Physics: For The Sixth Class

Gifted Students School
The enrichment of
Physics
For the Sixth Class
Prepared by Mustafa Mahmood Hashim
2019 …………………...………………………………………………………………… 2020

Physics Gifted Students School Mustafa Mahmood Hashim
Capacitance
An Atomic Description of Dielectrics
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Practical examples
1) Microwave ovens take advantage of the polar nature of the water molecule. When in
operation, microwave ovens generate a rapidly changing electric field that causes the
polar molecules to swing back and forth, absorbing energy from the field in the process.
Because the jostling molecules collide with each other, the energy they absorb from the
field is converted to internal energy, which corresponds to an increase in temperature of
the food.
2) Another household scenario in which the dipole structure of water is exploited is
washing with soap and water. Grease and oil are made up of non-polar molecules, which
are generally not attracted to water. Plain water is not very useful for removing this type
of grime. Soap contains long molecules called surfactants. In a long molecule, the polarity
characteristics of one end of the molecule can be different from those at the other end.
In a surfactant molecule, one end acts like a non-polar molecule and the other acts like a
polar molecule. The non-polar end can attach to a grease or oil molecule, and the polar
end can attach to a water molecule. Thus, the soap serves as a chain, linking the dirt and
water molecules together. When the water is rinsed away, the grease and oil go with it.
Questions:
A) Explain how do people cook or reheat foods using microwave oven?
B) What is the physical phenomenon used in microwave oven?
C) Explain how does surfactant remove grease and oil from cloth?
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RC Circuits
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Q&S
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ElectroMagnetism
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Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
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Q&S
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Physical Optics
Q&S
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
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Interference in Thin Films
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Single-Slit Diffraction
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The Diffraction Grating
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Polarization of Light Waves
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Additional Problems
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Modern Physics
Positron and other Antiparticles
The material world is complicated, yet it is also very simple and symmetric.
Analogous to two kinds of charge are two kinds of particles - particle and antiparticle.
One of the beta decay processes is the emission of positrons to reduce the nuclear
positive charge. The positron is actually an antiparticle of electron, but we did not
mention the antiparticle concept at that time.
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The antiparticle concept
Paul Dirac rearranged Einstein's equation of relative mass for a moving particle in
1928, and obtained an equation showing that the kinetic energy of certain type of
particles became more negative as they move faster. He called such particles
antiparticles.
Antiparticles and their counter parts have the same rest mass, but opposite charge, and
opposite magnetic moment if they possess these properties.
Nothing is observed when energy states are empty or fully occupied. An electron
occupying a positive energy state and an empty state in an otherwise occupied energy
state are observable. This is a pair of electron and antielectron.
An electron annihilates an antielectron and the excess energy is released as a pair of
photons. The positive energy states become empty and the negative energystate is full
after the annihilation.
The Discovery of Antielectrons

While studying cosmic-ray tracks in his cloud chamber in 1932, Carl Anderson saw
tracks similar to those of electrons but these particles bent in opposite direction in the
presence of a magnetic field. He discovered antielectrons prescribed by Dirac, and
called them Positron.
Annihilation and Pair Production

