N. PROFILE OF THE EXPERT (S)

The tenderersare requestedto include, as an integral part of their offer, the curriculum
vitae of the expertsproposed,in particular to include:
N. J. Team Leader
N. 1.1. Education and Qualifications
N. 1.2. University degree in languages
N. 1.3. Fluent in an EU language.
N. 2. Essential Experience
N. 2.1. experiencein organisingand leadinglanguagetraining teams
N. 2.2. experienceof working successfullyin small teams
N. 2.3. experienceand knowledge of establishingtraining needs
N. 2.4. experience of managing the design and delivery of a wide range of
language training programmes to fit in with client business
committments
N. 3. Desirable experience
N. 3.1. has knowledge of Health and Safetylanguage
N. 3.2. has worked outside home country in projects relating to language
training
N. 3.3. hasworked inside a Public Sector environment
N. 3.4. has knowledge of PHARE/TACIS countries, as far as subjectof the
tender dossieris concerned
N. 3.5. excellentwritten and verbal skills
N. 4. Personal Characteristics
N. 4.1. understandingthat the role of advisorsis to transfer know-how and
skills to assistand empower local staff to plan/schedule/manage
programmes
N. 4.2. sensitivity to institutional issuesas these affect project implementation
N. 4.3. ability to establishgood working relationships

Page466
N. 4.4. innovative and resourcefulpersonality

N. 4.5. capacityto work to tight deadlineswith minimal support and a highly
stressfulenvironment
N. S. Profile of teaching staff
N. 5.1. Qualifications
N. 5.1.1. Fluent in English

N. 5.1.2. Diploma in teachingEnglish especiallyTEFL or Certificate with
evidenceof Experience
N. 5.2. Desirableexperience
N. 5.2.1. Experiencein teachingEnglish acrossthe range of ability and
covering the specialistneeds of WTC staff forknowledge of terms
in
used occupational healthy and safety
N. 5.2.2. has knowledge of Health and Safety.language
N. 5.2.3. has worked outside home country in projects relating to language
training
N. 5.2.4. hasworked inside a Public Sector environment
N. 5.2.5. has knowledge of PHARE/TACIS countries, as far as subjectof
the tender dossieris concerned
N. 5.2.6. excellentwritten andverbal skill
N. 5.3. PersonalCharacteristics
N. 5.3.1. understandingthat the role of advisorsis to transfer know-how
and skills to assist and empower local staff to
plan/schedulelmanage programmes
N. 5.3.2. sensitivity to institutional issuesas theseaffect project
implementation
N. 5.3.3. ability to establishgood working relationships
N. 5.3.4. innovative and resourcefulpersonality
N. 5.3.5. capacityto work to tight deadlineswith minimal support and a
highly stressfulenvironment

Page467
APPENDIX - Phrasal coordination: Adjective
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to [TO] discuss [WI] administrative [JJI and [CC) organisational [JJ] issues
[WGJ information [NN11 [, ] advisory [JJ] and [CC] practical [JJ] guidance IN
,
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, ,
groups [NN2] and [CC] a (AT1) cultural [JJ] and [CC] social (JJ1 program [NN11
the [AT) agency [NN1 's (GE) current [JJI and [CC] foreseeable [JJ] needs [NN
will [VM] allow [WI] the [AT] current [JJI and [CC] future [JJ1 work [NN1] to
icative [JJ] list (NN1] of [I0] current [JJ] and [CC] recent [JJ] activity (NN1]
or [IF] publication [NN11 in (II] daily [JJI and [CC] specialist [JJI periodical
the [AT] years [NNT21 [, ] democratic [JJ) and [CC] economic [JJJ reforms [NN2
,
10] local [JJ] funds [NN2] , (, ] direct [JJI and [CC] accurate [JJ1 linkage [NN1
also [RR] be [VB11 of [I0] direct [JJ) and [CC] immediate [JJ] benefit (NN
business [NN1] taxation [NN1] direct [JJI and [CC] indirect [JJ] taxation [NN
NN1] programmes [NN21 for [IF] disabled [JJ] and [CC] disadvantaged [JJ] persons
[. ] This [DD1J is [VBZJ a [AT1) diverse [JJI and [CC] complex [JJI set (NN11 of
[NN1] MODULE [NN11 9.6 [MC] ECONOMIC [JJI AND [CC] FINANCIAL [JJ] AREA [NN11
me
[, 1 and [CC] - [-] the [AT] economic [JJI and [CC) financial [JJ] module (NN1
, [CC] financial [JJ] budget [NN1
eteness (NN1] of [I01 the [AT] economic [JJI and
[NN1) development [NN11 , [, ) economic [JJ] and [CC] financial [JJ] analysis IN
[JJ 0000042 [with [II) economic [JJ] and [CC] physical [JJI regeneration
ncerned
(NN1) in [III addressing [WG] economic [JJI and [CC] physical [JJ] regeneration
(NN2] including [II] the [AT] economic [JJI and [CC] physical (JJ] development
he [AT] projects [NN21 in [II] economic [JJI and [CC] physical [JJ1 regeneration
[I0] supporting (WG) economic [JJI and [CC) physical [JJ] regeneration
of
ical [JJI skills [NN2] in (II) economic [JJI and [CC] physical [JJ] development
) CCC [MCI - [-] regional [JJI economic [JJI and [CC] physical [JJ] development
(NN1) of [I0] an [AT11 economic [JJ] and [CC] physical (JJ] regeneration
ntation
(. 1 The (AT) social (JJ] [, ] economic [JJ) and [CC] political (JJ1 situation I
, [NN11
[NP11 ) [)] and [CC] the (AT] Economic [JJI and [CC] Social [JJ] Research
N1] , (, ] political (JJ] (, ] economic [JJ] [CC) social [JJ] reforms [NN2]
, and
[WNJ by [III the [AT] Economic [JJ] (CC] Social [JJI Research [NN1)
ertaken and
1- [-] develop (WO] an (AT1] economic [JJI (CC] social [JJI profile (NN1]
and
inspectorate [NNJ1 ; [; J - (-1 economic (JJ1 and [CC] social [JJI profile [NN11
th [IW] the- [JJI 143c-al [JJ] economic (JJ1 and (CC) sociocultural [JJI context
(, 1 social [JJI (, ] educational [JJ] [CC] [JJ] origins (NN2
, , and economic
e [NN1] and [CC] many [DA2) educational (JJ] and (CC] environmental [JJ] agencie
riate [JJ] to [II] the [AT] educational [JJI and [CC] environmental [JJ] context
[I1] technical [JJI [, ] educational [JJI and [CC] related (JJ] fields [NN2]
n ,
will [VM] facilitate [WI] effective (JJ] and [CC] efficient [00] field [NN11
,1
Appendices: Phrasalcoordination.Adjective
Page468
ng [VVG] ever (RR) more [RGR] effective (JJ] and [CC] efficient [JJI management
to [TO] ensure [WI] an [AT1] effective [JJ] and [CC] efficient [JJ] 28 [MC] pro
are [VBR] not [XX] only [RR] effective [JJ] but [CCB] efficient [JJ) and [CC] w
relation [II32) to [1133] effective [JJ] and (CC] efficient [JJ] implementat
MU [NN1] to [TO] ensure [WI] effective [JJ] and (CC] efficient [JJ] implementat
s [VBZ] to [TO] provide [WI] effective [JJ] and [CC] flexible [JJ] support [NN1
a [AT11 timely [JJ] [, ] efficient [JJI and [CC] complete [JJ] utilisation
,
effective [JJ) but [CCB] efficient [JJ] and (CC] workable [JJ] as [RR21] we
d [CC) directing [VVG] entrepreneurial [JJ] and [CC] small [JJI business [NN1]
overseas [RL] ; [; ] - [-] environmental [JJ] and [CC] educational [JJ] consultan
NN1) record (NN1] on [I1) environmental [JJ] and [CC] educational [JJ] issues [N
NN2) with [IW] other [JJ] environmental [JJ] and [CC] educational (JJ] PHARE [NN
operational [JJ] [, ] environmental [JJ] and (CC) energy-related [JJ] issues
,
he [AT] social (JJ] [, ] environmental [JJ] and [CC] other [JJI factors [NN2] a
,
g (WG] modules [NN2] for [IF] existing [JJ] and [CC] new [JJI staff [NN] to [TO
[NN2) training [WG) for [IF] existing (JJ] and [CC] new [JJ] Employment [NN1]
s [NN2) training [WG) to [II] existing [JJ] and [CC] new [JJ] Employment [NN1]
aluating [VVG] particular [JJ] existing [JJ] or [CC] potential [JJ] incubator (N
the (AT] skills [NN2) of (I0] existing [JJ] and [CC] potential [JJ] consultants
aluating [VVG) particular [JJ] existing [JJ] or [CC] potential [JJ] incubator [N
used [VVN] for [IF] both [RR] existing [JJ] and [CC] potential [JJ] new [JJ] tr
NEF [NN1] is [VBZ] an [AT1] existing [JJ] and [CC] well-developed [JJ] instit
reference [NN1] provide [WO] explicit [JJ] and [CC] detailed [JJ] guidance [NN
month [NNT1] ) [)] + [II] extensive [JJI and [CC] guided [JJ] self [NN11 stu
provide [WI] for [IF] the [AT] fast [JJ] and [CC] effective [JJ] constructio
m [II) Poland [NP1] with [IW) financial (JJ] and [CC] contracting [JJI services
racteristics [NN21 : [: ] - [-) flexible [JJI and [CC] appropriate [JJ] response
to [TO] provide [WI] a (AT1] flexible [JJI and (CC] comprehensive [JJ] trainin
1 work (WI] with [IW) the [AT] foreign [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] experts [NN2]
eam (NNI approach [NN1] of [10] foreign [JJ) and [CC] local [JJ] partners [NN2]
xtensive [JJ] use [NN1] of [10] foreign [JJI and [CC] local [JJI experts [NN2] i
ltants [NN2) , [, ] foreign [JJI and [CC] Polish [JJ) [, ] who [PNQ
,
a [AT1) series [NN] of [10] formal [JJ] and [CC] informal [JJ] contracts [N
ct [WO] to [TO] undertake [WI] formal [JJ] and [CCI informal [JJI training [NN
dies [NN2) involved [JJJ in [II] formal [JJ] and [CC] non-formal (JJ1 education
] the [AT) existence [NN1] of [I0] good [JJ] and (CC] efficient [JJ] functioning
[W01 a [AT1] range [NN1] of [I0] hard [JJ] and [CC] soft [JJ] management [NN]
[NN2] [, 1 also [RR] need [WO] hard [JJ] and [CC] up [JJ31] to [JJ32] date
s ,
ion [NN1] and [CC) strong [JJ] historic [JJ] and (CC) architectural [JJI interes
[JJ] financial [JJ1 [, ] human [JJ) and [CC] material [JJI resources (N
cessary ,
tion [NN1] of (10] this [DD1] important [JJI and (CC) complex [JJI assignment [N
This (DD1] is [VBZ] an [AT1] important [JJ] and [CC] complex [JJ] project [NN1]
[NN1] has [VHZ] three [MC] independent [JJ] but (CCB] complementary [JJ] action
AT] potential [NN1] for [IF] industrial [JJ] or [CC] commercial [JJ] inward [JJ]
[VBR] complex [JJ] with [IW] industrial [JJ) and (CC] economic (JJ] interests [N
[CC] commerce [NN1] [, 1 industrial (JJ) and [CC] technical [JJ] [, ] param
nd , ,
[DB] forms [NN2] of [I0] industrial [JJ) and [CC] technological [JJJ coopers
all
[II21) to [1122] institutional [JJ) and [CC] administrative (JJ] change
subject
[REX) [, 1 some [DD] institutional [JJ] or (CC] legal [JJI obstacles (NN2]
pie ,
[NN1] [, ] its [APPGE] institutional [JJ] and (CC) legal (JJ) structures (NN2
y ,
NN11 services (NN2] [, ] institutional [JJ] and [CC) other [JJI resource [NN1]
,
NN2] there [EX) are [VBR] institutional [JJ] and [CC] other (JJ] constraints (NN
[NP1] [, ] institutional [JJ] [CC] [JJ]
n [II] Poland , and personal relationship
[WO] from [II) insufficient [JJ] or [CC] uncertain [JJI funding [NN1
suffer
[NN1] for [IF] an [AT1) integrated [JJ] and [CC] decentralised [JJ] approac
port
[)] to [TO] design [WI] intensive [JJ] and [CC] extensive [JJ] programmes
N2) : [: 1 basic [JJ] [, ] intermediary [JJ] and [CC] higher [JJR] levels [NN21
, [JJI
WO] a [AT1] mix [NN1] of [10) internal [JJ] and [CC] external training [NN
[JJ] internal [JJ) [CC] [JJI training [NN
[-] a [AT1] comprehensive and external
[JJ] [CC] local [JJ] technical [JJ]
on [NN1] of [I0] the [AT) international and
[IF] both [DB2] the [AT] international [JJ] and (CC] local (JJ] technical [JJ]
[NN2] for (IF) Irish (JJ] [CC] Nordic [JJ] [JJ]
e [NN1] programmes and civil ser
the (AT) management [NN] of [10] large [JJ) and [CC] complex [JJ] regional [JJ]
lio [NN1] is [VBZ] similarly [RR] large [JJI and [CC) diverse [JJ] [, ] with (I
,
We [PPIS2] [WO] for [IF] large [JJ] [CC] [JJ] organisations [
work and small
We [PPIS21 work [W0] for [IF] large [JJ] and [CC] small [JJ] organisations
(NN2] Between [JJ] [JJ] Firms [NNJ2] in
ng [WG] Links [II] Large and [CC) Small
] were [VBDR] there [RL] any [DD] legal [JJ] or [CC] bureaucratic [JJI obstacles
(NN1] of (101 economic [JJ] [, ] legal [JJ) [CC) [JJ1 problems [NN2]
, and social
e [WI] organisational [JJ] [, ] legal (JJ] and [CC] technical [JJI assistance
,
kly [RR) developed [VVN] a [AT1] lively [JJI and [CC] entrepreneurial [JJ1 small
[NN1] for investors [NN
and [CC] guidance [IF] local [JJ1 and [CC] foreign [JJI
[NN11 of [I0] local [JJI (CC) global [ii] [NN2]
understanding and courses
apability [NN1] undertaking [NN11 local [JJ) and [CC] international [JJI assignm
Page469
(WG] various [JJ] Hungarian [JJI local [JJI and [CC] national [JJI government [
official [NN1] in (III Irish [JJ] local [JJ] and [CC) national [JJI government [
[NN2] are [VBR] in (II] the [AT] local [JJ) and [CC) national [JJ] economic (JJ
contributions [NN2) from [II) local [JJI and [CC] national [JJ] government
(NN1) to [II] both [DB2] the [AT] local [JJ] and [CC) national [JJI economy [NN].
Service [NN1] at [II) both [DB2] local [JJ] and [CC] national [JJ) level [NN1)
N11 but [CCB] to [TO] train [WI] local [JJ] and [CC) national [JJ] officials [N
sinesses [NN2] on [II] both [DB2) local (JJ] and [CC] national [JJ] opportunitie
Offices [NN2) at [II) both (DB2] local [JJ] and [CC] regional [JJ) level (NN1]
I development [NN1] [, ] in (II] local [JJ) and (CC) regional [JJ] government [
,
[NP1] will [VM] provide [WI) logistic [JJ] and [CC] administrative [JJI suppor
m [NN] will (VM] receive [WI] logistic [JJ] and [CC] technical [JJI support [NN
[NP1] will [VM] provide [WI) logistic [JJI and [CC) technical [JJ] support (NN
and (CC] Duration (NN1] of CIO) Long [JJI and [CC) Short [JJ] Term [NN1) Expe
a [AT1] range [NN1] of [I0] long [JJI and [CC] short [JJ] business [NN1]
MU (NN1) staff (NN) . (. ] The [AT] long [JJI and [CC] short-term [JJ] consultant
comprised (VVN) of (101 : 1: 1 long-term [JJ] and (CC] short-term [JJ] experts IN
IW] a [AT1] mix [NN1] of [I0] long-term [JJ) and [CC] short-term [JJ] support [N
the (AT] most (RR] part (RR) medium [JJI or (CC) large [JJI scale [NN1]
,
[,
obligations (NN2] concerning [II] mixed [JJ] and (CC) foreign [JJI companies [NN
awareness [NN1] ; [; ] a [AT11 Moral [JJI and [CC] ethical [JJI aspects [NN2)
whether [CSW] local (JJ) (, ] national [JJI or [CC] European [JJI and [CC) uses
,
whether [CSW] local (JJ] [, ] national [JJI or [CC) European (JJ] and [CC] uses
,
a [AT1) regional [JJ) [, ] national [JJI and [CC) international [JJ] basis [
,
[, ] regional [JJ) [, ] national [JJI and [CC) international [JJI level [
, ,
[AT1] series (NN) of [I0] national [JJI and (CC] international [JJJ newslet
,)a
ue (NN1] in [II] raising [WG] national (JJ] and [CC) international [JJ] awarene
P1] , (, ] have [VHO) wide [RR] national [JJI and [CC) international [JJI experie
from [II] local [JJI [, 1 national [JJ] and [CC] international [JJ] communi
,
g [NN1] agencies [NN2) at [II] national (JJ1 and [CC] international [JJ] levels
a [AT1) series [NN] of [I0] national [JJ] and [CC) international (JJ] newslet
by [II] teams [NN2] of (I0) national [JJ] and [CC] international [JJI special
employ [W0] over (RG] 50 (MC] national (JJ] and [CC] international [JJ] consult
I INCE [NP1] has (VHZ] a (AT1) national [JJ] and [CC] international [JJ] network
of CIO) measures [NN2] at [II] national [JJ] and (CC) local [JJ] level [NN1] [
to [JJI agencies [NN2] at [II] national (JJ] and [CC] local [JJ) level [NN1]
ed [JJ] projects [NN2] to [II] national [JJ] and (CC] local [JJI government [NN]
IW) counterparts [NN2] at [II] national [JJ] and [CC) local [JJ) level [NN1] to
labour [NN1) costs [NN2] [, ] national [JJ] and [CC] local (JJ] infrastructure
,
counterparts [WZ] at (II] national [JJ) and [CC] local [JJ] level [NN1] to
h (DB2] their (APPGE] own [DA) national [JJ] and (CC) local (JJ] governments (NN
r [DD1] ten [MC] advising [JJ] national [JJ) and [CC) multinational (JJ] bodies
workshops [NN2) for [IF] national [JJ] and (CC) provincial (JJ) administra
arity [NN1) with [IW) the [AT] national [JJ] and [CC] regional (JJ) market (NN1)
ions (NN2) taken (VVN] by [II] national [JJI and [CC) regional [JJ) governments
Governments [NNJ2] (, ) National [JJI and [CC) Regional [JJ) Organisation
,
ation (NNI] at [II] both [DB2] national [JJI and [CC] regional [JJI level (NN1]
t [NN1) Bank [NN1) ) [)] [, ] national (JJ] and (CC] regional [JJI governments
,
I building [NN1] in [II] both [DB2] new [JJ] and [CC) established [JJI organisat
with [IW) Phare (NP1) operational [JJI and [CC) financial (JJ] procedures
mme [NN1] [, ] initiate [WO] personal [JJ] and (CC] institutional (JJ] relatio
,
e [NNT1) management [NN] : [: ] personal [JJI and [CC] organisational [JJ) priori
am [NN] have [VHO) strong [JJ] personal [JJI and (CC) professional [JJ] links IN
] worked [VVN) as [II] a [AT1) physical (JJ] and [CC] economic [JJJ planner [NN1
full (JJ] picture [NN1] of [I0) planned [JJ] and (CC] actual [JJI activities (NN
ces [NN2] between [II] the [AT) planned [JJ] and [CC] actual [JJI activities [NN
t (NNJJ 's [VHZ) stated [VVN) political [JJI and [CC] economic (JJ] objectives [
om [II] the [AT] massive [JJI political [JJI and [CC] economic [JJI changes [NN2
iate [JJ] economic (JJ] [, ] political [JJ) and [CC) social [JJI changes (NN2]
,
[NN1] from [II] both (DB2] primary [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJI schools IN
urse
dbooks [NN2) for [IF] both (RR) primary [JJ) and [CC] vocational (JJ] education
kbooks [NN2] in [II] both (DB2] primary [JJ) and [CC) vocational [JJI schools IN
EE [UH] in [II] both [DB2] primary [JJ] and [CC] vocational [JJ] schools IN
teams [NN2] for [IF] both [RR] primary [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJJ education
[MC] . (. ] For [IF] both [RR] primary [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJI materials
(NN1] at (II] both (DB2] primary (JJ] and (CC) vocational [JJ] levels INN
cation
I depend (WI] upon (II] the (AT) prior [JJI or (CC] parallel [JJ) implementatio
] from [II) both [DB2] the [AT] private [JJ] and [CC) public [JJ] sectors [NN2]
for (IF] both [DB2] the (AT] private [JJ) and (CC) public [JJI sectors (NN21
work (WO] and [CC) are (VBR) proactive [JJI and [CC] innovative [JJ] in [III se
(, ) among [II] both [DB2] professional [JJ] and [CC] administrative (JJ] staff
NP) b [ZZ1] ) [)] the [AT] professional (JJ) and [CC) personal [JJI needs [NN2]
WZ) on [II] relevant [JJI professional [JJI and [CC] technical [JJI expertise
WZ] on (II] relevant [JJI professional [JJ] and [CC] technical [JJI expertise [
Page470
ministries [NN2] [, ) provincial [JJI and [CC) local (JJ) government (NN]
,
rvices [NN2) t [ZZ1] ( [(] [, ] public [JJ) and [CC] private [JJI organisations
,
consortia [NN2) combining [WG] public [JJ] and [CC] private [JJ) sector [NN1]
g [JJI organisations [NN2] ( [(] public [JJI and [CC] private [JJI ) [)] Leaders
cover [W0] work [NN1] for [IF] public (JJ] and [CC) private [JJ] sector [NN1]
mental [JJI protection [NN1) [, ] pure [JJI and [CC) applied [JJ] research [NN1
,
bilateral [JJ) links [NN2] in (II] pure [JJ) and [CC] applied [JJ] science [NN1]
r [NN1] outlining [VVG] the [AT] recent [JJ) and [CC) future [JJ] progress [NN1]
[. ] Some (DD] of [10] the [AT] recent [JJI and (CC] present [JJI international
.
icial [JJ] national [JJI [, ] regional [JJ] or [CC) local [JJ] statistics [NN)
,
olish [JJI national [JJI [, J regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJI institutions IN
,
ministries [NN2] and [CC] regional [JJ] and [CC) local [JJ] authorities [NN
N2) at (II) central [JJI , [, ] regional [JJ] and [CC) local [JJ] government [NN]
VN) in (III central (JJ]
,
[, ] regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] government [NN]
]a [AT1] remit [NN1) for (IF) regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] economic [JJ] d
ng [WG] centres [NN2] at [II] regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] level [NN1]
.[
ng (VVG] courses [NN2] at [II) regional [JJ] and [CC) local [JJ] level [NN1] as
N1] of (I0] central [JJ] [, ] regional [JJ] and (CC] local [JJ] government [NN)
,
t [JJ] positions [NN2] at [II] regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] level [NN1)
.
centres [NN2] and [CC) at [II] regional [JJ] and [CC] local [JJ] level [NN1]
s [NN2] training [WG] at [II] regional [JJI or [CC) local (JJ] level [NN1) [,
,
pment [NN1] at [II] both [DB2] regional [JJI and [CC) national [JJ] level [NN1]
roles (NN21 in [III many [DA2] regional [JJ] and [CC] urban [JJI regeneration IN
of (10] the (AT) most (RG] respected [JJI and [CC) experienced [JJI environme
d [CC) knowledge [NN1] [, ] scientific [JJ] and [CC] personal [JJ] achievements
,
d [CC] knowledge [NN1] , [, ) scientific [JJI and [CC] personal [JJ] achievements
[WZ] to [TO) transfer [WI] scientific [JJ] and (CC) technological [JJ] know IN
education [NN1] at [II] secondary [JJI and (CC) post- [JJI secondary [JJI
a (AT1] vocational [JJI [, ] secondary [JJ) or [CC] tertiary [JJ] school [NN1]
,
WNJ a (AT1] number [NN1) of [10] short [JJ] and [CC) long [JJ] term [NN1) consu
tions (NN2] and [CC) various [JJI small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJI sized [JJ] ent
for [IF] support [NN1] of [I0] small [JJ) and (CC] medium [JJ] sized [JJ) ent
the [AT) needs [NN2) of (I0) small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJ] sized [JJI ent
[NN1] of [I0] a [AT1] strong (JJ] small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJI enterprise (NN
[NN1] and [CC] regeneration [NN1) small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJI sized [JJI ent
[NN1] of [I0] accelerating [WG] small [JJ] and [CC] medium [JJ) enterprise [NN
NN1) development [NN1) among [II) small [JJ] and [CC] medium [JJI enterprises IN
t [NN1] Strategies (NN2] for [IF] small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJ] enterprises IN
he [AT] development [NN1] of [I0] small [JJI and [CC] medium [JJ] sized [JJJ ent
develop [WI) existing [JJI small [JJ] and [CC] medium [JJI enterprise [NN
he [AT] development [NN1] of (I0] small [JJ] and [CC] medium-sized [JJ] enterpri
med [WD] at (II] adjusting [WG) small [JJ] and [CC] medium-sized [JJ] enterpri
med [WD] at [III adjusting [WG] small [JJ] and [CC] medium-sized [JJ] enterpri
] Task [NN1] Force [NNJ) for [IF] small [JJ] and [CC) medium-sized [JJ] enterpri
ivatisation [NN1] [, ] SHE-development [JJJ and [CC] military [JJI conversion [
,
lgaria [NP1) in [II) its [APPGE] social [JJ] and [CC] economic [JJI transformati
the [AT] political [JJI [, ) social [JJ] and (CC) economic [JJI life [NN1] o
,
ssistance (NN1] to [II] the [AT) Social [JJ] and (CC) Economic [JJ] Development
Ti] ensuring [WG] positive [JJ] social [JJ) and [CC] economic [JJ] impact [NN1]
ssistance [NN1) to III) the [AT] Social [JJ] and [CC] Economic [JJI Development
system [NN1] and [CC) such [DA] social [JJ) and [CC) environmental [JJ] conside
], [, J institutional [JJI [, ] social [JJI and [CC] environmental [JJ) factors
,
NN2) , [, J and [CC] various [JJI social [JJI and [CC] environmental [JJI factors
NN11 of [I0) economic [JJI [, ] social [JJ] and [CC] political [JJ] development
,
I of [IOJ the [AT) broader [JJRJ social [JJ] and [CC) political [JJ) aspects [NN
the [AT] arts [NN2] [, ] specialist (JJ] and [CC] professional [JJI services
,) ,
VO) the [AT] need [NN1] for [IF] speedy [JJ] and [CC] effective [JJI implementat
D2] disciplines [NN2] of [I0) strategic [JJ] and [CC] operational [JJ] planning
ible [JJ] for [IF) the [AT] substantial [JJ] and [CC] important (JJ] training IN
develop [WI] a (AT1] successful (JJ] and [CC] sustainable [JJI RDA (NN1)
their (APPGE] important [JJI technical [JJI and [CC] administrative [JJ] contri
] (, J scientific [JJI [, ) technical [JJ] and [CC) cultural [JJ] co-operation
,
] [, ] scientific [JJ] [, ] technical [JJI and [CC] cultural [JJI cooperation
,
] (, ) scientific [JJ] [, ] technical [JJ) and [CC] cultural [JJ] co-operation
,
h [JJI educational [JJ] [, ] technical [JJ] and [CC] cultural [JJ) resources IN
,
h (JJ] educational (JJ] (, ) technical [JJI and [CC] cultural [JJ] resources IN
,
], [, ] scientific [JJI [, ) technical [JJI and [CC) cultural [ii] cooperation
,
opy [NN1] of [I0] our [APPGE] Technical (JJ) and [CC) Financial [JJ) Proposal IN
ies [NN2] of (I0] our [APPGE] technical [JJI and [CC] financial [JJI proposals [
ies [NN2] of [I0) our (APPGE) technical [JJI and (CC) financial [JJ] proposals [
the [AT] firm (NNJ] 's [GE) technical (JJ] and [CC) financial (JJ) proposals [
[, ) to (TO) submit [WI) technical [JJI and [CC] financial (JJJ proposals I
ns [NN2] to (TO] submit [WI) technical [JJ) and [CC] financial [JJ] proposals [
ies (NN2) of [10] our [APPGE] technical [JJ] and (CC] financial [JJ) proposals [
Page471
P1] Team (NN] [. ] Both [RR] technical [JJI and [CC] logistical [JJI support [N
.
(TO) provide (WI) both (RR) technical [JJ) and [CC] logistical [JJI support [N
(10] the (AT] necessary [JJ] technical [JJ] and (CC) managerial [JJ) capability
ff [NN] to [TO) develop [WI) technical [JJ] and [CC] managerial (JJ] capabiliti
ble (NN1] 2 [MCI 8 [MC] (. 1 TECHNICAL [JJ) AND [CC] PROFESSIONAL [JJI EXPERTIS
.
(NN2) ; (; ] 8. [MC] the [AT) technical [JJ] and [CC] professional [JJ) expertis
es [NN2] 50 [MC] 8 (MC] [. ] Technical [JJI and [CC] Professional [JJI Expertis
.
re [RRQ] necessary [JJ] (, ] technical [JJ] and [CC] professional [JJI resource
,
and [CC) medicine (NN1] (, ] technical [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJ] education
,
in (II] scientific [JJ] [, ] technical [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJ) education
,
ary [JJI level [NN1] and [CC] technical [JJI and [CC] vocational [JJ] school [NN
a (AT1] swift [JJI (, ] thorough [JJI and [CC] effective [JJ] review [NN1
,
s [DD1) requires [WZ] a [AT1] thorough [JJ] and [CC] realistic [JJI understandi
place [NN1J to [TO) obtain [WI) timely [JJ] and [CC) accurate [JJ] information
uired [VVN] to (TO] ensure (WI) timely [JJI and [CC] effective [JJI implementat
which [DDQ] expect (W0] transparent [JJI and (CC) simple [JJI rules [NN2] an
r (CC] will (VM] have [VHI] unavoidable [JJI and [CC] unpredictable [JJI profess
s [NN2] which [DDQ] are [VBR] universal [JJI and [CC) central [JJ] to [II] any
J is (VBZ] a (AT1] qualified [JJ] urban [JJI and [CC] regional [JJ] planner (NN1
[I0) networking [NN1) are [VBR] visible [JJ] and [CC] tangible [JJ] at (III a [A
EE (UH] within [II] the (AT] vocational [JJ] and [CC) primary (JJ) school [NN1]
ary (NN1] , [, ] through [II) vocational [JJ] and [CC] technical [JJI training [N
ary (NN1] , [, ] through (II] vocational [JJ] and [CC] technical [JJI training [N
or (IF) community (NNJ] , [, ] voluntary [JJ] and [CC) charitable [JJI groups (NN
or [IF] community [NNJ] [, ] voluntary [JJI and [CC] charitable [JJ] groups (NN
,
[NP1] has (VHZ] a [AT1] well-developed [JJ] and [CC] comprehensive [JJ] educati
draws [WZ] together (RL) a (AT1] wide (JJ] and [CC] complementary [JJ] range [
VVN] . [. ] Figure [NN1] 2 [MC] Workplan [JJI and [CC] Key (JJ] Milestones [NN2]
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Page477
APPENDIX - PP Themes
1. The strengtheningof Environmental Education at Primary and EU PHARE

