ST.

BRITTO'S ACADEMY
VELACHERY

ALL INDIA SENIOR SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION
PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT REPORT
2023– 2024
STUDY OF SUPER CONDUCTOR
MADE BY:
NAME : .............A. NAREN KARTHIK... ..…….

ROLL.NO :………………………………………………..

GRADE : ......XII…... SEC: ...........B…………..

Subject : ............................Physics...…..............…..
 Bonafide CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this PHYSICS Investigatory Project on

the topic STUDY OF SUPER CONDUCTOR

has been successfully completed by ……A.NAREN KARTHIK…… of

class XII - B (Physics), Roll.no...................... at

St.Brittos Academy, Velachery for the partial fulfilment of

this project as a part of All India Senior School Certificate

Examination- 2023 – 2024

Date: …………………….

Signature of Principal Signature of the Guide

Name: Name:

2023-2024, PHYSICS
on ………………….

Signature of the Signature of the

Internal Examiner ExternalExaminer
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of any project depends largely on
people associated with it. I would like to take this
opportunity to acknowledge the enthusiasm of all
these personalities.
I hereby express my heartfelt thanks to our
Senior Principal Mrs Mary Vasantha Kumari for having
given this opportunity to do the project in the physics
laboratory and for his constant encouragement.
I extend my sincere gratitude to acknowledge my
sense of gratitude to my physics teacher Mrs Anjali Uni
for the valuable guidance offered to me. Her
whole-hearted encouragement and constant stimulant
inspiration and advice enabled me to complete
enabled me to complete the project successfully.
I am also thankful to all our teachers and n on-
Teachers for their help during my course of study.
I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks
to my parents for their encouragement and support.
 CONTENTS
1) Aim
2) Prerequisites
i. Lenz Law
ii. Superconductors
3) Theory
4) Conclusion
5) Bibliography
 LENZ LAW
Lenz’s law states that
The induced electromotive force with different polarities induces
a current whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic
flux through the loop in order to ensure that the original flux is
maintained through the loop when current flows in it.

The direction of this current flow is given by Fleming’s right-hand

rule. Lenz’s law is based on Faraday’s law of induction. Faraday’s
law tells us that a changing magnetic field will induce a current in
a conductor.
Lenz’s law tells us the direction of this induced current, which
opposes the initial changing magnetic field which produced it.
This is signified in the formula for Faraday’s law by the negative
sign (‘–’).

This change in the magnetic field may be caused by changing the

magnetic field strength by moving a magnet towards or away
from the coil, or moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
 SUPERCONDUCTORS
In 1908, a Dutch Scientist Heike Onnes liquified helium gas at 4K.
He then cooled mercury at 4.2k and passed current through it. He
observed that there was zero resistance, i.e., there was no energy
loss. This state of conductors is called Superconducting.
Superconductors do not allow magnetic flux to pass through them.
This allows it to levitate(float) a magnet.

In 1957 three American physicists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper

and John Robert Schrieffer postulated a theory which now is
called BCS Theory.
When current is passed through a conductor, the free electrons
collide with nuclei and lose their energy. Hence all materials show
resistance to current which is not the case with Superconductors.
As the temperature increases the vibration increases increasing
the resistance. So, when conductors are cooled beyond their
critical temperature, they act without resistance.

BCS THEORY:
Particles are broadly divided into Fermions and Bosons. Fermions
have half integral multiple of spin while Bosons have integral
multiple of spin. More than one Bosons can occupy same energy
level while fermions cannot. Since electrons are fermions only
two electrons can be filled in one orbital.
When an electron moves in lattice, positive charge density in that
region increase and attracts another electron. The two electrons
form a cooper’s pair. Two cooper pairs together are called
phonon. Phonon acts as a single pair.
When temperature is low electrons do not have energy to break
the bonds and therefore stay together. In cooper half spin of
electrons interact in such a way that they act as having integer
spin. They act as bosons.
When a bunch of bosons cooled to a low temperature and occupy
lowest energy level, it reaches a state called Bose-Einstein
Condensate.
Hence due to no collisions there is zero resistance, and the
substance becomes a superconductor.