At the end of the positron tracts, Anderson noticed two thin tracts that can be
attributed to gamma rays, generated when the positrons were annihilated when colliding
with electrons.
The creation of an electron-positron pair using high-energy photon was confirmed,
and this process is called pair production. positrons and electrons are created routinely
using high-energy photons.
These particles are created for particle accelerator. Electrons and positrons move in
opposite directions in circular accelerators accelerated using electric and magnetic
fields. When high-energy electrons and positrons collide, particles with rest mass
heavier than electrons are produced.
Simhony argued that electrons and positrons form a elecron-positron lattice,
(EPOLA), which is unobservable. Absorption of 1.02 MeV liberates a pair of electron
and positron. Thus, energy does not convert to particles. It is absorbed, and as a result,
particles are liberated.
Q1:- Are there such things as anti-photons. And if there is, what would happen if it
collided with a photon?
Ans:-The short answer to "are there anti-photons" is "yes", but the disappointment here
is that anti-photons and photons are the same particles. Some particles are their own
antiparticles, notably the force carriers like photons, the Z boson, and gluons, which
mediate the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong force,
respectively. Particles that are their own antiparticles must be electrically neutral,
because an aniparticle has the opposite electrical charge as its partner particle. Other
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things must also be zero, like the number of quarks. A neutron cannot be its own
antiparticle because it is made up of quarks and an antineutron is made up of antiquarks.
A 0 particle is made up of a quark and an antiquark and is in fact its own antiparticle
also.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a medical imaging technique based on pair
annihilation that is used to diagnose diseases of the brain and heart as well as certain
types of cancer. A tracer is first injected into the body. The tracer is a compound-
commonly glucose, water, or ammonia- that incorporates radioactive atoms. When one
of the radioactive atoms emits a positron in the body, the positron annihilates with an
electron, producing two 511 keV gamma rays (photons) traveling in opposite directions.
The two photons are detected by a ring of detectors around the two directions of
gamma. A computer analyzes the directions of many gamma rays and locates the region
of highest concentration of the tracer. Then the computer constructs an image of that
slice of the body(Fig.1b).
Figure 1(a) A PET scan detects the gamma rays emitted when a positron and an
electron annihilation within the body. (b) A PET scan of the brain. Color is used
to distinguish regions with differing levels of positron emission.
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Other imaging techniques such as x-ray films, CAT scan, and MRIs show the
structure of body tissues, but PET scans show the biochemical activity of an organ or
tissue. For example, a PET scan of the heart can differentiate normal heart tissue from
nonfunctioning heart tissue, which helps the cardiologist determine whether the patient
can benefit from bypass surgery or from angioplasty.
Because rapidly growing cancer cells gobble up a glucose tracer faster than healthy
cells, PET scans can accurately distinguish malignant from benign tumors. They help
oncologists to determine the best treatment for a patient with cancer as well as to
monitor the efficacy of course of treatment. A brain tumor can be precisely located
without cutting into the patient's skull for biopsy. A PET is used to evaluate diseases of
the brain such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's diseases; epilepsy and
stroke .
Question:-
1. What does PET scan show?
2. What does tracer mean in PET?
3. How we can distinguish between malignant and benign tumors?
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