Vocational School Level, Poland
2. The provision of technical assistance to the Programme for EU PHARE
Worker Protection, Poland
3. The development of a Support Scheme for Incubators and High- EU PHARE
tech Spin-off Firms, Poland
4. The Institutional Development of the Ministry of National EU PHARE
Education, Poland
5. A programmeto assistthe establishmentand developmentof EU PHARE
Employment Service Staff Training Centresand Training
Programmesin the Czech and Slovak Republics
6. The provision of Technical Assistanceto a Labour Market and EU PHARE
Social Policy Programme,Bulgaria
7. The Review/Assessmentof Past and Current Interventions and EU PHARE
Preparation and Support for Further Reforms in Public
Administration in Hungary
8. The provision of Long Term Technical Assistance EU PHARE
(Implementation Adviser) to the "Human ResourceDevelopment
Facility", Hungary
9. The provision of Technical Assistancefor the Programme EU PHARE
ManagementUnit for Implementation of the Worker Protection
Programme,Poland
IO.Technical assistanceto the Bulgarian Foreign Investment Agency EU PHARE
11.Training for Education Reform ManagementTechnical EU PHARE
Assistancefor the ProgrammeManagementUnit (PMU), Poland
12.Support for SME Development- Vladimir Region of the Russian EU TACIS
Federation
13.A ManagementInstitutionsDevelopmentProject(MIDEP), Poland ODA /
Know-How
Fund
14.Consultancyassistancein developmentplanning and staff ODA
training for the CherpovretsRegional Development Agency,
Russia
Appendices: PP Themes
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Page482
Appendix: Preparing the PP Corpus
1. Introduction
1.1 In this appendix I shall describe the practical issues that I faced in preparing the
research corpus. In order to contextualise this discussion and demonstrate the
tools that I am working with I shall describe the preparation of two of the texts
that were used in the final study. This Appendix was originally written as part
of my MPhil to PhD upgrade, part of my motivation then being to use this text
as a way of putting together the software and hardware toolkit that I would use
when compiling the complete research corpus. Another reason for including
such a lengthy discussion of fairly unintellectual matter has been that however
good the software tools we have to hand for analaysis, most language teachers
are still intimidated by the mechanics of this sort of data handling. I wish to
include a specific and detailed account of how I have gone about this part of
my research in the hope that it will demonstrate to others that the task is do-
able - and that there are some pitfalls that they can avoid by learning from my
experience.
1.2 By corpuspreparation I meanthe physicaltransfer of paper or electronic texts
into a format which can be processedusing the computer resourcesavailable
during the study. Theseresourcesinclude an MSDOS PC (Pentium 90) with
24MB RAM and a1 GigabyteHard Disk Drive running under Windows 95, a
documentscanner(Visioneer PaperPortVx), OmniPageProfessionalversion 8
Optical CharacterRecognition Software (OCR), WordSmith version 2 (a
concordancingand text processingpackage)and a range of other software
tools (to be discussedbelow).
1.3 From the outset, I assumedthat the corpuswould exist in two forms -a set of
plain ASCII files containing no mark-up, and a set of parallel files that coded
with part of speech tags (POS) using the CLAWS program availablein
UCREL at LancasterUniversity. The issue of marking up the corpus in any
(e.
other way g. to identify discoursemoves) is not discussed in this chapter.
Appendices: Preparing the PP Corpus

Page483
1.4 I have identified five key stages in the initial preparation of the corpus. These
are:
- SCANNING
- POST EDITING SCANNED MATERIAL
- PREPARING WORDPROCESSORFILES FOR CLAWS PROCESSING
- POST EDITING CLAWS OUTPUT
- ANONYMISING THE CORPUS
1.5 The tasks that are involved in eachof the stageswill be consideredin detail in
Sections2,3,4, and 5.
1.6 The text (BULG. TXT) from which most exampleshave beentaken - and on
I
which shall focus in other chaptersof this report, is a Technical Proposal
by
prepared a private UK Consultancy (consultancy A) in responseto an EC
PHARE Programmeinvitation to bid for the contract to provide technical
assistance to the Foreign Investment Agency of a former communist country in
Central Europe. This text was provided in word processorformat (Microsoft
Word for Windows 2), thereby eliminatingthe needfor scanningand OCR. I
shall exemplify issues related to theseprocesses with ENVI. TXT, one of the
TechnicalProposalsprovided by the NGO in the study.
2. Scanning
2.1 Document Scanningis a processin a

Organisation and sothod
which a "photograph" of a document

is taken by a machinewhich hasthe g
to digitise this image ýtlý
capacity and
transfer it in bitmapped form to a Mtlq
'O tla'1°'Ma`0'0fý'°"°`""''ý"k°rw.
computer file. A bitmapped file is 1"

in
one which the image is treated as ý, ý, aen meTeama'R. Yerwc
if it is madeup of "dots" of ,
M. 1ý ýourympoxd . VPo. k. dwlap. 6... J. W.,.... d.. NCýi
information. Each of theseis given

a specific code, thereby permitting Figure1
the reconstruction of the image on a
computer screen or any other form
which can be handled by a digital computer. This bitmapped image can be
manipulated as a graphic image in the in Figure 1, or it can be
- as example
to
passed an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) program which is ableto
recognisethe pattern madeby eachcharacteron the page, and to translate
Appendices: Preparingthe PP Corpus

Page484
theseinto the types of code that are required by a word processor. Thus the
text in Figure 1 can become:
Organisation and method
(i) Summary
1. In this chapter we provide:
" an outline of the proposed management of the project;
" an outline of our general approach to meeting the objectives

of the
programme;
" comments on the Terms of Reference;
details of our proposed approach, including aim, analysis of

need, anticipated outcomes, proposed response and workplan;
" implementation schedules and breakdown of consultancy time.
Table 1
2.2 If all goeswell, this documentcontainsvery few - or no - "mistakes" i. e.

-
instanceswhere the software has createda mismatchbetweenthe bitmapped
image of a characterand the textual realisationof that character. This is
primarily dependenton the print quality of the original text, although the
sophisticationof OCR program is also a signficantfactor. OmnipagePro
Version 8 has proved to be extremelycapable,especiallywhen it has come to
handling complex documentswith tables and multi-column layout.
3. Post Editing of Scanned Material
3.1 The stagesinvolved in post-editing scannedmaterial are
- re-formatting
- spell-checking
- proof reading.
3.2 Re-formatting is required becausethe output from the OCR processcan alter
margins and charactersize and sometimesfails to respectthe distinction
betweenlandscapeand portrait page orientation. Spell-checkinghastwo
merits - first it throws up "non-words" which have beencreatedby failures in
the OCR software. In the examplebelow two simpleproblemsare shown. In
the first, the OCR packagehas failed to recognisethe characters"1" and "0" in
"10", and has produced the nonsensestring "t 0" as a substitute.A word-
processor'sspell-checkand "search-and-replace"functions are ideal tools for

Page485
automatingthe correction of this sort of problems. The secondproblem is that

graphic bullets + hanging indents, which are usedwidely in this sort of
document,havebeensubstitutedby a smallASCII bullet equivalentand a tab
indent.
Project reporting
t 0. Quarterly progress reports will be produced by the project team

for the information of the MEPNRF and NEEC. They will be collated
and produced by the project coordinator and will contain:
" reports from the primary and vocational education teams,

outlining progress;
" reports from team leaders commenting on project activity and

progress to date, a technical assessment of project outputs, analysis
of reviews and training workshops;
Table 2- Text example
4. Preparation for CLAWS Processing
4.1 One of the main things that I have learnedfrom this processhas beenthe
extreme importance of careful preparation. In my first attempts,although I had
ensuredthat the text was of good quality in terms of spelling and layout, it was
still relatively "noisy". There were, for example,strings of characterswhich
indicated pagebreaksin the original texts "-----------", and extraneousfeatures
such as pagenumbers,the bullet charactersalreadymentioned,large numbers
of superfluoustab codes,asteriskcharactersand other redundanttext elements.
In order to minimisepost editing of CLAWS output, it is essentialthat such
featuresare removed. The text should be free of all formatting codes(e.g.
tabs) and should only contain stringswhich are relevant to Part Of Speech
tagging. This requirementis equally relevantto text which hasbeenprovided
on disk. Although spell-checkingshould not be necessaryfor theseexamples,
it is still important to simplify the layout of the documentand to remove as
much noise as possiblefrom the text.
4.2 Once text hasbeenreformatted in a wordprocessor,it has to be savedto disk
as an ASCII file. This can be doneusing "saveas" featuresthat are available
on all modem wordprocessors. Text is now ready to passto CLAWS.
5. Post Editing CLAWS Output
5.1 CLAWS can provide output in various formats. The most common is one in
which the text hasbeen "verticalised" - giving the original words of the text in
the left hand column (precededby a line identifier) and the POS tags allocated
to those words on the right. CLAWS will also provided alternativeswhere the
program considersstrings to be ambiguous,marking the alternateswith a
probability ranking:
1 Microsoft Word version 7 for Windows 95 in this study

Page486
0000001 010 ORIGINAL 03 (JJ/99] NN1@/1

0000003 010 TECHNICAL 06 [JJ/100] NP/0
0000003 020 ASSISTANCE 03 NN1
0000003 030 TO 03 [11/100) TO/0
0000003 040 BFIA 35 [JJ/83] NN1/17
0000005 010 Project 03 [NN1/95] WO/5
0000005 020 no 97 UH
0000005 021 : 03 :
0000005 030 BG 62 NP
0000005 040 92.04 17 MC
0000007 010 Technical 06 [JJ/71] NP1/29
0000007 020 Proposal 06 [NN1/64] NP1/32
JJ@/4
0000009 010 COPY 03 (WO/64] NN1/36
0000011 010 TECHNICAL 06 [JJ/100] NP/0
0000011 020 ASSISTANCE 03 NN1
0000011 030 TO 03 (11/100] TO/0
Table3
5.2 The columnsare separatedby blank spaces.This text hasto be edited in order
to be used in later searches.The stagesthat this involves are:
- Tag Disambiguation
- Reformatting to ensurethat all tags are boundedby squarebrackets [].
- "Horizontallizing"
5.3 In Tag Disambiguationeachalternativehasto be reviewed and manually edited

for the best choice. The basic guidesfor this are the CLAWS 7 Tagset Guide
(Wynne M 1996, UCREL) and the BNC Users ReferenceGuide (Burnard L.
1995). Given the relatively large numberof tags presentedfor disambiguation
in this output, I have taken the decisionof acceptingall first choiceswith 90%
100% probability. A Word Basic Macro has been written to managethis
-
task (SeeAppendices- Word Basic Macro Listings). During the
disambiguationprocess,three small macroswere used and assignedto keys on
the PC keyboard. Thesemadeit possibleto edit text so that either the first,
secondor third tag was acceptedand left in place appropriatelyformatted.
Thus:
0000007 020 Proposal 06 [NN1/641 NP1/32 JJ@/
becomes:
0000007 020 Proposal NN1
5.4 Once all tags have beendisambiguated- or certain level of ambiguity has been
deemedacceptablefor the purposesof analysis,the text has to be transformed
so that the column separatorsbetweena word and its tag becomesa tab code
rather than blank space,and eachtag is boundedby square brackets. I have
experimentedwith various ways of doing this. Two of the more successful
have been:

Page487
- to use MS Word "Searchand Replace"to replaceall "white space"with tab
codes- (Aw = white space/ At = tab). The file that results from this process
can then be transferredto MS Excel where it is quick and easyto delete
unwanted columns of data (i. e. the numericalline identifiers). The output
from this processcan then be passedto WordSmith Tools for final
processing.
- to use the WordSmith Text Converter tools for the whole process.This
tool allows extensivesearchand replaceprocessesto be carried out on a
batch of namedfiles - an advantageonce a set of conversioncodeshave
beenwritten and tested. (SeeAppendices- WordSmith Text Converter
code files)
In practice, I found that WordSmith was more appropriateto what I needto

do.
5.5 Final output from this processis an ASCII file formatted as one continuous
paragraph. now looks as follows:
ORIGINAL [NN1] TECHNICAL [JJ] ASSISTANCE [NN1] TO [II] BFIA
[NP1] Project [NN1] no [NN] : [: ] BG (NP] 92.04 [MC] Technical
[JJ] Proposal [NN1] COPY [NN1] TECHNICAL (JJ] ASSISTANCE [NN1]
TO (II] BFIA [NP1] Project (NN1] no [NN1] : [: ] BG [NP] 92.04
[MC] Technical [JJ] Proposal [NN1] TECHNICAL [JJ] ASSISTANCE
[NN1] TO [II] BFIA
Table 4
This is the main form in which the POS tagged data-setwill be held.
6. Anonymising the Corpus
6.1 In order to meet my obligations to preservethe commercialconfidentiality of

the organisationswho have provided data for this study, the final stagein
preparing the corpus data is to render the text as anonymousas possible use for
in the thesis or any future publications or presentations. There is a long way
and a short way of doing this! The long way involves three processes.
1. create a wordlist for the full text

Page488
2. identify (manually)proper nouns
3. identifier
allocate a unique alpha-numerical to eachproper noun (this is done by
transferringthe file to a spreadsheetand allocating a code to eachword)
4. systematicallyreplaceeachunique proper noun string with a unique numerical
identifier.
6.2 The output can be seenin the examplebelow. The advantageof working in
this way is that it is possibleto reconstitutethe original text from the coded
output if this be
should necessary.
A1252 (NP1] ) [)] has [VHZ] been [VBN] produced [WN] by (II]
A1237 [NP1] A1236 [NP1] A1238 [NP1] Limited [WD] ( [(] A1234
[NP] ) [)] in (1131] response [1132] to [1133] an [AT1]
invitation (NN1] from [II] the [AT] EC [NP1] PHARE [NP]
Programme (NN1] [. ] A1234 [NP] is [VBZ] collaborating [WG]
.
with [IW] A1290 [NP] A1356-A1262 [NP] ( [(] A1290 [NP] ) [)],
[, ] a [AT1] A1246 [JJ] regional [JJ] development [NN1]
authority [NN1], [, ] and [CC] A1300[NP1] A1325[NP1] per [FW]
il [FW] A1275 [NP1] A1280 [NP1] ( [() A1296 [NP1] ) [)], [, ]
the [AT] A1302 [JJ] Institute [NNJ] for [IF] Foreign (JJ]
Trade [NN1], (, ] in [II] this [DD1] project [NN1]
Table5
6.3 The quick way is to take the CLAWS output and replaceany string which is
followed by the code [NP*] with a string of characterssuch as XXXX In this
be
case,you will never able to tell who has done what, or where!
6.4 Given that my original corpus data cannotbe put into the public domain,I have
opted for a version of the approachused in 6.3. This has involved maintaining
the corpus data in "full form" until the last possiblemoment, and then stripping
out potentially revealing data by using searchand replace (often with
meaningfulreplace elements such as "consultancy group" or "country name").
Bibliography
Burnard L (1995), TheBritish National Corpus UsersReferenceGuide (SGML

version), Oxford University Computing Services,Oxford

Page489
APPENDIX - Private verbs
anticipate anticipates anticipated anticipating assume

assumes assumed assuming believe believes
believed believing conclude concludes concluded
concluding decide decides decided deciding
demonstrate demonstrates demonstrated demonstrating determine
determines determined determining discover discovers
discovered discoveing doubt , doubts doubted
doubting estimate estimates estimated estimating
fear fears feared fearing feel
feels felt feeling find finds
found finding forget forgets forgotten
forgetting guess guesses guessed guessing
hear hears heard hearing hope
hopes hoped hoping imagine imagines
imagined imagining imply implies implied
implying indicate indicates indicated indicating
infer infers inferred inferring know
knows knew knowing learn learns
learned learning mean means meat
meaning notice notices noticed noticing
prove proves proved proving realize
realizes realized realizing realise realises
realised realising recognize recognizes recognized
recognizing recognise recognises recognised recognising
remember remembers remembered remembering reveal
reveals revealed revealing see sees
saw seen seeing show shows
showed showing suppose supposes supposed
supposing think thinks thought thinking
understand understands understood understanding understand
Appendices: Private verbs