Material Critical Temperature (Tc ) in K

Aluminium 1.2 K

Indium 3.4 K

Mercury 4.2 K

Lead 7.2 K
Superconductor Types:
Superconductors come in two distinct types: type I and type II.
Type I Superconductors
A type I superconductor consists of fundamental conductive
elements that are used in everything from electrical wiring to
computer microchips. Presently, type I superconductors have
critical temperatures between 0.000325 °K and 7.8 °K. A few of
the type I superconductors need tremendous amounts of pressure
in order to achieve the superconductive state. One such material
is sulfur, which needs a pressure of 9.3 million atmospheres (9.4 x
1011 N/m2) and a temperature of 17 °K to reach
superconductivity. Approximately half of the elements in the
periodic table are superconductive.
Type II Superconductors
A type II superconductor comprises metallic compounds such as
lead or copper. They achieve a superconductive state at much
higher temperatures compared to type I superconductors. Type II
superconductors can be penetrated by a magnetic field, whereas
type I cannot.
 THEORY
Superconducting Maglev:

SC Maglev is the fastest train in the world moving with a speed of

600km/hr. It is developed by Central Japan Railway Department.
The heart of the train is the superconducting unit. A normal
electromagnet cannot produce magnetic field beyond a certain
limit. For this Superconductors are used.
Superconductors can circulate 700KA of current without loss.
Here, a Niobium-Titanium alloy with critical temperature 9.2K is
used.
To keep the conductor in superconducting state, liquid helium is
circulated in it. The evaporated helium is transferred to Helium
compressor working with Gifford-Mac Mayon Refrigeration cycle.

To prevent absorbing radiations, a radiation shield is used. The

radiation is cooled using liquid nitrogen to avoid heating and
Eddy current formation. Four such superconductors with
opposite polarity are used in one unit and many such units are
placed along the train. Though the superconductors do not
require power supply, cryogenics department demands
considerable amount of power.
We have three challenges to fix in the maglev train:
(i) Propel
(ii) Levitate
(iii) Guidance

PROPULSION:
For the purpose of propulsion, we use a series of normal
electromagnets called propelling coils. They are powered in an
alternating manner and are placed inside the guideway.

The net force on the train due to propelling coils and

superconductors is in the forward direction. When the train
reaches the next mean position, the polarity is reversed. This way
the train is propelled forward.
LEVITATION:
The task of levitation is achieved by placement of 8 shaped coils
in the Guideway. The change in magnetic flux results in EMF in
the coil.

The net magnetic force is in the direction of required levitation.

The magnetic force provided by induced EMF levitates the train.
This reduces the friction due to contact and makes air the only
source of friction. Hence it stands as an advantage as high speeds
can be achieved with less loss of energy.
GUIDANCE:
Japanese scientists have found a simple solution for guidance.
They connected both the coils with a wire. When the train tilts in
one direction, EMF in one coil is higher than the other. Induced
current will flow through the wire balancing the train.

Guidance is one of the most important tasks as an improper balance

could lead to derailment. This adds to another advantage of maglev
trains. Maglev trains do not derail. Chance of accidents is very low
making it one of the safest modes of transport.
Brake system:

In a maglev system, the train is not only held up by magnets but

also pulled forward by these magnets. Air friction will gradually
slow the train down if the changing electromagnets aren’t timed
to pull it forward.