TMS is a non-invasive method of brain stimulation
that relies on electromagnetic induction using an
insulated coil placed over the scalp, focused on an
area of the brain thought to play a role in mood
regulation.
The coil generates brief magnetic pulses, which
pass easily and painlessly through the skull and into
the brain. The pulses generated are of the same type
and strength as those generated by magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) machines. When these
pulses are administered in rapid succession, it is
referred to as “repetitive TMS “ or “rTMS”, which
can produce longer lasting changes in brain activity.
rTMS has been shown to be a safe and well-
tolerated procedure that can be an effective
treatment for patients with depression who have not
benefitted from antidepressant medications or cannot
tolerate antidepressant medications due to side-
effects.
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The Electron Microscope
A practical device that relies on the wave characteristics of electrons is the electron
microscope. A transmission electron microscope, used for viewing flat, thin samples,
is shown in Figure 27.17.
a b
{Figure 27.17 (a) Diagram of a transmission electron microscope for viewing a thin,
sectioned sample. The “lenses” that control the electron beam are magnetic deflection
coils. (b) An electron microscope.}
In many respects it is similar to an optical micro scope, but the electron microscope
has a much greater resolving power because it can accelerate electrons to very high
kinetic energies, giving them very short wavelengths. No microscope can resolve details
that are significantly smaller than the wavelength of the radiation used to illuminate the
object. Typically, the wavelengths of electrons in an electron microscope are smaller
than the visible wavelengths by a factor of about 10-5.
The electron beam in an electron microscope is controlled by electrostatic or magnetic
deflection, which acts on the electrons to focus the beam to an image. Due to limitations
in the electromagnetic lenses used, however, the improvement in resolution over light
microscopes is only about a factor of 1000, two orders of magnitude smaller than that
implied by the electron wavelength. Rather than examining the image through an
eyepiece as in an optical microscope, the viewer looks at an image formed on a
fluorescent screen. (The viewing screen must be fluorescent because otherwise the
image produced wouldn’t be visible.)
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The Advent of Nanotechnology
The age of microtechnology was ushered in some 60 years ago with the invention of
the solid-state transistor, a device that serves as a gateway for electronic signals.
Engineers were quick to grasp the idea of integrating many transistors together to create
logic boards that could perform calculations and run programs. The more transistors
they could squeeze into a circuit, the more powerful the logic board. The race thus
began to squeeze more and more transistors together into(10-6 m) tinier and tinier
circuits. The scales achieved were in the realm of the micron (10-6 m): thus the term
microtechnology. At the time of the transistor’s invention, few people realized the
impact microtechnology would have on society—from personal computers to cell
phones to the Internet.
Today, we are at the beginning of a similar revolution. Technological advances have
recently brought us past the realm of microns to the realm of the nanometer (10-9 m),
which is the scale of individual atoms and molecules—a realm where we have reached
the basic building blocks of matter. Technology that works on this scale where we
engineer materials by manipulating individual atoms or molecules is known as
nanotechnology. No one knows exactly what impact nanotechnology will have on
society, but we are quickly coming to realize its vast potential, which is likely to be
much greater than that of microtechnology.
Nanotechnology generally concerns the manipulations of objects from 1 to 100
nanometers in size. For perspective, a DNA molecule is about 2.0 nm wide, while a
water molecule is only about 0.2 nm wide. Like microtechnology, nanotechnology is
interdisciplinary, requiring the cooperative efforts of chemists, engineers, physicists,
molecular biologists, and many others. Interestingly, there are already many products on
the market that contain components developed through nanotechnology. These include
sunscreens, mirrors that don’t fog, dental bonding agents, automotive catalytic
converters, stain-free clothing, water filtration systems, the heads of computer hard
drives, and many more.
Nanotechnology, however, is still in its infancy, and it will likely be decades before its
potential is fully realized (Figure 14.17). Consider, for example, that personal
computers didn’t blossom until the 1990s, some 40 years after the first solid-state
transistor.
There are two main approaches to building nanoscale materials and devices: top-down
and bottom-up. The top-down approach is an extension of microtechnology techniques
to smaller and smaller scales. A nanosize circuit board, for example, might be carved
from a larger block of material. The bottom-up approach involves building nanosized
objects atom by atom.
A most important tool for either of these approaches is the scanning probe
microscope, which detects and characterizes the surface atoms of materials by way of
an ultrathin probe tip, as shown in Figures 14.18 and 14.19. The tip is mechanically
dragged over the surface. Interactions between the tip and the surface atoms cause
movements in a cantilever attached to the tip that are detected by a laser beam and
translated by a computer into a topographical image. Scanning probe microscopes can
also be used to move individual atoms into desired positions.
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FIGURE 14.18 A schematic of a scanning probe microscope that detects and characterizes
the surface atoms of a material by way of an ultrathin probe tip attached to a miniature
cantilever.
FIGURE 14.19 An artist’s rendition of the interaction between surface carbon atoms and the
tip of a scanning probe microscope.
Nanotechnology allows the continued miniaturization of integrated circuits needed for
ever smaller and more powerful computers. But a computer need not rely on an
integrated circuit of nanowires for processing power. A wholly new approach involves
designing logic boards in which molecules (not electric circuits) read, process, and write
information. One molecule that has proved most promising for such molecular
computation is DNA, the same molecule that holds our genetic code. An advantage that
molecular computing has over conventional computing is that it can run a massive
number of calculations in parallel (at the same time). Because of such fundamental
differences, molecular computing may one day outshine even the fastest integrated
circuits. Molecular computing, in turn, may then be eclipsed by other novel approaches,
such as quantum or photon computing, also made possible by nanotechnology.
The ultimate expert on nanotechnology is nature. Living organisms, for example, are
complex systems of interacting biomolecules all functioning on the scale of nanometers.
In this sense, the living organism is nature’s nanomachine. We need look no further than
our own bodies to find evidence of the feasibility and power of nanotechnology. With
nature as our teacher, we have much to learn. Such knowledge will be particularly
applicable to medicine. By becoming nanotechnology experts ourselves, we would be
well equipped to understand exact causes of nearly any disease or disorder (aging
included) and empowered to develop innovative cures.
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What are the limits of nanotechnology? As a society, how will we deal with the
impending changes nanotechnology may bring? Consider the possibilities: wall paint
that can change color or be used to display video; smart dust that the military could use
to seek out and destroy an enemy; solar cells that capture sunlight so efficiently that
they render fossil fuels obsolete; robots with so much processing power that we begin to
wonder whether they experience consciousness; nanobots that roam our circulatory
systems destroying cancerous tumors or arterial plaque; nanomachines that can
“photocopy” three-dimensional objects, including living organisms; medicines that
more than double the average human life span. Stay tuned for an exciting new
revolution in human capabilities.
Q&S
The Photoelectric Effect and the Particle Theory of Light
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X-ray
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Relativity
Relative Velocity in Special Relativity
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General Relativity
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Figure 26.10 (a) The observer in the cubicle is at rest in a uniform gravitational field Sg. He
experiences a normal force Sn. (b) Now the observer is in a region where gravity is
negligible, but an external force SF acts on the frame of reference, producing an
acceleration with magnitude g. Again, the man experiences a normal force Sn that
accelerates him along with the cubicle. According to Einstein, the frames of reference in (a)
and (b) are equivalent in every way. No local experiment could distinguish between them.
(c) The observer turns on his pocket flashlight. Because of the acceleration of the cubicle,
the beam would appear to bend toward the floor, just as a tossed ball would. (d) Given the
equivalence of the frames, the same phenomenon should be observed in the presence of a
gravity field.
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Figure 26.11 Deflection of starlight passing near the Sun. Because of this effect, the Sun and
other remote objects can act as a gravitational lens.
Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