Page 490
APPENDIX Search algorithms: final set

-
a s ; ae
1 3 present-tense verbs [VVG*/[VV0*/[VVZ*/[VB0*/[VBM*/[VBR*/[VBZ*/[VB WS

G*/[VDO*/VDZ*/[VHO*/[VHZ*/VHG*
1 6 first-person pronouns [PPI* WS
1 7 second-person pronouns [PPY] WS
1 9 pronoun IT [PPH1] WS
1 10 demonstrative pronouns this/that/these/those Context 3 right WS
[V*/[? ]/who/whose/whom/wh ich/-VM*
1 11 indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone/anything/everybody/everyone/eve WS
rything/nobody/none/nothing/nowhere/somebody/s
omeone/something C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\P-
INDEF. TXT
1 12 DO as pro-verb [VD*] Context word 4 right -[V*/-[XX* Then sort WS
by two left to eliminate Question forms
1 13 WH-questions [DQ*/RRQ* context word 2 Right = [VB*/[VD*/[VH* WS
1 19 BE as main verb [VB* Context word 4 Right [D*/[A*/[NNB*/[I*/[J* WS
1 23 WH-clauses C \WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS. txt Context 4 right WS
[DDQ]/[DDQVE]/-[VD*/-[VH*
1 34 sentence relatives which Context word = [? ] 1 left /0 right (hand WS
edited)
1 35 adv. sub. - cause because WS
1 47 general hedges at * about/something *1 ike/more * or * WS

less/almost/maybe
1 47 general hedges sort * of /kind * of Context word 2 left: WS
-[AT*]/-[J*]/[? */[PH*
1 48 amplifiers absolutely/altogether/completely/enormously/entir WS
ely/extremely/fully/greatly/highly/intensely/perfectly
/strong ly/thorough ly/total ly/utterly/very
C: \WSMITH\SEARCH\AMPLIFY. TXT
1 49 general emphatics FOR * SURE/A * LOT/SUCH * WS

A/JUST/REALLY/MOST/MORE
1 49 general emphatics SO [*] * [RR*]/[VD*] * [V*]/REAL [*] * [J*] WS
1 50 discourse particles right/well/now/anyway/anyhow/anyways Context WS
word 1L[? ]
1 52 possibility modals ca/can/might/may/could WS
1 56 private verbs C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PRIVAT. TXT Context WS
Word 1 right [V*
1 59 contractions *'* Context Word 2 Right = WS
ý[GEj/- " /- NP*/- NN*/- UH*
mow
1 60 that-deletion [P* * [V*/N* * [V* Context word WS
[V*/-[CST*/-[? ]/--[V D*/-[VM*/-[VH*/--[VVN*/-[VV
G* 2 LEFT - Manually edit to idenify
private/public/suasive words
1 60 that-deletion C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS. TXT Context Word WS
[J*/[R*/[AT*
1 61 stranded prepositions [1* * [? ] WS
1 65 non-phrasal coordination AND [CC] IT/AND [CC] SO/AND [CC] THEN/AND WS
[CC] YOU/AND [CC] THERE
1 67 analytic negation NOT/N'T WS
1 16 nouns [N* - excluding nominalizations & gerunds Win

(manually sorted) grep
39 prepositions c:\wsmith\search\preposit. txt Context word [1* 1 WS
-1
Ri ht
Appendices: Search Algorithm s_final set

Page 491
ttributive adjectives [J* * [N* Win

.,
grep
,!! ibutive adjectives [J* * [J* Win
'i, )tal attrib adj.

1 40 *total adjectives [J` Win
Qren
1 40 `týitsE aril :Ittrýh ;IJi
-1 40 " ttýýliCý3iivt?J0j +ý0vt, c

1 40 -pledic, itv,. i nt, tit ^V i, 1 (i ýI< ; ýP!" "1 I: i. ý ,t,
.,
1 40 *predicative adjectives [VB* ` [J* ` [R* Context word 6 Right -[N* WS
1 40
1 43 type/token ratio WordSmith function n= 400) WS
1 44 word length WordSmith function WS
2 1 past tense verbs \[V? D:n*\] Win

grep
2 2 perfect aspect verbs [VH* Context word [V? N* left horizon 0/ right WS
horizon 6
2 8 third person pronouns she/he/they/her/him/them/his/their/himself/herself/ WS
themselves
2 24 present participial clauses [? ] Context word 2 right left 0 [VVG* WS
2 55 public verbs c:\wsmith\search\v-public. txt Context word [V* 1 WS
left
2 66 synthetic negation neither/nor WS

2 66 synthetic negation no Context WS
word[ N*]/J*]/each/a II/every/many/mu ch/few/severa
I/some/an left horizon 0/ ri ht horizon 4
3 14 nominalizations *tion/*ment/*ness/*ity/*tions/*ments/*nesses/*ities WS
3 31 WH-relative clauses on [NN* * [DDQ] * [JJ*/[NN* * [DDQ] * [V* Context WS
subject positions word 2 Left = -say*/-said/-tell*/-told
3 32 WH-relative clauses on [NN* * [DDQ] Sort by 4 right - manual edit to WS
object positions exclude [V*/[R*/[J*
3 33 WH-relatives pied-pipes [1* * [DDQ] WS
3 64 phrasal coordination [J* AND [CC] * [J*/[R* AND [CC] * [R*/[V* AND WS
[CC * V*/ N* AND CC * N*
4 place adverbials C\WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-PLAC. TXT WS

-3
5 time adverbials C: \WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-TIME. TXT WS
-3
-3 42 other adverbs [R* minus all totals hedges / amplifiers / WS
downtowners / place adverbials / time adverbials
Mffiý M
WWWWOOMMOOM
4 24 infinitives [TO] WinGre
p
4 37 adv. sub. - condition if/unless WS
4 53 necessity modals ought*/should*/must* WS
4 54 prediction modals will/would/shall/wo/sha WS
4 57 suasive verbs C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-SUAS. TXT WS
4 63 split auxiliaries [VB* * [R* * [V*/[VH* * [R* * [V*/[VD* * [R* * [V* WS

4 63 split auxiliaries [VB* * [R* * [R* * [V*/[VH* * [R* * [R* * [V*/[VD* * WS
jR* * [R* * (V* Context word 7 Riqht [V*
5 11 agentless passives [Vb* * [VVN" Context word = by 0 left l6 right) WS

5 17 agentless passives [VB* * [R* [VVN* Context word = -by WS
Appendices: Search Algorithms_final set

Page 492
asa'e at as
5 17 agentless passives [VB* * [R* * [R* * [VVN*Context word = -by WS

5 17 agentless passives [VB* * [N* * [VVN*/[VB* * [P* * [VVN*Context word WS
= -hv
5 18 by-passives [VB* * [VVN* Context word = by WS

5 18 by-passives [VB* * [R* * [VVN* WS
5 18 by-passives [VB* * [R* * [R* * [VVN* Context word = by WS
5 18 by-passives [VB* * [N* [VVN*/[VB* * [P* [VVN* Context word = WS
5 26 past participial adverbial [VVN* * [R* Context word 3 left WS

clauses
5 26 past participial adverbial [VVN* * [1* Context word WS
clauses
5 27 past prt WHIZ deletions [N* * [VVN* * [I*/[N* * [VVN* * [N* * [VVN*/[[N* * WS
[VVN* * [R* manual edit
-
5 38 adv. sub. - other C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-OTH. TXT WS
45 conjuncts c:\wsmith\search\conjunct. txt WS

45 conjuncts rather Context word -[J*/[*R 4 Right WS
45 conjuncts that * is/else/altogether Context word [? ] 1 Left/3 WS
21 I HAT verb complements [HAT ** [AT*/THAT' * [NN2*/ I HA I** WS

[NP*/THAT ** [NB* Context word 3 Left =
[? ]/and/nor/but/or/also left horizon 4
6 21 THAT verb complements C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS2. TXT Context word WS
"that'/-and left horizon 0/ right horizon 4 Sort to
eliminate [V*
6 21 THAT verb complements C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS. TXT Context word WS
[1* left horizon 0/ right horizon 4+ Manual search
on [CST*
6 22 THAT adj. complements [J* * [CST] WS
6 30 THAT relatives: obj position [N* * [CST] Context word [AT*/[D/NP*/[PP*/[N*2* WS
left horizon 0/ right horizon 4
6 51 demonstratives that/this/these/those - minus all demonstrative / WS
relative / complementizer / subordinator
6* existential THERE [EX] WS
6* downtoners c.\wsmith\search\downtone. txt ws
Appendices: Search Algorithms_final set

Pagc 493
APPENDIX Search algorithms: initial set

-
13 present-tense verbs [VVO]/[VVZ]/[VBO]/[VBM]/[VBR]/[VBZ]/[VDO]/[VHO WS

]/[VHZ]
17 second-person pronouns [PPY] WS
1 12 DO as pro-verb [VD*] WS
1 67 analytic negation NOT WS
1 10 demonstrative pronouns [DD1/[DD2]/[DDQ] WS
1 6 1st-person pronouns [PPI* WS
1a general emphatics for [*] sure WS

1a general emphatics a [*] lot WS
1a general emphatics such [*] a WS
1a general emphatics real ** [J*] WS
1a general emphatics so [*] * [RR*] WS
1a general emphatics [VD*] * [V*] WS
1a general emphatics just/really/most/more WS
1 9 pronoun IT [PPH1] WS
BE \[VB: n*\] :n* \[AT: n*\]

1b as main verb Win
grep
1b BE as main verb \(VB: n*\] :n* \[APPG: n*\] Win
grep
1b BE as main verb \[VB: n*\] n* \[J: n*\] Win
grep
1b BE as main verb \[VB: n*\] :n* \[I: n*\] Win
grep
1 35 causative subordination because WS
1 50 discourse particles [? ] + Context word 2 right WS
well/now/anyway/anyhow/anyways
1 11 indefinite pronouns anybody / anyone / anything / everybody / WS
everyone / everything / nobody / none / nothing /
nowhere / somebody / someone / something
C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\P-INDEF. TXT
1c general hedges at about / something like / more or less / almost / WS

maybe
1c general hedges sort * of / kind * of Context word 2 left: WS
-[AT*]/-[J*]/? [PH*]
1 48 amplifiers absolutely / altogether / completely / enormously WS
/ entirely / extremely / fully / greatly / highly /
intensely / perfectly / strongly / thoroughly / totally
/ utterly /
veryC: \WSMITH\SEARCH\AMPLIFY. TXT
1 34 sentence relatives which Context word = [? ] 1 left /0 right (hand WS
edited)
1 13 WH-questions [. ] who/[. ] what/[. ] why/[. ] when/[. ] where/ context WS
word = [V*] 0 left /4 right)
1 52 possibility modals ca/can/might/may/could WS
Appendices: Search Algorithms_initial set

Page 494
1 65 non-phrasal coordination AND [CC] IT/AND [CC] SO/AND [CC] THEN/AND WS

[CC] YOU/AND [CC] THERE
1 23 WH-clauses [DDQ]/[DDQVE] WS
1 61 stranded prepositions [I* /[I*, /[I* "? " /[I* !/ WS
.
1 16 nouns [NN* Win

grep
1 44 word length WordSmith function WS
1 39 prepositions [I* Win
grep
1 43 type/token ratio WordSmith function n= 400) WS
1d attributive adjectives \[J: n*\] :n* \[NN: n*\] Win

grep
1d attributive adjectives \[J: n*\] :n* \[J: n*\] Win
grep
21 past tense verbs \[V? D: n*\] Win

grep
28 third person pronouns she/he/they/her/him/them/his/their/himself/herself WS
/themselves
22 perfect aspect verbs [VH* Context word[V? N* left horizon 0/ right WS
horizon 6
2 55 public verbs c\wsmith\search\v-public. txt Context word [V* 1 WS
left
2a synthetic negation neither/nor WS

2a synthetic negation no Context WS
word[N*]/J*]/each/all/every/many/much/few/sever
al/some/any left horizon 0/ right horizon 4
2 24 present participial clauses [? ] Context word 2 right left 0 [VVG* WS
3 33 WH-relatives pied-pipes [1* * [DDQ] WS

3 32 WH-relative clauses on [NN* * [DDQ]Sort by 4 right - manual edit to WS
object positions exclude [V*/[R*/[J*
3 31 WH-relative clauses on [NN* * [DDQ] * [JJ*/[NN* * [DDQ] * [V* Context WS
subject positions word 2 Left = -say*/-said/-tell*/-told
3 14 nominalizations *tion/*ment/*ness/*ity/*tions/*ments/*nesses/*ities WS
3 64 phrasal coordination [J* AND [CC] * [J*/[R* AND [CC] * [R*/[V* AND WS
[CC] * [V*/[N* AND [CC] * [N*
3 5 time adverbials C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-TIME. TXT WS

3 4 place adverbials C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-PLAC. TXT WS
3 42 other adverbs [R* minus all totals hedges / amplifiers / WS
downtowners / place adverbials / time adverbials
4 24 infinitives [TO] WinGre

p
4 54 prediction modals will/would*/shall/won't/shan't WS
4 57 suasive verbs C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-SUAS. TXT WS
4 37 adv. sub. - condition if/unless WS
4 53 necessity modals ought/should/must WS
4a split auxiliaries [VB* * [R* * [V* WS

4a split auxiliaries [VH* * [R* * [V* WS
4a split auxiliaries [VD* * [R* * [V* WS
5a conjuncts c:\wsmith\search\conjunct. txt WS

Page 495
5a conjuncts punctuation + that is/else/altogether/rather + WS

unctuation
5b agentless passives [VB* * [VVN* Context word = -by 0 left /6 right) WS

5b agentless passives [VB* * [R* * [VVN* Context word = -by WS
5b agentless passives [VB* * [R* * [R* * [VVN* Context word = -by WS
5b agentless passives [VB* * [N* * [VVN*/[VB* * [P* * [VVN*Context WS
word = -bv
: ''''?
'r
It'i,, i [VvN" [I. ' Context word left [, lý[ 1'[ 14 1ý[]r(ý] WS
.i
clauses
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clauses
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5d by-passives [VB* * [R* * [VVN* WS
5d by-passives [VB* * [R* * [R* * [VVN*Context word = by WS
5d by-passives [VB* * [N* [VVN*/[VB* * [P* [VVN*Context word = WS
by
5 27 past prt WHIZ deletions [N* * [VVN* Context word 4 right, 0 left = WS
[I*/[VB*/[J*
5 38 other adverbial C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\ADV-OTH. TXT WS
subordinators
5* predicative adjectives [VB* * [JJ* Context Word4 Right = -[J* /-[R*/-[N* WS
6a THAT verb complements [CST] * [AT] Context word WS

]/[j/and/nor/but/or/also left horizon 2
6a THAT verb complements C:\WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS2. TXT Context word WS
4 Right [CST]
6a THAT verb complements C: \WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS. TXT Context word WS
[1* left horizon 0/ right horizon 4+ Manual
search on [CST*
6a THAT verb complements [CST] * [NP2* Context word WS
and/nor/but/or/also/[? ] left horizon 2/ right
horizon
6a THAT verb complements [CST] there Context word [? ]/and left horizon 2/ WS
right horizon
51 demonstrative pronouns that*/this/these/those Context word WS
[V*/AND/[WH*/-[NN* left horizon 0/ right
horizon 4
30 THAT relatives: obj position [N* * [CST] Context word [AT*/[D/NP*/[PP*/[N*2* WS
left horizon 0/ right horizon 4
6 22 THAT adj. complements [J* * [CST] WS
6" existential THERE [EX] WS
6* downtoners c:\wsmith\search\downtone. txt WS

Page496
APPENDIX: Tendering Instructions (PHARE Project)
C: Content of Tenders
The tender submittedby the Tenderer shallfully comply with the requirementsset out
in the tender dossierand comprise:
1. A technical proposal consisting of:
1.1 Statementsand Terms of Reference(future Annex A to the Contract):
a) A statementof intention to provide the servicesin conformity with this

tender dossierby the Tendereror his duly authorisedagent.
b) The Terms of Referencefor the servicesas they appearin the tender dossier,
initialled on eachpageby the Tenderer.
c) A copy of the first page of the GeneralConditions for ServiceContracts

financedfrom PHARE Funds, signedby the Tenderer.
d) A statementconcerningthe sub-contractingenvisagedfor parts of the
if is
services, sub-contracting envisaged, signedby the Tenderer. e) A
statementconcerning the bank accountto which paymentsmay be made.f)
A signatureby the Tendereror his duly authorisedagent
1.2 Organisationand Method (future Annex B to the Contract): This part shall
in
cover particular:
a) Organisationof the project, method of work and expertsproposedby the

Tendereras well as proposedhumanresources,sub-contractorsand physical
means to be provided by the Tenderer for the project implementation. This
shall include a description in narrative and chart form of the consultant's
distinctive approachto the requirementsoutlined in ANNEX A. The criteria
of evaluationshould take into considerationthe categorieswhich form the
basisof the contractor'sinception report.
b) A preciseindication must be given concerningthe total amount of man days
/man-months/man years proposedfor eachexpert, and whether these
expertsare EC or local experts. The be
proposal must coherentwith the
Terms of Reference.The tenderer should indicate that the candidates
proposedand the quantity of servicesoffered; The number and the job titles
of the staff concernedwill be provided, with a description of the foundation
and specific tasks assigned to the nominated team leader and individual
experts,a bar chart indicating the professionals,shoving periods on the duty
station and in the home county, and estimatesof total numbersof
man-months required broken down by individual staff. The financial
in
evaluationwill consist comparingthe global price of comparableoffers.
With regard to humanresources,the Tenderer should note that the Terms of
Referencebelong into one of the following categories,dependingon the
nature of the project:
Appendices: Tendering Instructions (PHARE Project)

Page497
Fixed Term Expert Assignment (for instance for typical technical

assistance oriented projects): In this case manning requirements in
quantity is clearly given in the Terms of Reference and Tenderers
must provide exactly the requested manning. The technical
evaluationwill concentrateon the candidatesproposedby the
Tenderer.The financial evaluationwill consistin comparingthe
global prices (total prices minus reimbursables).
Other composite services, where the Contracting Authority does
not fix the inputs needed in advance and the Tenderers themselves
must evaluate (and justify) the optimum manning needed. The
technical evaluation will take into consideration both the candidates
proposed and the quantity of services offered. in this case, the
number and job titles of the staff concerned will be provided, with a
description of the function and specific tasks assigned to the
nominated team leader and individual expert, a bar chart indicating
the professionals, showing periods to be in duty station and in the
home country' and estimates of total numbers of man/months
required broken down by individual staff. The financial evaluation
will consist in comparing the unit prices (total prices minus
reimbursables, divided by the number of offered working
man-months of EC experts).
c) Logistics Plan: A description of the logistics planning foreseenfor the whole

programme implementation. Particular attention should be paid to transport
arrangements,freight forwarding terms, and INCOTERMS in accordance
with PHARE procedures. Route maps for overlandtravelling shouldbe
included.
d) Risk Analysis: On the basisof Annex A's requirements,the contractor
shouldprovide a risk analysisoutlining the probability of success in the time
period and highlighting key factors which have a bearing on the efficient and
economicimplementationof the project.
e) Time Schedule:The Tenderermust submit a workplan with envisaged
specific referenceto mobilisation of the team?submissionof reports and
documents,specific meetings,and draft time to methodsof acceleratingthe
procurementand delivery of goods without associatedcost escalating
factors.
Remarks,commentsand suggestionswhich the Tenderermay considerit
advisableto raise.
1.3 A List of Staff; including Curriculum Vitae (future Annex C to the Contract)
following the standardmodel enclosedin the tender dossiershouldbe included.
Furthermore, the following shouldbe included:
-A signed commitment from each of the experts to accept the work

proposedby the Tenderer,if the Tendereris awardedthe contract,
-A document showing the firms experience in the relevant field, and
other information such as the firms structure and size or the firm's

Page498
Headquarterability of back-stoppingthe on-site operations(the

sameappliesto the proposedsub-contractor(s),if there is any).

Page499
APPENDIX: Text sequencing activity
I am investigating readers' perception of natural sequence in written texts (using a

model derived from Hoey M, 1985 On the surface of discourse Allen and Unwin,
London)
The following short text (taken from a project proposalin my researchcorpus) is

I
printed out of sequence. would be grateful if you could indicate what you think the
correct sequenceis in the box below. I would also be grateful if you could put your
name and date on the script so that I can demonstrate that I haven't invented my data!
Many thanks for your help.
Chris Tribble
Jumbled sequence
Strategy
1. It is acknowledgedthat the strengtheningof Environmental Education is an

essential element of reaching sustainable development in Poland. Teaching
school-agechildren to care for the environment is an investment in the future.
2. It is our understandingthat this project forms part of a programmeof public
awarenessand curriculum development,building on existing educationalactivities
and helping to createan institutional framework for Environmental Education.
We highlight below the factors which we considermost important to maximise the
impact and benefit of the technical assistanceprogramme.
3. This project takes place in the context of a period of great changein Poland with
the emergenceof a modem advancedcountry taking its place in the European
community of nations. The environmental challenges facing the country are
complex with industrial and economic interestsin the past being given precedence
over ecological interests.
A higher priority is now being given to environmental issues.
4. We acknowledgethat changesare taking place rapidly in Poland and that

developmentmay alter the picture of Environmental Education, Our plan and our
consultantsare highly flexible and can respondto developmentsas they happen.
Actual Sequence
1=
2=
3=
4=
Name
Date
Appendices: Text sequencing activity

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I] WH-gwalona I° 'jRRO' conleN . 00428557 " (VB'/(VD"1(VU 000 0 00
I(VB-CwM. NV. .
19 BE aamainve, E wd4Ry7(D'lA'INNS'11'1J' EWS 15500 - 1868
I ---
C\WSM, THSFARCN. V, PP59 000IM 4rpnt -
23 WH<lauwa I(DDOV4ODOVCV-IVU'1'(VH' 0.00 01]pl

IWS I
14 aenlenca lelatna" MT h Control word - (TI 1 k6 /0 rlphl (hand added) WS 000 0 001
MCauu WS I w, 0 12 T-
414.11.101-U,. aCOUVwmMnln9'I Ixermaa' a' IeaelaingatlmeyM WS 0 DO

gel'
47 0III "o' 070704 07 00117.0 0,0248 -IAT'V-J' 7'4PH' WS 000

-
ah"ameryrano9e7MlrrompMIelyrenulmouaylaennyleatlemei
ly,wiry/Oreanympmtimlpenedyrs4onpylllaaaphlylI
I 4D am Ilion dal hiller rv r C\ WSMISMIT
HSEARCHNMPLIFV TOT WS 600 on
FOR' SURE/A' LOT/SUCH'

49 yenerel empnslea I/JUSTIREALLYMOSTIMORE WS 600
ý
49 9011/101
empMtca SO ('(' (RR'VlV0'I' [V'VREAL I']' (J') WS 100
Ig0050 NmvhnywaY/anyhow/anyway. Cahaat vwd 1L
I SO discourse pad04a 1'1I WS 01]OI 090)
I S:, poaudlay modeb , -VhVmeyrcautl 1800 I93
IW5 1
C \WSMITHlSE A RCH. VPRIVAT TOT Conl.. Wad 1
I SBIpnvtlevelW ngO(V' WS 251)0 J01ý
I ,
159 conbacllona ConleA Wad 2R I"-GE- -NP'/-NN'I-UH' WS 000 000
P" " IVs/N' " IVs Cuntatl xord