If the train needs to be stopped more quickly, the same magnets

that pull it forward can be set to push it back. When they do,
instead of requiring electrical energy input, they generate
electrical energy output, which can be stored in batteries for later
use. A similar system is used on some hybrid cars with electrical
motors. When braking, the motor converts the mechanical energy
of the car’s motion back to electrical energy.
 ADVANTAGES OF MAGLEV TRAINS:
Maglev trains are the future way to go. Its benefits made
governments of numerous countries to take up projects
converting the railway system to a modern one. Its benefits are as
follows:
❖ High level of safety
❖ No Derailment
❖ Reliability
❖ High Speed
❖ Eco Friendly
❖ Low Maintenance
❖ Quietest and Saves place
❖ Desirability
The Indian Ministry was in the process of reviewing a proposal to
start a maglev train system in India.[1] It had been estimated that
the cost to complete the maglev line between Mumbai and Pune
would be over $30 billion. The company who sent the proposals is
based in the United States. If completed, the train travel time
between the two cities would have been reduced to half an hour,
compared to the original two hours.
Upcoming Projects:
i. Mumbai to Delhi
ii. Mumbai to Nagpur
iii. Chennai- Bangalore- Mysore
iv. Kochi Metro
v. Mumbai Maglev
 CONCLUSION:
High-speed maglev comparison with conventional
high speed trains:
1. Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It
relies less or not at all on the wheels, bearings and axles
common to wheeled rail systems.
2. Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional
rail. While experimental wheel-based high-speed trains have
demonstrated similar speeds, conventional trains will suffer
from friction between wheels and track and thus elevating
the maintenance cost if operating at such speed, unlike
levitated maglev trains.
3. Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operation have
demonstrated the need for minimal guideway maintenance.
Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of
operation, rather than on speed or distance travelled).
Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear that
increases rapidly with speed, also increasing maintenance.
For example: the wearing down of brakes and overhead wire
wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360 rail
Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.
4. Weather: Maglev trains are little affected by snow, ice,
severe cold, rain or high winds. However, no example of
such system has been installed in location with harsh
climate yet, compares to conventional rail.
5. Acceleration: Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate
faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of
the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are non-
contact systems.
6. Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional
track, and therefore require custom infrastructure for their
entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains
such as the TGV are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on
existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where
new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as
the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensions
 where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. John
Harding, former chief maglev scientist at the Federal
Railroad Administration, claimed that separate maglev
infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of
all-weather operational availability and nominal
maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in an
intense operational setting and they do not consider the
increased maglev construction costs. However, in countries
like China, there are discussion of building some key
conventional high speed rail tunnels/bridges to a standard
that would allow them upgrading to maglev.
7. Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably more efficient at
lower speeds. But due to the lack of physical contact
between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience
no rolling resistance, leaving only air resistance and
electromagnetic drag, potentially improving power
efficiency. Some systems, however, such as the Central Japan
Railway Company SC Maglev use rubber tires at low speeds,
reducing efficiency gains.
8. Weight: The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs
require between 1 and 2 kilowatts per ton. The use of
superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets'
energy consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle
can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tons, which
consumes 70–140 kW (94–188 hp). Most energy use for the
TRI is for propulsion and overcoming air resistance at
speeds over 100 mph (160 km/h).
9. Weight loading: High-speed rail requires more support and
construction for its concentrated wheel loading. Maglev cars
are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.
10. Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev
train comes from displaced air rather than from wheels
touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a
conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, the
psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this
benefit: a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated
like road traffic, while conventional trains experience a 5–10
 dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same
loudness level.
11. Magnet reliability: Superconducting magnets are
generally used to generate the powerful magnetic fields to
levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept
below their critical temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to
77 K, depending on the material). New alloys and
manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling
systems have helped address this issue.
12. Control systems: No signalling systems are needed for
high-speed maglev, because such systems are computer
controlled. Human operators cannot react fast enough to
manage high-speed trains. High-speed systems require
dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two
maglev system microwave towers are in constant contact
with trains. There is no need for train whistles or horns,
either.
13. Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades,
offering more routing flexibility and reduced tunnelling.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Maglev Energy Budget - Stanford University
2010
2. Northeast Maglev - SCMaglev Energy
Consumption
3. Maglev: Magnetic Levitating Trains by Cornell
Wilson - TTS Educational Technologies 2015
4. Technology Comparison: High Speed Ground
Transportation - American Maglev Group 2002
5. Transrapid International - Maglev System
Transrapid
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjwF-
STGtfE&list=PLE906lfSj4xyM4xrlX-
LENhfp4eXFh5T4&index=2
7. NCERT Textbook