The two basic postulates of the special theory of relativity are as follows:
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
2. The speed of light is the same for all inertial observers, independently of their motion
or of the motion of the source of light.
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Relativistic Momentum
Gps (Global positioning system )

It’s a satellite navigation system used to determine the ground position of an object.
GPS technology was first used by the United States military in the 1960s and expanded
into civilian use over the next few decades. Today, GPS receivers are included in many
commercial products, such as automobiles, smartphones, exercise watches, and GIS
devices.
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The GPS system includes 24 satellites deployed in space about 12,000 miles (19,300
kilometers) above the earth's surface. They orbit the earth once every 12 hours at an
extremely fast pace of roughly 7,000 miles per hour (11,200 kilometers per hour). The
satellites are evenly spread out so that four satellites are accessible via direct line-of-
sight from anywhere on the globe.
Each GPS satellite broadcasts a message that includes the satellite's current position,
orbit, and exact time. A GPS receiver combines the broadcasts from multiple satellites
to calculate its exact position using a process called triangulation. Three satellites are
required in order to determine a receiver's location, though a connection to four
satellites is ideal since it provides greater accuracy.
In order for a GPS device to work correctly, it must first establish a connection to the
required number of satellites. This process can take anywhere from a few seconds to a
few minutes, depending on the strength of the receiver. For example, a car's GPS unit
will typically establish a GPS connection faster than the receiver in a watch or
smartphone. Most GPS devices also use some type of location caching to speed up GPS
detection. By memorizing its previous location, a GPS device can quickly determine
what satellites will be available the next time it scans for a GPS signal.
From maintaining infrastructure, transporting goods, delivering services, or just meeting

friends, people often use technology just as sophisticated as that used by pilots and
soldiers.
((GPS satellites are positioned in precise, circular orbits 18,000 kilometers (11,000 miles)
above the Earth. They orbit once every 12 hours.))
Since GPS receivers require a relatively unobstructed path to space, GPS technology is
not ideal for indoor use. Therefore, smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices often
use other means to determine location, such as nearby cell towers and public Wi-Fi
signals. This technology, sometimes referred to as the local positioning system (LPS), is
often used to supplement GPS when a consistent satellite connection is unavailable.
Q:- How does GPS work?
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Q&S
Consequences of Special Relativity
Relativistic Momentum
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Relative Velocity in Special Relativity
Relativistic Energy and the Equivalence of Mass and Energy
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Additional Problems
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Contents:
Seq. Subject Page
1 Capacitance 1
2 ElectroMagnetism 19
3 Physical Optics 29
4 Modern Physics 43
5 Relativity 54
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Physics: For The Sixth Class

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Physics: For The Sixth Class

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Gifted Students School

2019 …………………...………………………………………………………………… 2020

Interference in Thin Films

The Discovery of Antielectrons

Annihilation and Pair Production

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

Gps (Global positioning system )

From maintaining infrastructure, transporting goods, delivering services, or just meeting

Q:- How does GPS work?

Relativistic Energy and the Equivalence of Mass and Energy

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