(V'I-ICST"/_ITV-(VD. I_IVM. I-(VH'I-IWN'I-IWG' 2
60 tlul bor. LEFT MamWly. 47510 Nwlfyprrva0VpuWwJaua"m. 004. IWS 100
-- _ 1
C \WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS TOT Conch Wad
IW5 ,
60I7MI-d. ISlon (J'R'/(AT' OOD
I (I""(ý] 1
fit avenged papoaabna WS 0001 000(
AND ICCI IT/AND ICCI SO/AND ICCI THENIAND ICCI
65 ran-phrasal coaelnMwn OOU,ANDICC( THERE W6 0190 0001
'WS
n) analytic .. j. - NOTINT 9001 I OBI
IN' ueny nomnalual. ýne 6 perunda (manwly aorled) 'win g

nilnsealcn 2154 D0 259 272984 tp' 100
NIA Cwt- WS , , ý'Mp
r V.dd I. 1 RM 1211111111481) 147.1noun. mun
anlmWVn . alecovea J" IN' O, 59600

IWn
o,nwawecwea IJ'
J.. Win aDD
-1 40 'I, ll, almo enl 643 00 _
I 40'171/I 011)67ves J' ]]500
1 40
10
-1 40 'prnacalrve atllecllvea [VB' (JJ' CAM- Word -IJ" 1-IR-1-IN' 4 Rlynl WS 2]00
1__M) L_ 1je (Vfl" ýJ" N R'. Cb
Conleýd tl 6 R9 1/-L WS
I 40 All ran MMlcallve _IA21 IIWa( adj StrIL edj) Iron alTr16 - --- - -
arijerfnes IOS lp
I VV' n t .. x en i a l u WnlSmen /unction n= 4(At ) W S 4115:
1 41 IJ lenýln WoldSlniln lunc. hnn wS 5 SI
rya Vl, 'n) mny 5000 60V

:, leile. 1aslroilveins (VN'i' gal 0,1,1l+N' kll 77,0'nIl I06117,110n6 WS 6610 1! 04,
'
anemann. v/MnnlmnMlýImýNnelýrnlm. eumar eelmM mael. a ,
n h.1dp 1-plor , s WS ]]I]0' 397
[7( Cauetl va42rphl b110(WG' EWS
p. 1t PIN clauses
411.40111 2600 ] 131
.'
S5 odic velha c Wm1lhVasrchlo dlc to C0n7.1 wad V' 1 46 WS 1 14.001 1 Bot
ý. f- synlMfk nepalroh 11.717.1

na WS 000
nn Cnn
vrto4(N'(J'Veecnla110001y 111.114 mucnllewraewnVadMlan
W5 rnMllc nnm- y kn MOI0onD, /067Iwlmun 4 Ws 100
T nallaalxns A'nPÎrons' S neeaa"I'Nlx WS ]4000 8907

INN"(000' JJ'(NN'' IUDOI IV ' Callastwa42 Left
ldl wH-leleove ckwe"an euo--Yyr-aalet-lell'r-lolo WS 2400 209
_
INN" IDD01 00 7 Dy 41501 - manual adll tu.. 04 0.
1 12 WH'rewllva 01.4.0.90 oO IV'IR'IJ' WS 500 0100
1 ]]IWH-relMlveepwd-pipe. II''IDDOI --- w5 gm! 108,
, (J' AND (CC)' IJ'IR' AND (CCI' (R'IO' AND ICCI'
S 04 pMwl CavdlnaMn (V''IN' AND (CCI' IN' ws 21100! 2540:
CAW SMITH SEARC HA DV PLAC TXT IWS

]4 plnce ae...... " . 90 220
lealvellýiala C WSMITH S FARCHADVTIME 11T WS 16110. I! AT-1,401 Wlwla 5,1.61E CUUM
IH' minus all tnlels lw1lyes 1,71Ii,,, enwnluw leis
W:. v17/ i8 2]500
p "I
.. aV.l+ n uýlees NJ 111 il l6

J .V nec eaeily ýn Mals ýuynt'ennulý4ln usl WS J JJ D. k
'. Iýedclýi. n m. afals wWNrýuIJlsnallMxana WS Itb fXl 199tl
E
4 C\ WSMITHISEARC111VSUAS TXT WS I 0961
auaarve valM IJw
4 6). "90,4au. lllalea v,

68 IR" (V'. jVH" (R' " IV'IjVD"' JR" " (V' WS 161X1
I R"IR'"IV", ]VH'. JR'" IR'' (V"I/VD". IR'' IR' I -
-21 auanalka IV' Cnnte0 wood ] Rphl (V' W5 II 00
spill
51 ] apenM"a pasalves I(VD"IWN'C. o-wwd"-hy0ba/6,1601) WS 25W

5 ]japennesa passives (VB (R IWN' Cmleal ward " -by WS A
5I apenika" paaawea (VD (R IR" IVl'N'C-4 vad = -Gy WS (w
IVO"'N"' IWNjVB" IP" IWN"CanlaN -d " -by WS I) aU
If ly passions IVR"IWN'-,, -., dA by WS 1500

x oy panalvae jV13- R" IW N" WS ow
In ley pes. n. n VflIRJR"IwN"cn--word. EWS
by
I. ýesne, v n" N' WNv0 "" IP " wN ' cunleM Vmm. by WS 000
e 90.41Pa,l, I. el e.f.. iniai cla V- (Ti. Cnýle. l vviV ikn 1.}(Vry}(Výr4I'I IWS 000
s .n ,ant,.lau.,ýnlaýlý n r la wrr'p"amnea
aýný. vatlly 4 V1L1-'VII Ws 7DD
IN.. ýV`JN.. I. ýN.. IWN" IN" ýWN. rIIN.. IWN"
91141 I Wl01 Jnlnn. ns IH'-manwlaell IWS 1000' I%D'

IM e. -VI 11 c CWSMITHSLANCHWDVOI1IT%T wS ,w D%;
Ild
unllvlcla I11Mr Cun1a4loi1 -(JR 4 Riyhl WD 1I]D
Itul' Ia NSeianngethel Cnnfe whrd II1 Le IV3 R,, 1I W: fl Cq
1
THAT " IA I' THAT '' ANN: " THAT [Nil"THAT
I NO' " e w. n ll e ll l ýleýu_ý.,, 1141.. r a l .u ieM1
Ien: , inpbmeds Mlltoni Ws
. eu,.
C WSMITHIS EARCHIVPPS2 TXT Cunlak
-IIW1-0114 bR Ma¢un 0 (0190100,1290 4 Sat lo. 4411.47,
6 21 THAT Vwb CanpMrn. nl" (V' WS 7
C IWSMITHlSEARCH\V-PPS T%T CoMaII' b8
21 THAT nwlztit ! ff
noruon 4W-1 searh m CST' WS
22 THAT (J"0571 oo
WS
(N ICSTI hbd IAT"4DMP'4PP-qN-2-WA - ---
6. Xl THAT reblive. Ohl p-ba, an 0I IQw4 WS _ 00 0 24 7.33, -Inq' MVwIMMMaaaMma'
th4~he"Nhoae CoaeN word 4119,4" - -- --t -
0151, Oemonallellvea EWS I
-IV'I-IiV-Mw-w}aul-wlwM-vRJCII 74001 891 36 1124
" aa-Yan-W THERE (EXI S 400 048
" downlawa c Wam0Swar0500.600n. at Ws 200 024 1
Pqp f
a wo Jt9ur $, a
804 3 l preaenl Jeneeverba
(WG' i1VVO';jVVZ' 1VB D',yVBM' jV BR' IVB Z' /)VB G'>IVDO
I-NDZ-[VH0"4VIIZ-NHG' WS 535001 51581
6 Orelperson pronouns (PPI' WS 2400 231
7 ae07-rd ý PPY WS 200 019
1 9ýgonoun IT PPHt Iwo 391]0 1 3EE{j_
1 1
I
I lo! dnonstral8 q v7 MrorWo* N-984 VY5 2700 2e0 L_
_.. .
y yl eo o ý
aon dyey/
It naemnaepromwa C \WSMITH\SEARCHWINDEE TXT WS 000 000
IVD'I Cooled wnrO 4 rpnl -IV'I-IX%' TMn sod by MO b1T -
AWO
1 12 DOSaproverb Iln Nlmnele Oueaton forma 4.00 0J9
1t ýWHqwralnro I00-JRR0' wntedword 2 RgM "(VB'I(VD'4VH' WS r 0.00 0 --
, OB' Contest 139BI _
1 19BEUmsn verb -rd 4 Rlpnt [D'4A'4NNB"4l"4J" WS 145001
C IWSMI TH\SEARCH\V PPS Ist Context 4liht
1 2] WHClauaes (DDOYIDDOVE[/ (O0'; -IVR' WS 000. ow,
I 34 unlenca re411wa wTlcn Ccnte0 twrA " (7[ I bn /0 rpM {NSntl eElted( WS 0110' 000'
'W5
1 35 eAv sM. because 0.001 0.001
-
--
1147, general Mogle at'eboWaomelltlng 'I lke/more' bsUelmoel/mayte IWS I00

-
47 neral aorl' o1 hind 'of COMVed void 2 bR-AT'(i-J' 7-(PH' WS 000
l
absMlneit arooelnnmomplalely/enornausMlan6mNlmrema
Nelly/ygie
pleIyNeiy ty; n
I Jn em rlrers 91St fo TXT
net C \SMWSMITHTHISEARISEARCHNMPCHAMPLIfY WS 000 000 J r
FOR ' SURE A' LOT; SUCH' -
1 J9 general emphatic. A,JUST, REALLYaJOSTMMORE EWS 211X1
JY penaral empnellcs SO I'I' IRR'vIVU'I' (V'J/REAL I'f' [J'] ý,wo 0.00 ý -
"
UwIW W'now/anya'ayanylw.Y/anynys Coaled card IL
50 a05000laapatrck. (7( ws 0001 000
1
52, pucaldllly modal. cNNmrpnVmay/coud ws 3B001 347
C \W SMITH\SEARCHNI. PRIVAT TXT Coaled Word I
I S6: pnvaleverhe RgId(V WS 3400, 3281
r
I 59 cornraclrune '"Cored Wod 2R 6t "- GE -- NP'/- NN'/- UH' WS 000' 0.00
(P' " IV'IN ' (V Context wood

(V'rlcsr/-I7V-Iw"/-I`ý"I-MI"r-M'w"I-IWC" 2
N Rlaba: : I LEFT M. nu. lly aül lo IEaniryglvNarpuak/. onode WS om
. WId
C\WSMI H\SEARCHW PPS TXT CwIeA _wslve
60 IMIdMMan IýAT' ; WS 0.00
61 atranEeA p1m, -91n1 t'' (7( WS 0001 O. OpI .
AND (
ICCI ITIAND (CCI SOIAND ICCI THEN/AND ICCI ___
65 non EVA., coordrktlon YOUTAND(CCI THERE WS 4001 039.

NOT/NT IWS 1 700] 067 - -- i_
fi7 anaylc 1.91-
IN' f np nominal allona 8 pound. (manually tonen )W rn p 290] m 26799., 31353 00 55

k iel Canted 1R M W5 144800 1 3961 Iotal _
. xlp Mesta
arch rorA1" nWne
nnlec I J' ' IN' Wlnpl 77500

tlirýlr ` J" J' Wln 70 00
b I.rlI eJl 945 UU
-I
Jfl 'I. rle aA eclrves J' 1001 W
40 rt
40 p . -l- aJleclrvea IVB" IJJ' ConlerA Wad i-IR'/-IN' 4 RpM WS 27 110
-I -IJ'
40 (xeArcalrvn sAKClr B" J" R' COnleN wolA 6 Rr nl -J N' W,
_ý_ _ý
40 011non qedkaINe AUl '1i90I 1' non'. r lIntne
1 JJ ipretoken lauo Woi tSmrln tunclron n= a40) WS 49 ?_
_WnrASmrln (uncnnn W5 4--
011e AVID ri11 Wrnp l3l

IVII' Crrnlexl IVýN' fell nnntnn npnl nollznn 0. 6 WS 4 0.
-- frener1 nspecl vnrns roA : I ll(1
s h e. n e tn ry T er T rm .inpr rv 'n rvlnexrnrmsellTersell1nemselv e
WS SOW dB2_
ý rl l, ers",rr pronnurra 2400 '
ý presenl pamcrpral clauses , ("+IConte. ".:-d rpnl bll 7(W0' WS 211
al
blrc t. l Conbst vortl V' 1 bll WS 1200 I 16 7
`S rutrlc . erb. wnmrlnuearcnly- 1r l
.
1 j
E6 synlnenc regal ýn nellnel WS 01)0 l
rw Cnnlen j
rul rl'I . J'Men ucn few s.. artsome . an
fi6l synlnenc rýx9alrnn y Iah no 110 nynl Itlul on 4y W5 100
1 14 nomrnelvnlxýn5 'Iran"oleo'J'nasb' a/'neaaes/'rlrea WS R11 00r 7B 19,

INN" IDD01' I1J-1INN'-
UN'' (000)
IDD01' IV' Cooled worn 2W
1 31 WH reblive ctausea un sun -say' salar. l' . ldn wS 300 1 25

INN'' IDDO Son 014 eAil to eaclude
rynl - menwl
1ý 32 1WH. rebuve muse. on oq (V'r(R'r4J' WS 1 U0 0 10'
II''(000[ Iwo r, 700. 067,
f 33, WH-retatoeepkbgpe
IJ' AND ICCI' IJ'/R' AND ICCI' IR'/1V' AND (CCI'
t 64 )Jlreeal cnordlnallon IV'IIN' ANO (CC(' IN. WS 277001 26 71
J C. WSMI Tm', EAHCUADVPLAG TXT WS 2100 202

place nA. erbrak
f ', lime a7ur, t, als C\WSMlill\7/ 40,1,0DV TIME TXT WS 111X1 106-Idol dt ra a0verb count
IR' minus all totals neApen emplilrena / Anwnlow+rrs I
1 4. place a&V, 'Male r nlr: aArcrnwla WS 211 00,20 34 62 2]3 (l0

ri
J e4 tic] WmG 14000 1427

WS 2UO1
3] 019'
n , rr I E
I
'
4 5]ßn sarly nrxfals wgnVanoud'In rat WS 1100 106

4 54 1-- nxvtala wrllvnwld'nnallMOSM WS 9000 B6B.
i rr s yarns C\WSMITH\SEANCHNSUAS TXT WS 1300 125
--_. 4-
J 6l spai au. raerres [OB"(It"IV'/IVH -[R"' (V'400''(R" (V' WS 2500
06' IR" " IR"' IV')VH" IR' - IR" IV'r)VD" IR" IR'
Jn isplil au. rlranas ' V'CnnkN 07177 Rrgnl (V' WS 000
5 1]ayenllesa paasves IVB"IWN' Cooled woln"-by 0lef', I 611901) WS 67W

S 1' nyenwsa pasarvea IVB IR" (WN' ConI d- by WS 11 IXl
wyenikns yeaeivas (VB `R IR" IWN'G<nlenl mur -ny WS 000
'laenlless as alv VBINWN'jVB"'IP"IWN'COn1aM V.ortl"-6y WS OOtt
P Ly pasarvaa IV IWN' Co to A" Gy 005

IIWS
ýItl ilry passives (VBIR"IWN' 400
IVBIR" IR"(WN' CmlewaU"by " WS OW
IX Iry passr. e.
IVO N'IyNN'ýVB"IP'IWN'C-1 I-d by w5 0(k7
peal partwrpral anverMal l, (WN"IR' Conle. l vrorA 3 k01. yl WS 000

56 ' eat anrcr ual -h. 1cla WN" II' Con1e.1 vrwA I,ýj WS 00
N IWN.. II. nN.. IWN" IN"JVVSN. IWN-
EWS
2' peal p11WHIZ -I- IR' manual edl 1900 163'
C IWSMInl15EARCHV. DV OTH TXT 'w5 900. 0971
TII . 11 - V-1
J`, coryuncla c\wam1lh0aarcn`coryuncl Id WS 131

'. 4". rrryuncla Ia111n Co text vaxtl (J'R 40,91,1 WS 200
loaf"Ivnla.. ', Ilnpaner Conieol, Iwo
54 ncb rA(111 LrIlßRulnl 00)
1
IHA1 IAT'IIIAT"INN^'/TI1A1 - ---ý
INP'; Tl-
INB t: ý,nlul wxn lfen-f'l anal n. rr'nI nr also x"n

Hni veto comµernem e nnlNrxýJ WS
C \WSMITH\SEARCHIV PPS? TXi COnlevl -, d
Vul-and kll Iwrizon 0/ Ught Iranion 4 Sat io llmrnate
(V' WS
IC \WSMITHISEARCHIVPPS TXT Caned
vvod [1- bll
21 THAT twr¢on 0IM llmn 4" Mw, u wich on CST' W5 -
22 THAT ' I )WS 0.
I'ICST]Cwt*A-Ul
N (CS IAT'gD/NP'IIPP-jN-2-411 I r
1ýdMr'tRM"
I, 301TIIAT relallvee 961poellron Mrvon 0I r19MIwlmn 4 WS 4001 039 (a4 "IMNNNMaenlluse
' IýNMNIwwlMSa Cmk. l -1 4 rpnl
fii 51 Aemnnallellvee IV'I-I'1ý-orroi-Mlow wnruN-Mrwn 6200, 598', 47 109
EWS
' esnlenikl THERE (EXI WS 900 067
' nwmtvurs 0WanlrOWarcfW. wVOneW WS E00 077
PptS
F. sk Ir. AWoM" nC ew cae, o s, a. wq s 7
WG')W0'r19'Z" 1VB0' IVBM' IVBH' IVBZ'i1VRG'SVDO
J pl".. M'l"neevrne 'r'V02'iIVHO'1VHZ'NHG' W6 T4500' 5501
1
It lnal-p"ra00 pronoun. (11111' WS 4900 362,
7 a"c0rd. pnaonprawuna IPPVJ WS 200 , 015
, -
9 ponw/n IT ý(PPHII WO !
M00 ]25
IniNMUtneseAnaseC49n1309M - _
I0ýdmwn"lOl gonouna i(V'I 7[56n^MwwnNwmMTCN-VM' ýws ]100 Z56l
- ý
yno-rynnyone enytn n¢laverymdylavxyarwwery1Mtynn
body' 0001,m.tMrprrlo. Me rename60Ey/aonrp W apnatnlrlp
II IM"Ilnne prurouna C\WSMITHI. SEAHCHW INDEF TXT WS 000 000
IVD'I C.Onl1N wao 41)961 IV'/-IXX' Then $0.1 Ey 1.0 MII _ _
12 DO.. pro'. E I. _, _R Ousa.xn lorma WS ý 400 030
t3 WH-gwerlon. IDO'IRHQ' conleAlwre 2 RIg0+IVB'1VO', VH' WS - - ]00 0.15
19IBE as man vn6 IVO'CU1l.. l wvn4RpM I0"//A'jNNB'/[l4J'
IC WS 2(1300 1190
\WSM THISEARCH\V PPS 01 Conl. N 41PM
I 23WOCI1IIea ID00{rj2DOVEY-[VD' -[VH' WS 000 000
wnkn C- IWS
341 senlence I.. 00ea wwd " (711 lall /0 ngnl (narxl wined) 300 0.231
as, a.N COO - 11.1045. ws 100 007
4719 , Ml nad9"a al " . IvrWlanrMnNp "I rx. /mp" " 01 " k. a/. Imc. Um"yM wS I 000
t 47 al hdip, Sort' 010110 " of COMA wore 21.0. - AT'Y- J" T MPH" ws 0m
Y
ebadulaly/a11o0NMr/conlpINSly/enormouarylantlrely/nl14m"
rynulrylgrealNmgEl4Tntanaery/p"rleclrynvorlplynhorougMyn
t 4N am 4rirere dal 111000 ver C IWSMITH\SEARCHWMPLIFV TAT WS 300 022
FOR " SURE A" LOTISUCH'

4J emyneNC. Sl[ST'RMOSTrMORE wS 2000
1 49 a. n. ampnatrca 5O1'('IRR [4VDVOTIV"/REAL('('(J'f EWS 1 000
lprler4
rpMMNNwwlsnytwayrenMow/anyweye
OI/ C-.. -. 1L
50 dlauwra"parncMa (lf w5 000 ow
52. pwalMey 11100.19 r:WS 21 00 1551
carvmpnumay/cauM
C \WSMITHVSEARCH\V-PRIVAT TXT CWW Ward 1
I1561prrretaverb npM IT EWS i 37.00 1 2.73
I 59 conlra1910, CoM"al Word 2R"_ GE -- NP'I- NN-l- UH' wS 0.00 ' 0001
IP" IV IN" IV' Conlavl xwd

V'/-IcsT'/-ICY-ND'/-I wl-IVH'/-IWN'/'IWG' 2
601lh. I 4.010, LEFT MenueIly W4lo r-"n. typrlv1WpuMUauawe *014. W5 2.00
C \WSMITH/SEARCH\V. PPS TXT CoMUl Word
601MI o"INnn IJ'jR', 1AT' IWS- 000
- 6t YreMea prapoulwns (I" " I'IJ ws1 000 0.00
AND ICCI IT/AND ICCI SOIAND ICCI THENIAND ICCI I
65 non pMasalcowmnetron YOU, ANO ICCI THERE W6 200 015
NCT, N1 WS 1400 1031 --- --
nr 011/11rr, ne9alrnr
r` ur' (N' I ny t" al rvrs 8 gerunJS (manually sated) Wln g 370600 273 79 492500 {
179
J9 srl I, ) C, nle. l xaxd l' 1RI , wS 191300 141 25 Idol round In)] rt0yn.
Ilrrnulrve IJ" " IN' Win 065 00 ---

aniecxvea y
atlnnutrrc100ecllvea IJ": ý Wln 9900
ao 'eaalaurrndry n640G _..
b '1. "111 a. t «Inea 1432 W
40
40
t 40 'Pr enrrelive artlecnves IVB"IJl'COn1e+I Word-IJ"/'IR"-IN'aRpnl WS 5200
40 1_ ((e. t vmrd fi Rn WS
t I ive 114 -1 -IJ/-IN'
A '(I/Aol I e1ýlec. wee ---- -- 21600 _ __
d0 tnn Wn Il7elrve Ad I er{ -ali
tyl.. N . 400) WS 4147
..
-
V. nr.ltiurýtn li n. nr n WS
r I. a+l 11011 vnlrr. {/"[: r. 'ý Wing N00 513

'tra r. "l aslw t veins IVH" 11[VýII'l"nn IZOn0 rl9nlntuv. n 6 U. S 4000 lS4
ne. ne, r rrnrnr.v, ernmý.nnnrmrm. elrmereeunnernanvex

nl person -p-- a W5 5500! 413
: l4. poes"nl PeIlKrpral clause. Il( 000I"4 word 2rrgnl laS 0)VVG" WS 4500,332,
55 Nlc 0114. c-TRl, -., c v p, Ibxc IN Cooled -d Ik0 WS 1400 103
r
t
fib ayMMMlrc n"gelnn 010100/rw Ws 000
m Cmle+l
word)N'I2'Year. IValLevary rnarryrnu<nr'IeW/{"--W. ome/en
550 netrc 0e. 1000 ylf 01517070: 1*915Sa-Rnn 4 W5 000
3 I4 nannallxallona 'tavV"menL'neSk'rtyÎwlal"menlN'n" . tnr» WS 10]600,7664

INN" (ODOI' (JJ'/INN' - [DOC]' IV' CO .A word 2 Left 1
1 ll WH-rNalOe 01eutaa an au 0:, ay' .. lN-lan'l ldtl WS 25 IBS'
INN'' I DD01 Sonny 4 right manual OR toascxlde

t 32 WHreltlr" IV'4R'4J'
01445034. oHl III- WS 1W 007
133IWHrel. FVnpl"d pp.. - IDDO( WS 100 0]0
0' AND ICCI' IJ'! IR' AND CCI' (R-4V' AND ICCI - .
] 04 pnraael coordrulwn IV'1N' AND ICCI' IN' WS I S 800 295,
CWSMITH\5EARCHAADV PLAC TXT WB 39000 208,

Jj 4 place adve_L0.
'
\S lane envertuals l. WCMIIH, SEARCHADVTIME TXT WS 1100 091 atlMra Wv 00060
-Idol
IR' minus all t0ak 11.04.11 . nop l. / 40011000000
pk Siele, Irrrom anv, IEUM WS 103 13 62
"11400
14 fi000
pnl w t n"
1/ drunken S 000
a. xm rnrtlonn
s
4 SJ'nn. essrty 0,41/46 0495/*1000nrusl ws IP a ) t13
-w, pre"larn, n nx. ura wn1510(xl snallxv. and ws 14200 1049
'w$ moo 251
417 sr rerUa ct: 40 SEARUI: v-Sl1RSTXT
,
1111101 eu. r0arrea Pit- IN. - IV-IV, (R"(V'l(VO. " RIV' WS 500
,VB-IR-IR-IV-1V11"' IR"'Ik" II\/D"IR'"IR.
' IV- COnkvt tom ' Hlgnl 0' ws 000
sFlrt aunllan
5 1r agenll"ss .. I.. IVB' WN'CwI. A. d"-ny0NIII6rpnl) WS 6600

1 Auenlleaa IVB'"IR(WN'COM"r4 r
peaalves vrorE -ny WS 40 0-
! agenrless paaalve. IVB"IRJR'' IWN"Cwted 0.010+-Ey WS 000
r aenlless " IVB"INIWN'JVB"JP"IWN'COnI"rd vwd+-6y WS t0 0
IH py passive. IV9"IWN-COnl4-d+ny WS 2200 7
. Ifi ny passives (VB"IR"IWN' WS IW

'fl try Faaarves IVBIR"IR"'IWN'Cr: nlevt . wrl-I. w5 00 0
y
50o ra IVIt JVVN"IVB" (P' IVVN' Cnnle. l word - by AS O IXl
e {realIrenKrpal><rveroral wN" (R' cnm. a.. nm kn 1111111

4T'41'1 ws oW
area ,amcr aaarcmralýk wN""Ir cnnkH wnrdLN Y119...V1' ws low
(N"IWN"II': N"IWN"IN"WN. 111N.. (WN'"
I']. WHlZ. tekllons (R '-mene0rl al
I
pest lxl 1500 165
iWS
10 a,N sun C WSMITH ,SEARCHNDVOT7/ TUT EWS 700 052 __
/4101
5 cunlun. l0 twsmnn4earcn`caquncl lH
Lehn WS 2300
IWV
JS cnnl. rnrts COnte. I 0014 )J'R4Rrgnt I00
VS ," anaJelrarr ('.wtlevl wrunt LeNJ Rrjl, l EWS 000

ie
1r1AI"AI"`r14I" 111"12'THAT" INP'Tr1AT"

( Ntl I i I 007+04Jl e n- I ' { anJ " n u r t. u 1 w c iao te n
n IIIA1 vlILC. mpkmenls WS 2 00

.1
C \WS
\WSM TH PPS2 TXT COntedvord
ln"Y/-arN 4A600,9
rgrizon 0
0/ rrpM norlaon 4 SM lo "WnnaN
61: 1 THAT vnO COnrplenl"nla IV w5 1900
C WJSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS TXT Conlevl word II' MO
fi 21 THAT vnE c rwMa rrorrzan 0/r 100x00 er MarnW ae. rcn an (CST' w5 1.00
/
22" THAT ad( wmpMnrMa IJ""1 S w5 200 0.15
IN' - (CST( Conletl word IAT-4D/NP-jPP-4N-2' MR ,
H 14 1THAT 1.1,11010 n1y poanpn 60,1100 0I ngnl 0001700 d wS 400,030 1101' Y TMtlll1SMleselMreä'
nlnn
thbnnaNnewlnw C0oI. 4 0.010 41)901+
5 61 Jamonuratnea -IV'/-TOY-_-tMOael-vtam-. 1000 WS 11100 620 62 1l4ß
" avlsl"ntWTHEPE IEX) WS 10.00 074
" dnwnlnnne c. M+mnnW. rcMdwnMOne.IN ws 1200 0.89
ay. 6
IWG'rýVVO'. j WZ'lvB0 IVRM' ý VRR': IVR2' JVRG' IVDO
3 pewm+anw wr6a '/VDZ'1VHO"4VHZ'IVHG' WS 60500 5568,

6 NY. p«ampmuma [PP- WS 5x001 4110'
lr aecend.pnaon pduna PPY WS 00 009+
I'I 9; p-h IT (PPHI] EWS 10.00 1 092
N.... - C- 3 W.
10',demanalrallw ponouns (V'.1'1}nv/toN,11ow1Mm. MrkN-VM' WS 14.00 1.29f

._
M
anynody/anyawenNn"p'ewrW. oMn9/rn
Iw In TodyrwrvramMMp
dy/wor N o'& '
C IWWSMITSMITHI
EARCIIH0»-
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I It 1-0 p-1 - WS 000 000
IVD'I COntalwvd4rpM-IV'I-IXX" TMn wd by MO MlI
I DOwpo WS 0001 000
110rumrna0Owatvrrums
JE .. 00 (DO' c wortl 2 R4M " (VB N' WS 0 00 4
B
19_Ewmarn (V Cool.. 16 1 001
nnv vasry T -, d 4 PP NB-jl /IJ' 1 ' 821
I J82
CI /WSMITHVSEARCHWH\V
SMI HISEA '
-PPS M NI Capeq
C A t4198
rrOhl
.1 WHClauwa IDDQHDDQVEY-(VD"/-JVH' WS 000 000
rJ aenlerlc. 1.1x60, 0008 CoM., l word " III I lall /0 rpM (land 506801) ws 000 000
JSW MCauw - WS ,
aun c 900 093
47 9 1/0018ad9aa Y' eEaAlaanYMrp'I rMelmara' or' MaYYno*EnuyCe WS 000
47 -1 hdRH, adt'or Mnd'ul Cunlaal vrdd 2966-AT' -1' '/' PH' ',w5 000
_-
ry/S».nr.
"hedu"N/anogMharmempM"N/«wnanN/"mlr.
NnwNlpreYN/1
I 46 emrlrr" da /ulla NCC WSIJITHpEARCHAMPLIFmwyllyn
IWSMITHISEARCH/AMPLIFV TOT WS 3001 028
FOR' SUREIA' LOTISUCH"

49 yenaral -ph... WS 600
JPJJUST/REALLY/MOST/SAORE
49 6panxY empIWb SO("J" (RR'J/jVO'J'(V'[/REA1-11 IJ'J WS 000
rphlnwMlrwv/anywy/. nylawnnyvaya CaN"al wdd fL
50 dracourw pWrcla [1 WS 000 000
, urvmplvmayrcou6 ! WS I.
52; pwuWXy nndala 1900. 175,
rC _
\W SMITH\SEARCHIV-PRIVAT TXT Cooled Wad I
I 56, plvelewrbS npnl(V WS 1900 I75
i
I'SB cmlraclma Ca -Wad2R M"-GE - -NP'/-NN'/-UH' EWS ON 000
IP" IV'/N'-IV' CW14 wad

III _CST"1_I21/_Iw"/_IVM"/_IVH"I_JWN'/_IWG" 2
IWS
JYYgn LEFT ManwllyandtogenllyprWW blkJ words IWS IN
I60rMY f
C \WSMIT H SEARCH\V-PPS TXT Cmle>1 Wor Id
fi01Mtd _ (J'JJR'IAT . 000
N/5 i.
t 6I, YreMW pepoMlona (I" " J'IJ 000 000
AND ICCI ITIAND (CC] SO/AND [CCI THEN/AND (CCI
65 nun-phn. Ic duWlon YOU/AND(CCJ THERE IW5 000! 000 {
1 fi/ analytic nepal on NOT/NT WS 8001 0741
I In- IN' . rnarr 9 nomrnallxatgna 8 9erurMa (manually sMM) W rn y /221 00 296 46 4049 00ý 2_ V
i 117 . __
I I OOlfl In eaarcn X In Cnnleq 0070 I' IR nl WS 1499 00 11797 Iotel noun. IIp raune
nlllinrrnve ndfeclrves (1' I N' Wrny 664 00

IJ.. 1' Wrn SI Oll
a ýnl clr
t 40 l 111/ .y 73500
00 'Iaal eil ". Ives J' 95200
40
I 40 'pr 8077alive edlecnws (VB" IJJ' Cm1eN Wad -IJ" /-IR', -IN' 4 RpM WS 4000
1 00_'1ýrxrlrr: eJlerlives.
elrve Vfl" J" R' t-. on1e, I wortl D Hr nl IN' W,
40 All nrýn PrMlceflw Atll _.. . , (Ids "- non " lecllvee
-
177 W
41 r ype t o r en /5 6x7 W /C /S
1 1 mr ln l unc n on 400 ) W5 4J 22
IIn W 111"ln lunýlrnn WS 5 4fi
rif, a 1VN0 rI Wrny 0000 55.
'N,, vorn. IVH' 2100.1 wnrrl ]VIN' 10 nonton 0 rrynl on 1 W 69161 0 35'
sne nelne y Ter nrm .'inem/nratnnrr/Mmsell nereexllnemserv e
WS 920
ti Th u1/1/600 p-- 11 10000
: J, presenl parir. rpralcrauwa (?I Conlel lord 2 1195166 0 1WG' WS 2300 212'
2 55 ru7p Ceiba c -dh4: arch\v- Mk M Conteq 000 V1 MT WS 4001 0 37
2 1,1I$9111114c ne9Ygn naMMrlnw WS 0to

no Coble
wddlN')J'peaz I7 aW verymanyrnuc NlawlaawrWaonWan
fib eynlMC rlpatan Y MA Mxlxm 0I 19 Iwrr[on WS 1 0)
'r
I
1I 14 nwnrne zalruna 'tat// rIO 'wavXy/'I U rroawY'X WS 8OB W 5596
INN" IDD01' IJJ'/INN IDDOI' IV' Ctt word 2 Left I
1 1f WH-l5151/4. clause. on su b" wy/_wrN-I. 4 /_tr1d WS I 1300 1 20
INN" IOD01 00/ by 4 wont - manue1 MA .w
l J2 WHralalrre c4uwa an oh) (V'ýR'41' WS 000 0D0
3 33, WH-IoIYmspntl plpea I"[020( WS 500! 046,
I IJ'AND IC I"(246'ANDICCI'IR"4V'ANT ICC( I
1 64 pnrweICaxdmatwn IV'/JN'ANDICCI'IN' IWS I 312001 2872
-
4 pare arlvertuas G /WSMr1'1'p; EARCH0DVPLAC IXT WS 29W 267
J Inne af. nrorals C' 1VSMIIr//5LARCHrADV TIME TXT WS 1100 101 -IdY OtMa rotTh 1049
IA' minus . 111001.nedyea . montier. / doemlomers '
rc Wverdala IB200 16 75 11 123112
160/00 1128
a2v a 411480x/ rllunkas WS 500 046

J SJ ne. essrly mrnala 04031/. wuN/mual WS 800 0 74
4 '. 4 prnlrrlumrnnlals l I110040/ 551 MrYane WS 15100 1390
'
J 575265/va Ceiba C IWSMITHCSEA1CH/V-SUAS TX7 WS 17001 156
J 63 $ //l au. rliarbs (VB111'[60408' IR"' IV'4VD [R' ' V' WS 2400
IVR" IR" IR" v', IVH... R.. IR.. (V'ýw.. IR.. IR.
et, splrleuxinenes ' IV CnMe. Iwrxd 7RpMIV' WS 000
5 171a4enikas pesrves '(VS '(WN' CunleNwad--Gy01M/64phl) 6200

'WS
S I' agenlbss 19x.. 0. (VB" IR" IWN' Conte. 1000 -by WS 700
agenness 19x.. 08. [VB-IR' (R"IWN'Cnued Sold. 'by W5 ON
(VB"IN"IWN', jV8-IP'' IWN'Contel WS 000
. 1' azenwaa ea word. -by
! VB'
IVB"IVVN'Crnle, lwold-by WS : 600
5 19 1/y pasanes
IS Vy-pasarvrs IH'' IVVN- WS 1 a]
r
IB Vy passiven IVB" Ik" IH" [VVN' ('0068.1 word = by WS 0 }I
Ivll-INIvv NIVeIrvvN'conle. l wore. ey WS
26 198.6p. nrrrpralamnrhral rla(VVN"pr rnnleNxwn AInn(j'[4Nlll"rýiJ WS oaf

,
5 26 , pasl arocrplal edvelnal c fa lvvN" p' cnrne,t 00/d )N 14,N 'rm Ws 2110
N'' z",, N'' IWN" IN'' IVWN'/IN' ýN.
peal pd WHIZ Ae1Nrms I R' -ITI WS ,I /02 193
CrW5MI1115FARCHADVDTHTAT EWS
1 38 A. dun 12x6 110
-direr
s5 conlunda c Wsmrnrswrrn enqurrn. os IS aI

'
Sj 45001lunds 1510.1cnrllaa 0001-IJ'I'R4115m WS 000
' Ihat' m/PLSeanlpemel Cnme. l vmr 1 I'I 1 Lena RIOm
s 45 cnnlllwtIt INS 0 fA
7 I
-A1: (AT' THATNN: ' THAI - NP' THAT

INW l ( rla , I. r 11680-jl -l . ýr nulor. 1- ten
6 : IITIIAl verU COlnplernerrla h( b1111 EWS
C \WSMITIUSEARCHIV-PPS2 141 Callext word
-lMi"/_and 41150/001/0 I rphl hwrzan 4 504 lo eAmnele
6,21 THAT wN Canpemanta (V' w5
C\WSMITHSEARCH\V-PPS TXT C,,bWA wwd IT- lall r
fi I' THAT Vero nla IV>rli0r hl Mrizm4MenuY aearcnm CT. IWS
ri :2 ;ITNAT MJ canplsmanla ((CT]
J WS T,
IN ICSTJ CoMatl vývrd IAT'I 0/NPrjPP/jIN 2.6866
6 1x761400 "ph' 0030114
10 THAT relatrvea nbr 19666101/ ' WS 100 009 doer '10x6" *6'11111/VXN MaNrase'
ConIear a rpM - r'
IMVihallnwo0O"e wnU "
fi Sl dammatralivrs . IV', -I>ý-wtw-wTnw. -wTOov'*l690 WB 10200 939 l: 134 i
e, 1Nhtm,I THERE IEX) WS 500 046
downlonrrs c Wnml1nlwrtctIWwa400e Ill WS IOD 04
. 14 Pa W8166. Mury AlfaclIllp O01.1t1156$4N6f OIpA"V41MIoms, TM,
IWG'/(W0'/IWZ'/(VBO'IIVBM'! IVB R',IVBZ' IVBG'l(VDO'
3 present tense verbs NDZ'IIVHO'I/VHZ'NHG' WS 42100 57.05
5lfesr-prawn pro 04na WS 52.00 7.14
'(pp'.
IPPYj
I1 second person pronoun, WS 100 0.14
9 pronoun lT IPPHta I]WS 34.00 1.67
InIMnNMeNllwae Conlezl J rent -
1
10 aemonelrelw Aron uns (V' rjifAMOMtloea/whoMwhctV-VM" WS 6.00 0.82
anybodylanynnelenythlrgleve /bodyleveryo eleverytning/no - _
Iwdylnonemdhl091nowhere/comebady/eomaanelsanwlnlnp
II' ndet:Ore pronouns C/WSMITH\SEARCMP-INDEFTOT WS 000 0.00

VD'I Conted word 4 light -INi-IXX" TM, soll by wo bll
i I: DO as pro-varo to ellminats 0uvetwn lorme WS 000 0.00
3 WH quealwns JED'1RRO' vented Hord 2 RAht " [VB'/[VD' jVH- WS 000 000
1 19 BEasmänverb ! IVB''corewl Rght(D'IJA'rjNNB'/I'1J' ý'WS
-l04 101.001 1429
C IWSMITH\SEARCHN. PPS dt Cooled 4r lent
23 WH-, hussa [000(4DDOVEV-(VD'/-(VH' WS 1001 0.14
341sentence relahwa wtlkh Cooled word - lit I W1110right (hand coned) Ws 0001 0 00
35 ýbecauae
adv au WS . 001 000
1 47 general hedges at' Tike/nwre' m' leae/elmoeVmeyM WS 000
1 47 errat fled aal' of /5104' of Context ward 2 blt -(AT' -IJ' i' PH" WS 000
ýI
abvolublyla6ogNMelcomPINNylenormauslyl. MlretyleNreme
NnidyloreatNmignNnnleneelylperrxuynaon9Nnhmmghyl
AS am ;fiere dal/utter C\WSMITH\SEARCHWMPLIFY TXT WS 200/ 027
FOR' SURE/A " LOTISUCH-

49generalemphatic. A/JUSTI EALLY/MOST/MORE WS 500
1,49 SO ('I' H
JR'NVD"J' IVVREAL CI' IJ'I
penerelempnatks WS 0.00
n9nVaelllnowl. nywaylenylruw/snyaere Conbd word IL _..
I
1 50 tliscourse padlcbs (1] WS 0.00 0.001
521ponsilyllly modal, NmpnVmaylcould WS 9.001 124
C \WSMITH/SEARCH\V. PRIVAT TXT Context Word I
1,56, pnveteverbe n9MIV' WB 19.001 261'
591conhactlwla "'Context Wortl2R nt=-GE - -NP'/-NN'/-UH' WS 000' 01J0/

I ._
(P ' (V'/N" IV CoMes/ word

IV'I-ICST'I-[? V'[VD'/-IVM'I-(VH'/-IVVN'/-JWG' 2
I 60' Ihetafebllon LEFT - Manually edel to Menlly priveblpudklsuavlw Sends WS 100
C\WSMlTHiSEARCH\V-PPSTXT Canted Word
I(J'/jR'/jAT'
ti0 that deletion WS 0.00
sl xbenaaA p eP° eillone I" "0 1
ws OOa 000
AND CC IT/AND CC SO/AND ICCI THENIAND 1CC1
1
1165 ',non-phrasal -d-l- YOUTAND (CCJ THERE
E W9 0.00 0.00
167 -to" negation NOT/N'T WS 100 014 __
)
IN' & geruntlc (manually ' W, 2161

oslllons -eecrudln9 nwnlnelaalwne coded) ° g 001 2 99 671 275200 79'
I
19 c \wemlthüesrch art tat Conley word I'I Right WS 106600 146471 total nouns 'Iny nouns
atll: bulive a ecnea

: IN" Wing 57700
alirlbully. dl- es IJ "" J"
(4 Wln , 3500
1 4V 'total anilE ad) 61200
do 'r. Na I elf echoes J' ] 0 8 00
-1 .
4D L
-1 40 'pleArcallve allechves VB" IJJ' Conrad Word -IJ' '-(R"-IN' 4 Rght WS 23 00

1 40 iiallve
aALne__. ýV E. 1 4' J_
R ConleHwnrtl6Rl J WS _
40 Ulri nnn prnVCanvn
All AAl _-- _g _.. -11300
'Itota( ellri6)iPivee
JJ Iylie lnFnn rahn Wnllt luncl: nn n=df)OJ WS 43,36
44 wnrJ ten. In Wa «ISlnil

Ill I h lunctlcm Wti 5351
1 pall lenaeverhs ý(VlU lv f] W: n O, 4100 563

pelte,. l aslýecl veins IVH't'. onle. l 000,1 [VIN' Ian hnnznn 0I rlghl hcI0006 IS 4200 57/
_.
shn/heYhe y RlerhlrMneMnlsihen/n: mselliTerse111Mr nse lv e
If hun person pronouns A WS 2)001 371
2 14 present padlclpbl , buses 171Conleo word 2 tAht le1101WG' WS 6001 0.82
21 55 hhc verbs Mic rd Conted wortl V' 1 leg ;wsI
c \wvmllh\saarctl\v 4001 0551,
2 fib pt-,, negation neither/nor ms 000

ro Come. / - -'
vmrdl N'VJ'ýeacNallleverylmanylmucNlewlavwreVSOmelan l
y, th, t,, almn ybll hwlzon 0l Ighl horli0n4 WS OCR
JWS {
3I nahzarlons 'raMmenu'neaL'ey/'twnermeMVrnaaeL rlba" 50200 660V
j
2 Le6 ýw5
i
3 'I WH-rata/ve , ' sue b 1t00ý 151
NN'a'l i 0 5tod byd Ight mama halllo exclude
2I -1 It clans IVRJ WS 300 041 I
11l WIt I ee t res I' 0 5
AND 0CI'
/ 1'RR'ANDICC 'IR'ýjV'AND (CC)-
IV'nN (CC]' (N' W$ 157 21 2 71

J 04 pnasa o<l l et un
EWS
dpa 0eilonýnals C \WSMITH\SFARCHWDVPLAC TXT 600 082'
S Ina lJVeuýals C\WSMITIISEARCHNDVTIME TXT ws SOOT 069 lolal dhele adverb count
IR ...InnselMals hedges/ ampgreuI down(rnxmre/ t
1 4.' ved, wlaf nmeaWeraab WS 92001 tz 64 17 10900
4 _4'In...... es IT/) W: n1 6300 1140

l7 a d v su b on A ln on dl un lecs WS 3001 041
4 SJ ncces, Ity models o 9n anon must WS 400' 0551
54 poeAiG: nn modals wlllAwulA/alalVwo'ane WS 99.00, 1360.
4 57 suasive ver6a C \WSMITHLSEARCHV SUAS TXT WS 600 0621
4 51 spin au. iharlea IVB. JR" (U'(VH" IR" ' IV'/jVD" IR" (XI WS If 00 -_
IVB" IR" IR" IV',(VH"' IR' " IR" IV"/IVD ' IR" IR'
4163 spit afrlare '(U'Conren wurd]Rgnr (U' WS 000
5 17 ayenlless passlvee JVB"WN'ConteN wortl=-py0bfll6 rlght) WS 4: 00

1 11 a0enlless passives IVBIRIWNCmte: A Vmrd+-by IWS 400
S egenlless lasslves IVB"RIR"IWN'COnfevl lwrd --by WS 00
5 I/ a entlass aesives [W-[N"IWN'IVB" P" IWN'Contewlvad=-by WS 000
11 ltllhy passives JVB"IVVN-CUnteviwnd=by IWS IIW

5 IB by passives IVB"IR"IWN' IWS 000
5116'hy-passives IVBIR''IR"IVVN'COnl. t wvlydfly WS 0W _
510 b-lasslves VO"N'IWN'IVH' IP'IJVN'COnlvl wýxd=by IWS oW _
5126ýpaetpeýhc:
plata.lverb:alcla.IVVN"IR"C-it wwa3 en I Yl Yl1/I) III) ws Om
s 26 aal anal rlalewermalcla.IwN"' Ir conle.I wamI VIVLI4J1 r jljUj l ao
IN"IWN -II'(N' ' IWN' ' IN' ' IWN. IIIN'
-/ peat pol Will 00.11000 IR' mannt ell/ WS II IT, 2061
00 adv sub -uIhn) C \WSMITH\SEARCHWDV. OTH TXT WS 4110 0551
1 41 unlunctx c W,remlrnfse 7 I%I

. onlunc 1W5
Z
5 d5 conluncls ramp Gallert -d 'R 4 Right
-JJ'o'D 1W 100
45 lnal'IVelselanogelner C-- word(ýI I LeW3 RgM ,
V 000
cnnluncts
THAI JAI' TIMT" INN2'11HAT"(N1" 01)07 "

INH' cnlr .1 00,,04 3I. n - IýL'ammýuý/nuluý,alxu Ism
6 21 rll AT vencýnmplemems hollow, 4 w5 0502
C\WSMITH\SEARCH\VPPS2 TXT Context ward 1
'thel"I-end tell rwrteon 0ý rghl horizon 4 Sod lo eliminate
6 "I THAT wrD Carp enrenla N WS 000
I
C: \W SMITHISEARCHNPPS TOT Context word (I' tell
.I THAT verbcorn manta 106.10000IrpM 0OAaen4"Manualunchon [CST' W6 0.00 I
fi 22 THAT adf compbmenle JJ" JCSTl I----
WS 3DU 0 41
IN " ICBTI ConIM vwtl IAT ' jDINP': IPP'/j N'2' till
6 10 THAT leIeliuee obi po. Alon' 1,- 0IN. naüon 4 14
ws 0 001 0 001 other IMt" '1M61MNnesedlwse
IhlNMbi-0- Contact word 4 ngnt = 1
n s1 Aemunstlalfoae -IV'/-17V 0110/ wlaSe/StIloM-vitwM1 WS 62001 1127 9 91
anlstenhal THERE (EXI WS 200 0.21 1
dnwnlrwera c. WSmAhWUCnýAa Mena Al WS I00 014
Pý8
a, w. a01 $i a1N 14
W-17 ] prefenl. len5. veros
IVVC.
' V'gWZ']VBO" IVBM"gVBR',
'NDZ"4VHO"I(VHZ'VHG'
'IVBZ"IVBG"IVD0I
WS 404.00, 6]99'
,
6 luftperu+n oorwuns [PPI" ; Ws 61.001 9661

] Second person pronouns 1
(PPYJ ý,WS I 100 0.161
ponoun IT P p1111 ! WS 18001 2.351
nrennemnewnnnaa Coolen ] rpnl iWS
lOldemanalrOlve pronouns I(V'12}N. RnMMOUAMmoWhkN-VM" 1.11
my6000. ryonalanylnlnyevxy1. yrenrycnalaverylfa na _T_00 _
body era;. 00 00dylsm,. e, w. w,,. IN, q
II C IWSMITN\SEARCH,
SMITH EARCH P. INDEF TOT EWS 0001
uwennna prorwuns
IVD'I cooles/ dn _000 . - _
y nt -IV'I-ITO Tlxn
twra spt b y Iwv left
00
TO as p,. -1, 10.1101061.09.5110 I- j WS 2. OD 0.32 )-
1 13WHquestl0ns I [DO - IlRRO ' _ 0.00±
content word 2R, 9h1 " (VB' I(VD'I(VH' WS 006
I 19 BEU mom verb (VB' Conted wwd 4 Rynl (0'I(A"4NNB'/(PrjJ' IWS 110.00 T 421
17421
C \WSMITHSEARCH\V-PPS tH Called 4,9M ,
I 23 WH<lauw (DD0}r(DDOVE]f-(VD'I-[vH. WS 100, 016
1 34 ' cenlence reNllvea [ oNCh CoTIeat wBrd - [?] 1 kn /0 nghl (hand. Ol. d)
EWS 0001 _
I 351 edv Iwuw
I
nm . w5 000 o00i
_ _.
1 47 genoral hedge. " anodhomerNng'I Ikelm«a "«" kwalrtasumay ; WS 0101

tal e
r
I
47 ral son' of MInd " of CoMecl yard 2 kn -]AT[ "- J" 1IPH" WS o DO
s650114.N/anoyetnerlco?np0lerylanamnu. Nlannrerylaallxn s
NnunNpreaNmgmylmlenseN/MN¢INrworgryrowraqnNn
I 40 am nlera dal Tuner Nor C IWSMITH\SEARCHUMPLIFY TOT WS I06 016
FOR' SURE, A LOTISUCH-

1 44 genoral empnauca AIJUST/REALLYIMOST/MORE WS 9.00
00['J'(RR'}, jVD'('(V"}IREAL I'] ' [J'j ý
1 491905151 amphetlcf WS 1.00
r,gW-wnowl. nywey/enynow/enyw-N Cooled 0000 1L
50 01.009,5. pencks (?] WS 000' 000 1
5: pocuauy 004.15 cwmgWmayrcouM WS low 159 _-
,
,C \WSMITHISEARCH\VPRIVAT TXT Cordaal Word 1
I, 50 prIoale verof rpl IV WS 2600' 412
1159 cannacllone "' C0nlaef W«d 2 Rnl - -GE - -NP'I-NN'I-UH' WS 000! 0Do
IP' IV'M" M CaXe0 word

V'I-ICST'/-(ýý-IVD'I-(VM'I-IVR'l-(WN"/-(WG' 2
60 Ihel-delellon LEFT Menu. Ny. 0910 denlly prIYat&pun s/sualw words WS 100
i C \WSMITH\SEARCH\VPPS TOT Coolest Wod
I Ca that 4.1.100 (J'1R'1AT" W5 000
I 61 snaMM ryeposXana [I' (l( WS 000 000, .
AND [CC] TIAND [CC] 50/AND ICCI THEWAND ICCI __
051000-pnresNCOO0Alnalun VOUTAND(CC(THERE 000' 0.00
' NOT/NT IWS --
07 enalyllc nepallon WS 500' 0791
1 IN' 6 parundc ) Win 102 5 00 76909 _25 00 ]

sui uiny
nom nellzallona (ma wally aMM 9
19 x mnnaearcn eposd RI Contedw«D I' II R nl Ws 926 00 14]60 Idol 100015 'rng nouns
I1, IN' Wings 52100

nAlacuves
J.. J' Wln ]6m
l
1 40 ' +IUI9110Eu. y 557 00
40't I4, e, tires _ J' 67900
q0
40 _
1 40 'pr Micallva edlecnves (VB" IJJ' COnIe.t 010,01 11'1-(R'-IN' 4 RIgI) WS 2400 1-
40 'yre, 4ralrve adleclivee
VR" " ýli') jýloAxt x01116 RI nl - Jrý ýN' W5 _
_
I pradicahve Ad)
40 All11110 Ills a r1 adl) non enei6 adjecl005 9600
43 lype lohen solo Wo JSmnn (900/x0 n=400) WS 4615
1 14 11 WcvdSmnn haclxn WS 5]1
I pmtirnec vorne 9VVU-( Winy 3. W 001

.
pal lei asliec1 verbs [VII' Crrnte+1w«d IV7N' lall n«Iton 0 right noruon 6 *1 62110 all,
ne nenne v n.., nýmmen, nX'Inaýrrnýmseluneraelmnern,eroe

B Inx. l lei sun pionoýns WS 6300 9911
`4 (SI000e0w0Id 211861I0 0IWG' WS ] 00 I tl

_ . presndpeII o,plal clauses
Ss ursecvadra c\ wsmnnkearcnm- uollc m canleN m Id V" 1 ,ft W5 2001 0 32 '
6fi syntneuc neyatron nellnerlrwr WS 000

C M-
«aIN'yJ'yea vary. «unYmuclvlawleeverrt some: a n
66 sYnrnelic negalon Y ka n«IZOn 0 ipnl nwizon W5 000
Id nom ne rtalronc e Jly As WS X9500: 625],

INN" IDDDI IJJ'IjNNNN'') DD01 IV' C1 al x00012 Leo
1. IIW0,. 1,1ve aausaa on fuel " -asyl-slid/ ten"n100 800. 127,
INN' " IDDO] sal ey 4 , pol - m, nual ado m a. clu0e .W5
3 32 WH. rslatne clauses on 024 . JV'rjR'rjJ' WS 100 016
(I' (DDOI EWS SOOT 079
3', 33i WH. ralallvea pad pp-
I
.1'ANDICCI'[J'4R'ANDICCI' IR'MV' AND [CC)'
] 641pnlssal co«dinellon V' IN' AND ICCI' IN' WS 13300 2101
µ. 1e a. lve lxar C IWSMI 7H SEARCHAOV FLAG TAT WS 600 12]
5 pine nt. elnials C 1WSMI 111,5EARCNADV 11ME TnT W5 900 1 44 Idol d naa eQntE CaxX
IR' ma etl Idole SMyes milliners: damiwmers
glas adv. ,e aAvrv WS 1 70 19 I] ]0 151 00
4_ J inlýnn,, lc [10) Wine 650(1 1000

aJV a unkst Wti 500 079
4 531 net sang m<Ma15 oop6VS0000Lmucl WS 1 CO D16
4I 54 gad0nnn moda1c wrMROUkU'sh. 1-1sna WS 6500 1030
,
4 S]. auasrve vorLS C \WSMITII\SEARC1I V 5205 TAT WS 3110 046,
}}}
4 ill sp"aeu. Xlales VO" IR"IV' IVH"IR"IV'IVD' [0' (V' W5 19Ut
IV0IRIH' IVIV. R""IR' [V'9VD'"[R'" IR '
'Iv cýk. l .... nvlaym jv' ws ant
; a0nnness passives IVO"IWN'COnkN word-by o kn /6 ngnl) Ws 5300

aJenikas pessrves IVB"IR" IWN' C. tle. l wwd" WS b00
-ny
ayenlieac lufsne5 IV9"R"IH"IVV-: I1t1-d=-Uy WS OOl
'.. I. ar rvnlirvss . sane. IVB"IN' WN'IVB' IP"IWN'Conleal Y. d -try WS 00
tNiny passlvas IVR'"(WW COnMet word= by 16M

1WS
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IVFi"IR"(R"IWN'ý<n1a.
IWS
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EWS __
vP"111 vYN' VB" P'IWNCOnlen-b, WS Ol0
r. peel lailr IVIN"

VIN' H'
IpInI aIVxrninl r Ia Cnnle. l ward ] bll (, )lý ß(, )M1J/ý"Y'JýIJ i WS O
wv " jr rlneaw«a LVI VLN JT'YN! I
rla
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pall prl W1 nnlen. ns IH'mamra1. IX WS 9 1
a. tvu CWS OTH TXT WS 00
400 063
III AMITHSEARCHADV
45 c«, I«ICIa \wsmllnraearcnconjuncl lv 900

IWS
51 45 j conJunclf ralnel COnlevi w«d -(J'/I'R 4 RIynl WS 100
5 45 -1-t. lnel' Ivelser0200. lner Gr*'11e.
1 00x01' I Left 3 Rynl WS ow
EE J !! ET 1
" AI'. 1r1Aý" N_' IIIAI" h
l-'I one 11.x. nul .,,,

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WS fI f10
52 AXT COnlevl
ghl /00190 4 SW I
'WS 400
C \W SMITHISEARCHIV-PPS T%T CWM wad it. wn
b 21 THAT ; tom c 001/,00 / TIN /an ion 4s Msnlul. esoon en CST' W5 00
fi. 271THAT aEJ complaln. nb JJ"( STJ WS 5001 OT9j
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30, TIIATI. lelIoes dy pofXlwtýIwruon 0t 119. /000604 WS 000, TX olner' Inat' IS'UtalNX fl re. 6Anou'
InlslSaIrnea. lnnse COnlesI w«rl 4 rtonl =
fi 51 danur, slr Nlvas -IV'I-Iýý-00(00-sMO55 Wien, -. Mrcn WS 5200 624 16 66
- eslalentW THERE IE%I WS 200 032
' downl«lera c Nnmllhlaaar. lh obtone Al WS 300 048
P. Q. 9
IVVG'IIVVO'jWZ', IV80'/IVBM'/jV9 R'IIVBZ'IVBG'IVD0 1 r r
Jpesenllensewma 'NDZ'IVHO'jVHZ'/VHG' WS 21400 6564,
61val psram prmxma (PP'' WS 39.00 II. 98
Ir'eacondpelon , (PPYi WS 1001 031
en l n.
9 pmoun IT (P PHI[ WS 1.001 0.311
IfMMIAMSNhw" Ca4.4 3 n, N I
'0 dem lsll. lw paaula (V'11)AMOM11osaM$0(nS. ucN-VM" WS 2001 061

t
anyb dyranyw . lylhnyewrydMyreveryoW"rythingrnu
body/none/ndnmgrnmMecelanmebody/son,. wsomalnrnq
11 104.16X. pmwlna C, WSMITH\SEARCH\P-INOEF TUT WS 0001 0001,
r IVO'I Conlasl
vdd 41016-IV'r_IX%' TMn aM by 1vo 166 l
,_ DOnpo-vem Io alrmrnNeOwels. r lwma WS 000 000
ý(00'ýRRO'cont. NAnod 2 Rlph1=1VB'IVD'/IVH' 0
13 WHywslana WS 000 000
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, C ,WSMITH\SEARCH\V PPSM CvNeat 4rghl
:l WH<lau"es (DDOI/(DDOVEJ/-IVD'r-(VH' WS 000' 000 t
34 aentenc"relalrree IMllch Content EWS
I1
word"(nl I b6109 0 16( hand . 419.9) 0001 000I
35 . 94 sub Cxau"" Ws DDDI 000/ r
0
+1 general hedges el' ebMlsom INnp 'I Aer-o. ' kca/almcsVmeybe W5 000
4? nxY a° 'o1 bold 'Al Conrad xad 2166 -AT'y_J' 7' PH- W5 000
IWO oASy,YOgNMIAoInpMNylaowmou NlenMNY/. sl, e M

Nrmryrpr"eIymynydnt. n. fHrprtl"dylabunpy NA
40 .m IMra da11Mf C IW SMITHISEARCHMMPLIFY IFY T%T
TXT WS 0001 000'
FOR' SURE/A' LOT, SUCN'
1w
19 general
49 penelal amphatk"
52, poaaAalOy
aucour.
"mphellca
pancbs
nods.
AI JUST/REALLY/MOST/MORE
5O ('J' (RR'NVD'(' IV'YREAL ['(' IJ']
rgnlNwlvnowr. nywavranyVloa'ranyxan CAnIca-d
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cxmpnumayrcoAH
\WSMIT6ISEARCH\V-PRIVAT TXT C0Metl Wad 1
1L
WS
WS
WS
WS
200
0.00
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0
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,
I 56,0mal, vnba V.ghl (V' WS 1400, 429'
59 conlr"clruna Corxe>AWnrd 2R M' - GE -- NP'1- NN'1- UM' WS 000 000,

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IP' " IV'/N" IV CmI*A -c!
9o';
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l Wad
C WSMITH\SEARCHW-PPS TXT Cwhod
I So tMl-dNNbn (J'jR-j T' 0.00

1Yr"rvW (1"('! ( _(WS _ OCID o
peoMens IWS
AND (CCI ITCAND(CC) SO/AND [CC] THEWAND [CC)
65 pnre"el wordlnMbn YOUTAND [CC] THERE WS owl 0001
61 INOTINT WS 031
I . Iyt,c negellvn 1111
IN' d perunda (manualy 292 04 1 225 39

! aacludrrp nomrnel¢aliona sn led)' W rn p '', 4 l%1 I JI
19inr c \vrsmrln\eeerVl . I11N CAnlerd -d 11' 1 RIM WS 41100 lad 48 IotsI nouns lnanounc
xerlrona
eltnt:utrve anln\livea (J" (N' Wrn p :: ] 00

- l IJ" 1J' Wrn :DW
4D a II 241 00
- 1 -
l'1 e Olson
1
Jý'prnili.
40 etrvr llelivee (VP"IlJ'Gnn Wnrd(l' WS 1D00
., -(R'/-N'4RrAn1
I Ad mxdfi Rr N
TI _
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W/v, 1 luny lxm b ) W S 44
.lI
n=4(
WorJ S, nAn IuncROn 'WS

i4 nl Ixnrh
40011.0/3/nrli.
vn
pa, l ruo. +e . crlo (v'u n-I wrný 400

: Ixrtn l aspect . wrna nnr rd v xtl il IN' Inn 1., - or ngnl norvun 6 WS : 500 1b,
n e l, e Ah ey /ner/R rn NnemnrvlneirmxrselllnersellnRernsalv e
y tlyersnn pronouns 'WS : 100 644
:J pulsed penrcrµal clauses l CIII 0 (WG'
rpnl Ie110
40002 1 000' WS 400 1 23
55 uMrc verM 0 esmlh\CIU v Mc td CMIA red V' 1166 WS 400, 1 53
6ti syntneDCnegalnn neAM, /001 WS 000

Conlevl
OIN'yJ' VeacRalLevery .. ny. mucR'lew/aewraVaanWa n
66 a nlhnnc N. p y 16, Mr¢on 0/ 1/90/h- < WS 000
1 IA oven na talwna 'tqM sal'ayl'1 al'n, anl'n"a""'rlw" WS : 4UW 1362
IJJ'/INN ' IDD01 (V' Caaeat oOld 2 Lab

INN' [D00
1 JI WV ,. 1atve clau -. 1bi. -sly'I IN-tall', -Idd WS 500. 1531
INN' (0D0)Sort by4 Ipnl- manual edit lo . 00144.
1: WH-relallva c4uae"An Abj (V'/R'rJ' WS 200' 061
I3 WH-rtlelrvnpr"d-ppn II"IDDOI WS 200 , 0611
IJ' AND ICCI' I0'. )0' AND ICCI' IR")V AND(CCI'
II fJ pNasA 040, d,nelwn 10)41' ANJ ICCI'(N' WS 93001 1933
J VlarearNxDUls C\WSM III-04R094100 PLAC TAT WS 400 1,3

CWSMIt"ISCARCH Al/VT IME TXT WS : DD 061-idal dRera adwfO LWM
. In, e erlvemrars
R' minus all Igals ned0ee amplllixs dwvnlownxs
Wac A. - xtvernrals IP 9 11500
A4 IIOJ , sW 1
-1 rrr ln 1. s rn',
WS 000 1/10/
a d v euD u rl/unless
,
4 _ SJn nny malala n190? Onngn:rnu51 W$ 11W
00 031
13 6
41 .
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, 0 011
0 5/'suesrvasly, ver Da
o C \W SMITMEARCN
S ,VSUAS TOT WS '_ 00
4 63 aplrl auxlllalree IVB" (R" IV'IjVH'' (R" V'/(VD.. ) R" (V' WS 500
VB" IR" IR" IV' VH... R ' IR" V'IVD'' IR' " IR'
IV' C-1- .. d 7 Rrynt IV' W5 t, (M]
4 11
eyentleea pasxves IVN" (W'N' C-I vmrd " -by 0 *R 16 rpM) WS 5: w

agenneac Pasuvee IVB"IR"IWN'C-4 vdd"-by WS I00
IV IR" I R" IW'Cml
N A-a -by WS (1110
ngennees pensrves
'ý I. ' ar r"glesa as N' WN-IN NB-IP (WN'COnleslm, d--by WS DW
to !, y pa+ervee IV9" IWN' Cmte. t rrnnl " by WS d.

. IN lry pa+sives IVF- IR"WN WS 2w
'. In lry ynesive5 IVR"IRR" IWN' CnrrleN word- by WS 000
Iv H' IN'vVN'ýV0' f IWN'Cnnlev-d=by WS ow
=II", ' a IvvN" IH v.enlacer, 3nIK II lifIAI ws las

reel 1 .1 'a1vvN' Ir cr heedlwalNVl. V114..
7Vl WS loo
_ N''IWN IN'' IWN' [IN' . IWN''
:, peal l. t Wrn: Jeretrna (R' m e A WS 1100 331
, CWSMI ir 1SE ARCHWOV OTH TX I WS JOD 092,
. In a< olner
-EE
1ý 77
41 ¢ 4 n ýri 1r
-j 1-
JSconlrnxls ralnx CnnleN w IH 4 H, 11 Ws
Jti cnnlurv is /11.1 ,4 eIS, ýeXgelnx l r.nle. i vn,1I l'l h ell 1 Rrghl WS n.
111,1'IA I'AT NI. "TI, AI *N-T114T"

IN I nre I_-1It«n
n ', iHnl . xocanplements nrýtnn 4v WS 0110
C IW SMITII\SEARCH, V PP52 TXT Cooled ward
"tnN"r_and b6 Muhen 0 11104 nplxon 4 Son lo Nllnxu l" '..
THAI verb canpMm"nls ; (V' IWE 300
:t
C \WSMITNISEARCHIV-PPS TUT Cant"el Cord II' 166 -r--
21 THAT win enla 000,0061 0 M nom0n A" Manuel 55x00 an COT'
n
: 1,7641 adI con9PkmeM. (J"(CS ( WS 300 092
r ,
[CST] CaMesi vevd IAT"lD/NP'IPP"IN'2' k6
IC THAIrelaInea 049piM ran 0 rnghI bongo., 4 W5 0D0 Dm othx lM1' Wth"IMINh"zennnse-
, I
-Ohl IMNhaNM""Ahwe Coolen word
51 drnu., hII. Inrea -(V'/_(Tý-alwl-xlwcel- 0Yrom/-04050 WS 450(1 IJ tlO 6 ' "a1,
' "natentWl THERE IEXI WS 100 031

' dovmlalxe c M"m211WrclWOeMOn" IN WS IDO 031
Papý10
J" Lklaubpft Wt AW.Mn T. 04 R_ Se- Noses e -W 1
IWG'4Wo'1WZ'IVB0'j JBM', IVBR'/VBZ'IVBG'WVDO
1 plesanl-lensevarna 'NDZ'IjVH0'/(VHZ'SING' WS 16900 61'2
eIel pet eon p rwroune [PPI' WO 15 00 5 40
ý
7 second person pm-. I PPVJ WS I00 03; 1
9, pr0n0un IT PPHII ! WS 4001 1464_
tMVtluNlraNfpa" ConlnY 3 rtg0 __--
O, aanlmsoNm p1Onwna (V'41 NA MaaMeewtMMCN-VM" WS 200 0 73]
1
nyhodylany0 I. nyrMnyevaryLOdylevxyalalaveyyhvglno
! Eodylnwhbp/no.
ylaprr"pWawrMn ý
1
It C IWSMITHMITHVSEARCHIP INDEF
EF TXT I
rndehnlla pr-b. 'WS 0_00
IVD'I C. Metl word 4 rghl -IV I-I%%' Then so py wo b 1
0055 pro-verb to 51104n.. 0uealwn for WS 200
IJ WH. gwalbna d2 RgM "j08100406' WS 000 0.00
0
r(DO'4RRO'conlesl ww
198E Sa non 05,6 (VB' CoOt., word 4 RIgo1ID'4A'4NNB'4I'7J' WS 2900 1059.
C\WSMITN\SEARCHIV PPS IN CaM". 14 rgtll
.1w, """ 7, I000I10DOVE}I-[VD'/-(VH- WO
Ws 000 04.
IC sentence -
. relat!wa wtnbh Conlex word - I7] I bll 10 ngM (hand added) i S 000' 000''
115.30.46 lzcau. ".
" WS 000' 0 001
t 41 general nerlpea x' ahMlaanlNnxq'I M"Imore' or' bWeYrwVmsyL" WS 000

.
I Al eneral ned es . 01' If kInd' of Conlex word 2 b6 - AT' - J' l' PH' WS 000
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rynuNylpr"xrymglvyIro. naxyrgrl"c lnlstrorglvniwrougnryn
I 48 -ph- dx /u6 C VWSMITRISEARCH\AMPLIFV TOT WS 200 073
FOR' SUREJA ' LOTISUC11'

I Il
general emplulrca ' A/JUST/REALLYW ST/MORE WS 3. W0
SSO ('I'(RR'µVD'I'(V'vREAL
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LWS
rpMMalVnavlanyvnylenytlowl"nyvnya Comex word IL __
SO dlaceuraa p ancba (i ) ! 0 Oml
I--ghtwaylcoub rWS ý
1!, 521 p0ax6llly mm"la W5 10 365.
C WJSMITH\SEARCHIV. PRIVAT TXT CaN"x Wdd I
S6, pnoSeveea rgnl(V WS 300 110
"
cOTIISclrons COnletl Word 2 ft M"- GE -- NP'I- NN'/- UH' WS 000 0001
IP" V' N' ' IV' Cool. N ward

IV -CSI'r-I'/y-IVD'/-IVM'I-(VT'/-IWN'I-IWG'
I 2
I 00, lhel-0. Mbn LEIT Manuxly aM 1o tlenrfy prnMa'puNrlauaam wrda WS 000
C \WSMITIIVSEARCHW. PPS T%T Canletl Word
OUllllaldelxbn (J'4R'r4Al' WS 0.1](1
ell xrandad prepoaerona Ip"(v( WO 03 Coo
r
TAND ICCI ITIAND (CC] SOIAND (CC) THEN/AND ICCI
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l ' NOT/NT I
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I.
16 nouns (N' e. cluErrq rwmrnelu; xwna 6 parurWa (menuxly caned ) Wrn g '305 00 J6] OE 'f . 20
-I l9 tle utsrhnns C /mllh\aearch

os all tx Conled word l' I Right WS 198 00' 145 36 101,1noun ß noun.
.
a1lrrlwlne Mpclrvee l"(N' Wrngý 19900
a mmwrve ad Irve J"l' Wrn 2]00
40 ldal annG Ml 21200
'
1n J 204 00
m
10
1 40 1111 VB" IJJ' Cost, N Word -[J' I-[R'I-IN' 4 Right WS 540

.1I IL Ell" ýJ' " R' Conteol w+. d fi Rq hl ýJI ýN'
ia. - ' _WS
n, n l+nlvm ve Anl II, dal adj WrO Wj) mit an ha cl wes 00
l yleu,. ený m
. mn, mýn-.
nlrlll un l w. , 4 _
. Wriil. `. lunclbn WS 539
I Iaat ren. r vnrns I(VrD n', I WrnO 19IX1 0/4

p. r r.. r 4410"" 1,01/0 Ivr 0. , 11111' 10511,., 7100 ngnl rn6 W1 : 000 10
r.emnelne r T er
llrmlMnvmialneiýTrmsell'neýceltnemaelv e
"i person plums... a WS 600 219

:d plesenIp"rtrcrpr"I Clsuses I71 C0nlebwdd 2 rgMl"00(WG' WS 2200 804'
:.5 IWtc verbs cW , Rh4earchW Mb W Cwt A m, d VI Wit WS 000 329'
fifi synlMlrc nepxlm Inerlnarlnor EWS 00

ro Conle. t
voldlN' J' peacNal4 "wry'many/mucMew/uvwaVaorlleýe n
lb synlnelc l>, am Yb6luwuonO irgM na 4 WS pDo
1lzelbna I'menV'nesN'ty'1 'maa )WS 19600'1 ]1591

14, -. a/'
j I NN I
NN" I DOO I ' (JJ ' jNN ID OO I IV ' G1xd2
o t. L"I I
IoUd I
31 31 WM tebtm clau sub a -uy'I-ulN-1411'1
1111" WS 100' 0 ST
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- menux
l 3: WH W an o0( (v(R ýJ WS 00 037
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1 47 neraln aat'ol hmd'of Content word 2616-AT'-J' PH' WS 000
"baoMNy/eIogMh«homplNSNlenam0utryl"nbnM/eNreme
Iy/Ib1tv1gea11y4,1qh1vnnlen605/pMec6y/NrobglylnaoughlyA
1 40 am lhera dm1iy1er CI WSMITH/SEARGHVLMPLIFYTXT WS 0.00 000.
FOR' SURE/A " LOT, SUCH

49 parrra1 ampbalba MUST/REALLY/MOST/MORE WS 1100
49 general ampnalet SO I'] - IN R'}/(VO'J-(V'(/REAL I'J' IN( 'WS 000
I
r1pnlMNlnwwnnyxar/anylww/any vag Canted vwd IL
wo 000; 0001
5o aacuurte 41100/e.
, I_(1)
521poandltty modele Vmaylcouk IWS 19001 437;
C IWSMITH/SEARCHIV-PRIVAT
WSMI TOT Cooed Word I
56, prrvale verbs bight IV 'WS 13004 2991
I 59 c0nnacllmn " COMer Wad 2 Fight "- GE -- NP"I- NN'/- UH' WS 0.00 000
IF" IV'M"IV C0MaMevrd

(V'/-ICST"/-I'! y-IvD"I-(VM"hIVH"/'(WN"1_ wG" 2
iW5 000
1 60 Ihel4elelwn LEFT -Manually. EAluIdenify prNal&pudkltwaM words
C/WSMITHlSEARCH\V-PPSTOT 000IM Ward
]
60.041-dalMlm (J'rýR'I(AT' 0_00
'
{IWS I
_
I, 61 Nrandad prepothbna (I"" (71 Ws 0.001 000
AND ICCI IT/AND (CC) SO/AND ICCI THEN/AND ICCI
65 n0n-pnreaal w0ranallon YOU/AND (CC( THERE WS 100' 023
NOT/NT EWS 500 ' I IS,
67 30191100,911100
16 roans IN' - exchMlnp rominellzalwnn 8 Qelundi (manually sorted)Wng 1003 On 244 76 141900 42
1 39 I loslbmlz c 4vsmMbaarcnre bid IN Cooled wordy 1 Right WS 59300 13654'Iaal flans -Ir10nount
.
Ilnnullve alllecllvaa lJ" ýN' Wog ]_9 00
allnbuuve at eclrvea (J" J' Wm 2300

332 00
-1 a0 "Idel sonn adl 40900
I 40'1014/adecllves J'
10
40 'predlcatne xllecirvea IV6" (J C Ce d- h 'O Rpnl 4015 1400
VA.. . R' ' Cooled 6 Rgnl
t, A w rdd6R, bi t -W-IN ' WS
40 'prencahve 7/)g. 110,5
T a1 - - -ý
1 40 All non peclroat/ue Atli 11 . 1161, adjjj . lt- 6300
741 WadSmlln luncllm 015 5020
, lypei - ann 0.400)
I J4011/min WordSnirln lu, 0100 EWS 5: 1
ýVýC n'I Wing 3500 IC6

pn. l kose verbs
IVH' 1.nnlc. l 0041 IV IN' kll 0,0010
genau aspen verbs /Tight 1010,16 WS 1500 3 45
-
0e 11.tley, M'1, im1nem TI. 1MuInImullnkraNf lnemselv e
0 tn percon porouna It WS 29.004 6.68,
2 24 pr as 1 penlcipul clauses I'1( Cooled word 2 right 6160 (VVG' WS 14.001 3.221
2 55 ublk verbs c WSnlnnlaeelcnly blo /M 0001 o wdtl V' I Iel WS 10.00 2.30
2 66 nynIheC Iw9Nlgn 0,110,1/nor WS 0w
nwdIN"yJ'leeolvaiveverylmanylmuclolewls oMauaonla/an
66 1 tnNM , tan 4 616000200 0, light nor/on 4 WS 103
i"lm^menV'naa'tlyrl
J4 mnrnallaNbn nal'menlvn"tattl'Nln WO 31400 72M
ZINN" ID001' IJJ'/INN' " IDDQJ - IV' CoM. M
word 2 Labt
J ]I WHrelallve cl 61"-, 89'1-aas-INI'I-taN WS 400 092 J.
NN ' (DDOI 5on by 4 bjht -10400.1 MN t0,, chide ý.
J 32IWHrNalna clsuwson ob' (V (R'jJ' g_ 00 0.7lf__-
IIWý _
3i WHrabinrospwdplpea ("(000( Iv. ' g 900 3070
IIl" AND ICCI " (J'/R" AND ICCI' IR'/V' AND ICCI _ -_ _ .
J 04 pNaaN COadmNrm V'iN' AND(CCI' IN' WS 10100 2326:
.
C WSMI IH. SEARCHDV PLAC TXT WS 1300 299
r4 glare xlvenxalc
C, WSMI TH. 5/ Aki H A. /U I IME TUT 015 OIXl 002-IdN OtMrt adverb 04404
ie e.luenxals
IH' 1 . 11 05 b1e i.. nnwnliwmers
rosa aovaýmalzý I advamlalc vr? l0: .1 23 49 29 tv 00
a nmeý anveni.
4 .n,. Ilol wmc, nlw

!, 0.s oo
4 54 pc+fxtxxýmý. fais vnllmmaki Mallwu'sM WS 6J OG 1451

SUAS TXT WS 900 207 _
4 51 su . 0, nn C IWSMITHSEARCHIV
J 6], slvll euvilienns IVO" IR" (V"l (R"' (V'/ý V D: (R" IV

V' WS 360
IVa ' IR I'R ". IV ' IV H I R' J .RIV'4VD ' IR" JR' _
4 6] ' IV' Cml. N 00x3 7 RVht IV. I WS 000
zpln aýrciliarrec
JOD
5 1], 8,48016158
l'aaslvaa IVBWN'Cwt ABord"-by0 kN/6IgM) W5
(VB IH" (Wal' CmteM word - -by : WS
57 agentkss Fassn<s
(VB"IRR' JWN'Cb, A .0. d"-by EWS
17 ýenes. pessrves
IIV9'NjWN*JVR. 'IP"IWN'Cmlnvwd"_y EWS
5 IN Ly paazrves VB"IWN'CmleN word=0y WS
'. ' IB [ry-passives IVBIRIWN iIWS

. ltl fry passives (VB R. R"IWN'C-14-d-by
VB"INWINI VFIP'IWIN C-1-worn4 Wgs
peel cM IWN"IR' CmbN-d3ll lJl Y(Jrj'T]/('J IWS

6 asl (WN" II- C-. A -d I(fvI'I Wg
IN' - IWN' - IV IN'' WN"IN"IWN'JIN'-(WN'
5 2T peal pn WV//nelehal JR'-0.00,0/Mn ' WS I 13001 299
e
C IWSMITHSEARCHUOV0TH TXT EWS 6001 I30
51391 ado sub -0104,
5 45 conluncN c Nvam11n4earcnýcunluncl tN WS 'Im
5461conl4001* ratnel Cmllevi voltl- IJ')'R 4 Rpnl WS 000

5 45 ronluruiS 154/'ISelsenNogclner Conle. I wan (7)I L9N1 RyM EWS 000
IIIAIiA I' I lAT INN2'T HAT I- THAT"

INB' le .I wwn J Lell = I1)'ard nur4iýLw. alw kA
6 21 ! THAT very COmpbmemz nwaonl WS 000

CM MITHtiEARCHIV-PPS2 TXT CmWV d
RMI'I-0, M WR10000 0I bghl Maxon 4 Sort to eNlanala
6 21 THAT .. compbmen4 I(V' WS
, C 101SMITIIISEARCH! V. PPS TXT C-1 word 11-
621 THAT wrD com t Ilonam O j Ipnl nor¢on 4. Manual wucn m CST' Wg p Op
6 12 THATaC( compMnwrtla I, TJ WS DITO; 000.,
. IN ' IC
SSTI C-A1 d IAT'4OMP'jPP'4N-2' 006
6 30 THAT 1NNNea ob) p0Nlmnr horlion 010911 wu004 , WS 300 069ýdMrlMl' atl 7_MNM. 1Mx. 1nMe
IhINMUMtMMaa Conned lwr4 4 reiht 1
6 51 damonalrxrvaa -IV'I-I3(- d- /-0. H rcn WS ]0001 6.91 0_6 4A.
-
OI,ICO66ITHERE IEXI Wg 3.00 066
downlalert 0Ha*0nNhWrtchVfoM0000106 WS 100 023
Ppa1
SQ-11F. R. WOW.* " Ale-I'll. Taw ]Riiltit s T- Ws
IWG"/[WO', 1VVZ'7VB0 IVBM'1VBR'1V6Z' (VBG'IVDC
Ipresenl tense veros NDZ'4VHO'r(VHZ', VVG' WS 67300 5619;
51asl per. urr pronouns I'1' WS 92001 7 951 i
s«ona-person pronouns (PPYJ WS 000. 000
9 pronoun IT (PPN1] EWS 3300' 285
IfINMLlM"emate Conlexl 3 rpnt
10 MmonNletly. (V'r(TjNSorwnrnenMomMTkN-VM" EWS 53001 458`.

pronouns
enybmy/anyone/enylnrng. 0.090my/w. r3 , Ceryminyno
body none note nog aer /amxarlNaanleln n9
11 indelnrle pronouns C WSMITH, 9600CHT 00W INDEFF TXTT%T EWS 000 000
IVD'I Conical word light IV IXX They od bytwo kn
DO"s pro Oars IoNmrnak 00.5110 I- WS 0001 000
IJ WH queNwns (D0 IRRO' canted xord 2 Right IVB 4VD rjVH WO 000 000
19ýBE as man 0,16 (VB' Context 9 rtl 4 Right (D 4A r1NN0 1(I"r1J "WO 186.001 1609
C \WSMITH\SEARCH\V-PPS Ist Context4rc of _
23 WH-ckwes ID DO}(0000[fr_(VD'r-IVH" WS 2CC 017
34ýsentence rakllve. vTrcn C-1.4 word= 1711l. 11/ 0 r1p01(hand atlit. A) WS 3004 026,
1 Js aav. soe Ueceuw Iw5 0.1
-c 000
II
{
47, general MCgea bauVaomelNnp'I IHN nor or kaNmasVmaybe 2.00

Iws
EWS
47ner"1 wn'o1 An- - 11 Contest ward 2R11 -IAT'y-IJ'yj7' PH' 000
aMduttly/atogNber/c ylenormou'N/enllrelyraorr"ma
rynwly/gr"NpmIgnrynnbmN
I"s* YI trylatmngtyMlmougbNn
I 46 am Wren d Alte C \WSMITMOISEA
I- SEARCHNMPLIFV TOT WS 500 C 43
FOR' SURE/A' LOT/SUCH'

a9 generel empt ncs AIJUST/REA LLV/MOST /MORE ws 2800
49 gene1N empMllca SO("("(RR"IIVD"(' I0(165LI"I' j"[ WS E.
rplrUVNVno.WanyvnYlanynwv/anYVnYa Context word II
1 '0 Jlscourau p17101.. (7j WB 000 000,
1 52 posaldky rnotlek WS 27 001
I c mgnunwy/<avd r
2 331
C \WBMITHISEARCHIV-PRIVAT TOT Centex Wad I
I 50 prrveleverM ng60(0' ws 5100 441
59 c0nlreclons CanteenWad 2 Right =- GE -- NP'I_ NN'I- UH" ! WS 000 0.00
IP" - IV'/N' " IV' COM.N 10609

IV'1_ICST'I-Ii(1-IVD'I-(VIMl-IVH"/-IWN'/-IWG" 2
100 Inaldekbbb LEFT MrIwNy edt tolhnrfypmNalpvdiUawarve wwtla WS TOD
1
C IWSMITHISEARCH)V-PPS TXT Context Word ---
I 501M1N-Ae1Nbn (J"/1R'4AT' EWS 000
61 tn. Metl prepoenwne p" (4( WS 00 W
AND (CC) ITAND ICCI SO/AND (CCI THEN/AND [CC(
35,610 plnueIc00rtlineMn YOUTAND(CC( THERE W3 2001 017
.
1 67 analytic nepatwn Nor/NT ws 1200 104
IN' rwmItr. lzalinna A geruntlc (manually sorle0) W, n 9. 3007 W 263 44 3995001 I16
- ercnMing
39 r vrsmnbfaearcn sn M Context word [I' IR,, ht EWS 149600 12952 ' Id ol nouns 'Ing noun,
annnuovx
Z anlache. IJ' ' IN* Bfi0 W
. 1-ader lives P.. 11. iwln g 6400
. iWin
I 40 '101.1ruin mil 924 00
b l "e:.
ore nl r,. l' 1124 00
b _
ý
J1)'W., 1i,nn. e alle. n+es IVB"IJJ'(0011001 Worn-IJ'-(R'_IN'4Rpn1 WS 0600 _-

I 0 y1uli. eI. -x B n+r., IV9" l" I<' Cnnle. I wwn Rayne -IJ IN' W; I pp
1
4
b ohm All,
All noon I+r Miranve '111-1 eel ro ds aIlp mannel
n u400) aEje[Irvea 151 10
-I
ryl, e Wer Wl À 39
aJ JY"x W ti _4
9
I, tare. vorn ýJ .y 1
I l rrlýl. oIV'N' IeX nu n6 W:: F W 51fi _
l; r.,
p". : ril, ngnln
s rr1 M1e
.'fne y
RýmnxnM1nenl , nis ineir/nimsell'nersellabemsalv e
+1177 IM r, pn WS It1W t, ý4
41, i. senllancýplel rlar, se. j>IC1+le0 -Id2,9W ef101VVG- WS ü00 389
I ---
2 N., , xrns ucn'. v- ulk 1.1 n1e.1-it V" 10 WS low o
WS 000
_ nt. srin, elc nepp -11, n
Cm 1
.... eIN ( J' yaaýý l ny rlmy,rnucndameeýer.
caoma,
an
4Iln, xuo
. ne a v ten norv rr , D .yrnn-o 4 ws IW
14 von ne talrosa " a ny'lon'menl'mawV'llln WS -11000 71 76
INN (DD0 IJJ', 1NN' - IDD01' (N Conl"N word 2 Lefl
1f'Wll relsllve clansea on su es--sey'I-eaatr-toll'r loltl WS 2500 215'
INN" (000( Son Dy 41190 - manual . 0911 t0 a. 0Yxfe
3: WH-relative clauses on oSl (1711044' ws 100 009
1 t3'WHINallve" piedplpea II' (000! 3300'' 285
IWS
IJ- AND ICCI' AND ICCI (J"4R' AND ICCI " IR"4V' "
no pnraeal coortlrnaVon (049' AND ICCI'(9' WS 21000 1816
4, pMCeeMalbala C \WSMITII\SEAHCHVW0V PLAC TOT WS 2400 206
r brne arlvelbrals C VISMuIV i, EflAi NATO TIME TOT WS 2200 190- IdN dMra edWrb count
R' minus all 101Na neatges ampliliers Jownrorvnola /
Plx . Ave WS 25000 2162 Bt 3117
4 s 110( WinG 157 W 1357

4 I) a0r nout ontlilinn It1unkse WS SW 052
4 53 sec cslty nlod, e bVht/cnoulNmusl WS 1600 138

4'pafrlrrvl mafals 00ll'0vukL anelUoru. na WS 106(3 916
4 ', 7 verb. C )WSMI7H\SEARCHr0. SUAS TXT WS 1600 1 ]B
a r, \'14n merýuunes IVB"- II+: ' IV', 1V0'(R'

IV IH" R" IV' 'IVH"'
I V"400
R"IR'"
( R"(V'
V'nV0"
W5 2800 N Yi
,
IV' +- r ++vtl Rgn11V" WS I

.cl e
agenliess peesivea IVO"IVVI-. b,- -. ht) WS n9W

eyxnnesn pas IV - IV IWN- Cooled vnrd --by W5 14W
ayenllese Paearvas IVN" IH" (R" IWN'Conte+l vrad " -by Ws ý 1W

I. ai nnneae s IVB"IN WN-/IVB"IP' ' IWN'Conleal word-by 'WS 000
S IB ny passlvee (VB" (WN' COnleN wortl= by EWS 13 W

I6 ny yessrves IVB"R"(WN' WS OW
Icy essivea B IN" (R" I\'VN' Cunle dJ = by W W
'vB"N' IWN, 1VR" IPIWN'Conlevi vnx0=Dy WS i. tU
5'26'. yesl panrc.rpiel e.IVen, nlle, IVVN"Ilt'c. vorCJIeM1 (.(/(v(, ý(ý'i'1/(r) W5 OW

5 `6 +asl +erlwl al ellveilal le ýVN" i'C. on1eN vmrtl I'ýiýýI 1T'Y'Vill WS 9Do
.
IN.. WN.. 11.1N.. WN" N' " WN'gIN.. (WN..
21 poet irr WHIZ rteletxms RS noel It W9 2000 173'
ill erf\ sus CWOO IH15EARCIIAIIV0TH TOT W9 12110 I04
'W
oyur a onlun ý1 I WS
4S Con)111015 ralnei L: a l wurtl-I4' ('R 4 R1Bnl WS ZW
sal' C.
ýnle il wv if I'I
4'ý c. nlrrnIs is t1- a111elnel 110 3 R. 911 WS W
! 11911.11' I i,Al -INN? '/THAI NfÌTA1
.Iw.. r,ý r. e IrFn. f .,. Lr oýal. n ten

: 1191 -1, - ý' M Ws
ý S
I- W ka nahm 0r 19M N__ 4 Sdt to Nlmmal "

e 1211 THAT swECarlpknwM" IM 'WS law
CIWSMITMSEARCHW PPS TXT C-t. A-it(I"kR
n 21 THAT vxU cwn nroda ! Ironznn 01
rl 1 Ia+xon 4. ARI-1. -I, m CST" WS 000
22ýiHAT . tl) mnpMnwMC 1 INS 300 02E '
1109""1,5 ,
(N' " ICSTI C-A void IAT', 1D/NP"r1PP"4N-2- 1,08
IS 301 THAT reaIw" ob)pwnlnn 1,000060 l right Melton 4 WS I00 009 oIMr Y11N" ü'tllaLttlWlMatlwaa
(001.4002' CallM . 114 11911.
o 51 rkrtrnNrNM" -(V'/ýItý w1W-sMwar-wrranv-rMr. n WS 10900 942 77 166'
McMWiMwiMw Conk- vwtl 4 rroot.
' eslNNtlhI THERE -IV'I-I'lll"MVV"WwW-vtldry-sv}Ilcll WS 1100 ODs
' Aowrrluw" c. WSmk11WrcllYlvwrrlan"1N WS 5 00 043
P. c. 15
ROM M atk an, a. eW Wads 31.01{.
IW G'IIVVO'/IW2'lMVBO'! [VBM' (VBR' (VII? ' IIVBG'/IVD(1
J present-Tense0.101 ' VDZ' 1VH0'. 1VHZ'NHG' AS 172600' 5551

. tactp1- pronouns (PPI' 010'5 897 00 2885,
7ý second Person plonnuns (PPy( WS 510001 1640 !1
9 pronoun IT IPPHI( Ws ]9000' 1254 1
IdvinaNMSeInoca Conical 3 rigor
IOS,eemonslraUVepronoune IV"I)"ljMwlwMCeANromMerkN-VM" WS 10700 3441

anyl»tly; enyonuanylhrnye ary[wdy/everyon"/awrylhuplro .
C ndnmplno. Mme'aomebodylaolneonelaonMhup
I It l lnd e6h ll e prdwuns \WSM,.
\WSMITH1SEARCHW INDEFT%T EWS 81 001, 2 60
- t 1
. VD-1 COnrealvvld 4 MgM -IV'/-IXX" Than son by tsw III
12 DO ea pro-verb ts elrmrnele 0... rwn forme
I
1 I3 WH q ueslans [00 18RO' contest word 2 Right " (VB'4VD' ,1VH' WS 600 2 701
TWO .
1.19 BEaamun verb [VB' Coolest . 0404 Right[ D'rjA'1NN8'rjl'1J' 84100 27.05
C \WSM THISEARCHIV. PPS Ird Contest Aright 1
I 2J'WH-cbuaea 1000p1D00VEY-(VD"I-IVH' Ws 3200, 071'
34 arten. ro411ves Conical word = (7) 1 kll I0 n0M (hand added) WS 000 000 _-
1 35 u0Tlcn
beceoee WS 1900 081 r
ado auf -c
147, general fledges I' 'I lkelmore" ar' IesslemoscmeyUe ws 16.00
47 rkral sat' of hind' of C-A, lord 21.11 - AT'y-(J' 3'[PH- AS 010

r.
ensnrwery'0609. lMn[ompelelpennrmnu"NraMtr. tyi. dren
Iy11/d1y'gleally/hrgnlylrnlenselylperlecM/IMronglyAMroWhNA
m ffprs dall ! Wtetl /ver C IWSMITHISEARCH\AMPLIFV. TOT rws 8900 2881
OR' SURE A' LOT , SUCH
4n general empha4ca A JUST/RFAL LMOST/MORE As 17200

4! I 9eneral "mphalrca SOI')' JRR')I'D'I' (V')REAL I'I- IJ'1 WS 381)0
IpnlCoal nnw/anyvrylanydnwlenynaya Cunt. at -Id 1L -. . -.
[WS
1 ý: l drscourae pankbs I/I 37001 1.191
52, posardllly nwdela ca"carrmpnunwy. c0uk WS 23600 759
C \WSMITOJSEARCH\V PRIVAT TOT Coolest Word I I '
jws '
56pnmbverM ,ghl IV ' 68700, 2209 ,
59 cunnacllone " 'Cllt, MWwd2R ht"-GE- -NP'I-NN'/-UH- WS 647001 2061,
1P""TWIN"IV' Conical word

V"/_(CST'/-(? )-IVD'/-IVM'I-IVH"I-IWN'I-(WG' 2
160,16,1Eektwn LEFT Manually edrl to Manny ptioatepupN JsuasIve wwda [WS 129.00
C \WSMITH\SEARCH\V PPS TXT C0MVt Word
6J InatWblon (J'/(R'/(- 11WS OCR

tlslnndad pepoanwns (I""(T( WS 6300 203'
AND ICCI ITIAND ICCI SOIAND ICCI THENIAND [CC( r -
nonpmesalcoordnalnn YOU! AND(CC(THERE W_5 58.00 117
EWS
1 n] analytc neigeton NOT; NT 43600 13701
1 I6 no ". ne IN' - excludrrp nomrnallialbns 8 gelUlda (manually coded)'r Wln g'I 519000 16690. 5532 00 65
39 arlans 'c 0010, Ihüearch e sl Id Contest word [I' I Right WS 261400 840611ds1lwuna "Ing noun.
CIlltInive acllecllves (N' Wing, 81600

I! " J' Win 7900
rX 11 897 00
.t i. Won 168500
ý Jr)
---
Conical Word -(J" I-[R'I-(N' I--
.1)'I. re.tr. el11eu.11001e1 IVB"IJJ' 4 Right IWB 19100
4ý'r VB" J'" R'ConICN V'0046R nl_N' WS 1601
N1
.
.t ry1,. t. n. n rnn WoiaSmen 5,0.11on 6.400) WS 5300

W nroSmrln lunclun W5
1 44 HI'T- t,
Iaal loose r"rllýs (': : r' Win y B: 81

: IVIc. ", - -111 IN' I. M nont 11 nylti h-z 6 W'. 411 lAl tS Gi
, Perlen asP"rl veru>
s+rne. ýneyTn Mm. loco'hrs'lneirfirntse'Inersell'Inelnselr e
tl ru per s. pr . noun. WS SL
tI Cnnlevi (VVG' WS
.41W 00 461,
4 prw>. "nl panirrpra r lause. wurJ'_ ngn11et10
55 u lern. ..... 1nl -hrv - to Cunled it V' I LIM WS E °3
2 66
i<.
t 14 nunýlnatlxad"na a NI 'ns La so WS : ]]110, fl91t
INN"IDDO J)'' (NN JODOI V ConIcalleN
wwJ2 Lal11
eo
] 11 WHlerahv. Lieu... on su b--say, len' -Itld Ms IBOU 0 50
-cant-
j NN''(DD0) SM fly 4nunl manual can to ". dud"
J IT WH 1.1,110.01.05,, on oqV"QR'/(J' WS 600 819
p""(DD01 ws i 1700 055
1 04 Wh-lSahv. a preit prig..
r(4' AND ICCI " (WIR' AND [CCI' (R'ibV' AND (CCI r
1 64 pMas11co0Idmauwt IV' IN' AND(CCI' IN' WS 16400 521!
14 place ad-dal. C\ WSMITHt560RCHADV PLAGT%T WS 14J00ý 460'
h I... verdala C WSMITA SEARCHADVTIME TV WS 20800 669 tdaldMra adverb COUn1

IR' mmua all totals hedge, ampltrnrs dwmfuwners
-J 4 WhIl piece . 405151 5I firmeedvelLrala WS 2358 00 75 83 64.] J 001 OD
4 21 01 (TO' WmG 60700' 1952'.

4 11 rl; unl... WS 11900. 301.
aJr c cnrdrlron
4 5] necessity 1104,. 04961'ahould'! must' W5 79W 254 1
r
a r_pedktwn nadele wdlwnulNSnallMasM WS
.
270 001 088
4 51' auaerv5 verbs C \WSMITH\SEARCH\V-QUAST%T WS 9100 293
4 69 split aunllanea VVB'' IR" (V"I[OR ' (R VD'

(V'I(VD' R" (V' Ms 10410
IV9" IH" IR" )V'(VH' " IR'' , IR' IR'
J' 63 spill 0140Danes ' (V' Cmten vmrd 7 Rrghl IV' ws 6 (111 I
-ýy
lý+
W5 137Ill --_
S 17 aperýlless paasrvea IVFi"IW4'CUnl. N Vdd=_DyOblll6 ngnl) '.
S ayerrness pessrveI VF" R" (WN' Context rwvd -by ws 191:
W5 1
Il. ngentress passives VBIR I R"IWN'C vmra-_ I
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5 IB ,, pa,-es IVB- N'IWN'/IV9" IP'IWN'C.,, t-t word - Ey 'ws 000
5 :6 peel panrcýper aCVerdal claIWN"IR' Cnotes, wmd ]left ()(y(, yýy[YY() WS 100
1
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11 ]7 1pu
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5 1B ado SuE Other C \W SMITH\SEARCHNDV OTH IXT
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THAT wrp 'Mrrian0 rpnt lwrVOn4 Manwlaevchm CBT' WS 00
THAT I (J" DB7
IN.. ICST) Conical vatl lAT'jD/NP'IIPP'4N-2' let r
n JO THAT lelauves ogposmmhnn80n U/light hoodona WS 3800 116 M Mr'IMY 'a_IlMlAniatneseln, se
IMNh1aAh Nlpu -m all demnnsttetm I rNauw .
6 51 Mmonclralrvea cdnpbmenlder l eLbbidanat. 'WS 25400 , 817' 276 '
C' nMedW THERE 1E%) WS 17]00 056
8 drmllmxa cWnmAtllaxrchllownldla. I1 WS 18700 601
'91 Do 614
Pap. 16
PP + BNC Spoken & Written Data
PP L1 RI R2 Coun 389.00 BNC Spoken L1 R1 Coun 100.00 BNC Written L1 R1 Coun 124.00
JJJ [NN1] [II] 46 11.83 [JJ] [NN1] [. ] 6 6.00 [AT] [NN1] [10] 6 4.84
JJ] [NN1] (10] 42 10.80 [AT] (NN1] [10] 4 4.00 [JJ] [NN111101 6 4.84
VHZ] (NN11[10] 20 5.14 [NN1] [NN11[.1 4 4.00 (JJ] [NN1] (,] 5 4.03
CC] [NN1] [I01 16 4.11 [APPGE] [NN11(,J 3 3.00 (JJ] [NN11[.) 5 4.03
-] [NN1] [10] 15 3.86 [APPGEI [NN1] [VB 3 3.00 [JJJ [NN1] [II] 5 4.03
NN1] [NN1] [II] 12 3.08 [APPGE] [NN11(CC) 2 2.00 [CC) (NN1] [.1 4 3.23
'APPGE] [NN1] [II] 11 2.83 [APPGEJ[NN11[FU] 2 2.00 [JJ] [NN1] (CC] 4 3.23
;AT] [NN1] [10] 10 2.57 [APPGEJ[NN1J[II] 2 2.00 [JJ] [NN1] [VHZ] 4 3.23
NNT21[NN1J1111 10 2.57 [AT] [NN1] [CC] 2 2.00 (II) [NN1] (,1 3 2.42
;1 [NN1] [IO1 7 1.80 [AT] (NN1] [CST] 2 2.00 [AT] [NN1] [CC] 2 1.61
,CC] (NN1] [11) 7 1.80 [AT1] [NN1] 1,1 2 2.00 [AT1] [NN1] [DDQ] 2 1.61
[10] [NN1] [IIJ 7 1.80 [DD] (NN1] [II] 2 2.00 [DD] [NN1] (.1 2 1.61
[JJ] [NN1] (JJ] 7 1.80 [DD] (NN1] (101 2 2.00 [II] [NN1] [CC] 2 1.61
[NNT2] [NN1] [10] 7 1.80 [JJ] (NN1J(,] 2 2.00 [101[NN1] [,1 2 1.61
[APPGE] [NN1] [RL] 5 1.29 [JJ] [NN1] (71 2 2.00 [JJ] (NN1J["J 2 1.61
[VHOI(NN1] [10] 5 1.29 [JJ] [NN1J[CC] 2 2.00 [JJJ (NN11(-J 2 1.61
DI [NN1] [10] 4 1.03 [JJ] (NNI] [II) 2 2.00 [JJ] INN11(CCB] 2 1.61
[IW] [NN1] [10] 4 1.03 [JJ] [NNI] [10] 2 2.00 [MD) [NN1] [10] 2 1.61
[JJ] [NN1] [CC] 4 1.03 [.1(NN1J(.] 1 1.00 [NN1] [NN1] [.] 2 1.61
[NN1J[NN1] [10] 4 1.03 [.1 [NN11[I11 1 1.00 ["] [NN1] [.] 1 0.81
1.1[NN1] [NP1J 3 0.77 (APPGE] [NN1] [AT] 1 1.00 [,1 [NN1] (CC] 1 0.81
[APPGE] (NN11[VB 3 0.77 [APPGE] [NN1] [CS] 1 1.00 (,] (NN1] (WZ] 1 0.81
[JJ] [NN1J[TO] 3 0.77 [APPGE] (NNI] [DD 1 1.00 (.] [NN1] [II] 1 0.81
[MC] [NN1J[MC] 3 0.77 [APPGEJ[NN1] 1IO1 1 1.00 (APPGEJ[NN1J[Q 1 0.81
[NP] [NN1] [CC] 3 0,77 (APPGEI (NN11[PP 1 1.00 [APPGEJ(NN1J[,] 1 0.81
[NP] [NN11[IOJ 3 0.77 [APPGE] [NN1] [RG] 1 1.00 [APPGE] [NN1] [.] 1 0.81
[VHZJ[NN1] (II] 3 0.77 [APPGE] [NN11[VH 1 1.00 [APPGE] [NN1] [1] 1 0.81
[.) [NN1J[RLJ 2 0.51 [APPGE] (NN1J[W 1 1.00 [APPGE] [NN1] [RR 1 0.81
[.J [NN1J[AT] 2 0.51 [APPGEJ[NN11(W 1 1.00 [AT] [NN11[TO] 1 0.81
(.] [NN1] [II] 2 0.51 [AT] INN111.1 1 1.00 (AT1) (NNIJ [TO] 1 0.81
[.] [NNI] [JJ] 2 0.51 [AT] [NN1] [II] 1 1.00 [CC] [NN1J[II) 1 0.81
(APPGEJ[NN1] (CC] 2 0.51 [AT] [NN11[TO] 1 1.00 (CC] [NN1] [IO] 1 0.81
[APPGE] [NN11[IO] 2 0.51 [AT11[NN1J[IO] 1 1.00 [CC] [NN1) [TO] 1 0.81
[APPGE] (NN1J[W 2 0.51 [AT1] (NN1] [IW] 1 1.00 [CCB] [NN1] [VBZ] 1 0.81
[ATJ [NN1] [CC] 2 0.51 [CC) (NN11[.J 1 1.00 [DA] [NN1] (,) 1 0.81
[CC] [NN1] (CC] 2 0.51 [CC] (NN11[II] 1 1.00 [DA] [NN1] [WZ] 1 0.81
[CC] [NN1] [JJ] 2 0.51 [CC] [NN1] (101 1 1.00 [DA1] [NN1] [WG] 1 0.81
[CC] [NN1] [MC] 2 0.51 [DA] (NN1] [FU] 1 1.00 [DAR] [NN1] (CSN] 1 0.81
[DD1] [NN1] [II] 2 0.51 [DA11INN11)[TO] 1 1.00 [DD] (NN1] [,) 1 0.81
[II) [NNI] [TO] 2 0.51 [DAR] (NN1] [FU] 1 1.00 [DD] [NN1] (IO] 1 0.81
[I01 [NN1) [,1 2 0.51 [DD] [NN1] (PPY] 1 1.00 [DD1] [NN1] (,1 1 0.81
[10] [NN1] [.1 2 0.51 [DD1] [NN11[.J 1 1.00 [DD1) [NN1] (VHZ] 1 0.81
[10] [NN1] [MC] 2 0.51 [DD1] [NN1] [VM] 1 1.00 [DD11(NN1] (WD3 1 0.81
(10] [NN11(RL] 2 0.51 (FU] [NN11[IW] 1 1.00 (GE] (NN1] (.] 1 0.81
[IW] [NN11[II] 2 0.51 [GE] [NN1] [10] 1 1.00 [GE] [NN1] [CC] 1 0.81
(JJ] [NN11[MCI 2 0.51 [GE] [NNI] [IW] 1 1.00 [GE] [NN1] [101 1 0.81
[JJ] [NN1] [RLJ 2 0.51 [IF] [NN1] (,1 1 1.00 [GE] [NN11[TO] 1 0.81
(JJJ[NN11[WDJ 2 0.51 (II] (NN1] (NNB] 1 1.00 (IF) [NN1] [.1 1 0.81
(NNI] [NNI] [,] 2 0.51 [10] [NN11[.1 1 1.00 [II1[NN1] [CST] 1 0.81
[NN1] [NN1] [.1 2 0.51 [IW] (NN1] [CC] 1 1.00 [II1[NN1] [II1 1 0.81
(NN1) [NN11[CC] 2 0.51 [IW] [NN1] [II] 1 1.00 [1144](NN1] [II1 1 0.81
[NP] [WO) [I11 2 0.51 (JJJ [NN1] (CST] 1 1.00 [101[NN1] (.) 1 0.81
DI [NNI] [11] 1 0.26 [JJ] [NN1] [11311 1 1.00 [10] (NN1] [CC] 1 0.81
(.J [NNI] [PPIS2] 1 0.26 [JJ] [NN1] [IW] 1 1.00 (101[NN1) [II] 1 0.81
(.1 [NN1] [RR] 1 0.26 [JJ] (NN1] [PNQS] 1 1.00 [101[NN1] [VM] 1 0.81
["1[NN1] [WZJ 1 0.26 [NN11[.] [AT11 1 1.00 [IW] [NN1] [.1 1 0.81
[:] [NN1] [10] 1 0.26 [NN11[NN1] (,] 1 1.00 (1W][NN1] [CC] 1 0.81
GI [NN1] (101 1 0.26 [NN1] [NN1] [7] 1 1.00 [JJI JNN1][...1 1 0.81
[-) [NN11[II] 1 0.26 [NN1J(NN1] [CC) 1 1.00 (JJ] [NN11[CST] 1 0.81
[:] (NN11[10] 1 0.26 [NN1] (NN1] [CCB] 1 1.00 (JJ] [NN1] [IF] 1 0.81
[APPGE] [NN1] [.J 1 0.26 [NN11[NN1] [EX] 1 1.00 [JJ] [NN1] [TO] 1 0.81
[APPGE] [NN1] [.J 1 0.26 [NNI] [NN1] (III 1 1.00 [JJ] [NN1] (VBDZ] 1 0.81
[APPGE) [NN1] [DD 1 0.26 [NN1] [NN1] (UH] 1 1.00 [JJ] [NN1] [VMJ 1 0.81
[APPGE) [NN1] [PP 1 0.26 [NN1] (NN11[WI] 1 1.00 (JJI [NN1) [WD] 1 0.81
[APPGEI [NN1] (VB 1 0.26 [NN2] [NN1) [UH] 1 1.00 (JJ] [NN1] [WI] 1 0.81
[APPGE] [NN1] [VH 1 0.26 [RR] [WOJ [DD1] 1 1.00 [JJ] [NN1] [WN] 1 0.81
[AT1] (NN1] (NN1] 1 0.26 [TO] [WI] [.] 1 1.00 [NNI] [NN1] f 1 0.81
[CC) [NN1] [,j 1 0.26 [TO] [WI] [AT) 1 1.00 (NN1] (NN1] 171 1 0.81
[CC] [NN1] (.) 1 0.26 (VHI] [NNI] (101 1 1.00 [NN11[NN1] [II1 1 0.81
[CC] (NN1] [AT) 1 0.26 [VHN] [NN11[II1 1 1.00 (NN1] [NN1] (VM] 1 0.81
[CC) [NN1J [DDQI 1 0.26 [VVN] [NN1] [VHZ] 1 1.00 [NP1] (NN1] (VBZ] 1 0.81
(CC) [NN1] [IF] 1 0.26 XX IA 1 1.00 [RRQ] [NN11[VHZ] 1 0.81
[CC) [NN1] [1141] 1 0.26 [VHII [NN1J[101 1 0.81
[CC] [NN11[MC1] 1 0.26 [VHN] [NN1] [I11 1 0.81
(CC) (NNIJ (RLJ 1 0.26 [VHNJ[NN1111O] 1 0.81
XL Experience colligation and other data.xls Page 1

PP + BNC Spoken & Written Data
[CC] [NN1] [TO] 1 0.26 (WD] (NN1] ["] 1 0.81

[CC33] (NN1] [10] 1 0.26 (WD]INN11[. 1 1 0.81
[DD1] [NN1] [.] 1 0.26 [WD] [NN1] [II] 1 0.81
[DD1] [NN1] [DDQ] 1 0.26 [VVI) [NN1) [?] 1 0.81
[DD11[NN1] [VBI] 1 0.26 [WN] (NN1] ([I] 1 0.81
[DDIJ [NN1) (VBZJ 1 0.26 (WZ NN1 II 1 0.81
(DD1] [NN1] (VM] 1 0.26
(GE] [NN1] [CC] 1 0.26
(GE] (NN1] [II] 1 0.26
[GE] [NN1] [VBR] 1 0.26
(GE] [NN1] 1 0.26
[II] [NN1] [II] 1 0.26
(II] [NN1) (10] 1 0.26
[II] [NN1) [WD] 1 0.26
[10] [NN1] [10] 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [-) 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] (.] 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [AT] 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [BCL21) 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [CC31J 1 0.26
(JJ] [NN1] [IF) 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [IW] 1 0.26
(JJ] [NN1] [NN1] 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [NP] 1 0.26
(JJ] (NN1] [PNQS) 1 0.26
(JJ] [NN1] (RR] 1 0.26
(JJJ[NN1] (VBZI 1 0.26
(JJJ[NN1] [VM] 1 0.26
[JJ] [NN1] [VVG] 1 0.26
(JJ] [NN1] (WZ] 1 0.26
[MC) [NN1] [JJ] 1 0.26
[MC] INNIII [RL] 1 0.26
[NN] [NN1] [CC] 1 0.26
[NN11[NN1] [CSA] 1 0.26
[NN1] [NN1J[MC) 1 0.26
[NN1] [NN1] [NN1] 1 0.26
[NN1] [NNI] (W0] 1 0.26
[NN1] [NN1] [ZZ1] 1 0.26
[NN2] (WO] [.] 1 0.26
[NN2] [NN1] (10] 1 0.26
[NN2] (NN1] [RG) 1 0.26
[NP] [NN1] [,] 1 0.26
[NP] [WO] [;] 1 0.26
[NP1] [NN1] [MC] 1 0.26
[PPHO2] [NN1] [101 1 0.26
(VHO][NN1] [II] 1 0.26
[VHI] [NN1] [DB2] 1 0.26
[VHZ] [NN1] [IV] 1 0.26
[WG] [JJ] [CC] 1 0.26
[VVG) [NN1] (II] 1 0.26
[VVG] [NN1] [10] 1 0.26
j[VVNj NN1 CC 1 0.26
XL Experience-colligationand other data.xls Page 2

Writing Difficult Texts

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Writing Difficult Texts

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Writing Difficult Texts

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Candidate: Christopher Tribble BA Hons. (American Studies & History)

Variable print quality

This thesis usesconceptsand techniquesassociatedwith genreanalysis,corpus

linguistics and discourseanalysisto offer some solutions to problems in writing

instruction - in particular the problem of learning to write into a new or unfamiliar

solutions. The first is the multivariate / multifunctional approachproposedin Biber D,

1988; the seconddraws on the notion of keywords developedby Scott M, 1996.

Theseframeworks are usedin a detailed analysisof a researchcorpus of an example

genre- fourteen Project Proposals(112,000 in

issuedby Europeanaid and developmentagencies,.

followed by a survey of current issuesin teaching writing, and an introduction to the

Project Proposalcorpus (including commentson technical problems of corpus

construction). In the secondsection, An account of the texts, a detailed analysisof

the texts in the ProposalsCorpus is presentedin three chapters:Grammar and Style,

Lexical Dimensions,and Organisation. This analysisis precededby a summary of

someof the problems which face researchersattempting to replicate Biber 1988. In a

small innovation for this kind of corpus study, the in

Talking with writers goesbeyond a strictly corpus approach,and reports case-studies

researchdata. This has proved to be a particularly valuable initiative as it

demonstratesthe importance of not only dependingon corpus evidencein developing

questionswhich were raised in Chapter 2. During this chapter,thesequestionsare

usedas a way of offering a set of practical proposalsfor integrating genreanalysis

and corpus linguistic techniquesinto writing pedagogy.

9 ProfessorCharlesAlderson for suggestingthat I undertook this researchat

Lancaster-I could not have had better advice

clarification when I was confused

POS tagging my corpus

" Rachel Fligelstone in the Computer Support Service at Lancasterfor advice on

" ProfessorsHenry Widdowson and Michael Stubbsfor supervisingthe earlier

incarnation of this project at the Institute of Education in London University

9 ProfessorMichael Hoey and Dr Tony McEnery for their helpful and

perceptive commentsduring the viva for this PhD

I received in 1990when I was involved in this earlier incarnation. I hope that

the committee feels that this final outcomejustifies their investment...

Finally, I have to thank SusanMaingay for her willingness to be my first reader

friends and colleaguesto help them on their way.

Christopher Tribble: London, Lancaster,Warsaw, Colombo 1988 - 1998

SECTION ONE: SETTING THINGS UP 1

SECTION ONE: SETTING THINGS UP

Chapter 1: Writing Difficult Texts

ei°i )'"l pa.')Ilia fl(,wffic

1. What I am attempting to do in this thesis

nie focus on why I am doing what I am doing, and in providing an explanation

associated literatures -a task which is beyond the scope of what I want to do

in this particular piece of writing. What I propose to do in this opening section

situate what I am trying to do in an appropriate research context. If I can get

will he seen as appropriate - and will, I hope, make sense.

more effectively as teachers of writing. I started the research project with a

Chris Tribble - NO Manuscript (this doc: January 7,1999)

years: "How is it that some pieces of apparently well-formed writing work

of possible texts, or rather possible textualizations, of the writer's message

" (Coulthard M 1994: 1, emphasis in the original). And because I have

taught English to speakers of other languages throughout my career, I have

insights developedover the last decadein empirical linguistics and corpus

research(Biber 1988, Biber D, S Conrad &R Reppen 1994, Botley S, Glass

G, McEnery T&A Wilson 1996, Granger S&C Tribble 1998, Hoey M

1997a,McEnery T&A Wilson 1996, Oostdijk N 1988, StubbsM 1995,

StubbsM 1996,Tribble C 1997,Wilson A&T McEnery 1994) in order to see

arise when someone,especially a foreign language is

that he or she finds difficult (what I mean by difficult being somethingthat I

will discussbelow). It is only recently that we have reacheda point where it