YHKWI\QKJMJ HMAKCHMN BM[C\ JI QMH BM\ACQ

(Yhkvirskjmj jin Pirÿ, JIAMHM JI MBI\KAM)
Gmauntmj ji Khfihkirâm Ficnñfkam, Bkhirm, Bitmnÿrfkam [ Ficfrígkam

Gufmakjmj jin Q< y C< Ws Zibpirmturm y pD, mpnkamjm m nm Ixpncrmakñh ji

 [makbkihtcs Bkhirmnis

PC\? Adkbpmy Mrkms \csihtdmn Invks 

P\IQIHZMJC MN KHFIHKI\C?

BQa Khf. Ocsi Mhjrës [pmrrmfukrri Amnjirñh

Ih in aursc ji? [makbkihtcs ji bkhirmnis bitínkacs. 

I.P. Khfihkirâm Ficnñfkam

NKBM ‑ PI\Y

Catulri <0=;
 

Âhjkai

=. \isubih .........................
............ .........................
..........................
...........................
..........................
..........................
........................
........... 1
<. Khtrcjuaakch .........................
............ ..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
....................
....... :
1. Gufmakjmj ji Cxkfihc (gC<) y gufmakjmj ji Mzugri (gQ<)..............
...........................
................. 9
:. Cxklmrcbitrâm ...........................
............. ..........................
.........................
..........................
...........................
...........................
................. 7
:.=. Bëtcjcs cxklmrcbëtrkacs bís ÿtknis pmrm su mpnkamakñh ih rcams
pnutñhkams7
m. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji lkctktm .............
..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
....................
....... 7
l. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji ñxkjcs ji Gi-Zk .............
..........................
..........................
...........................
..................
.... 4
a. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji pkrcxihc/ñxkjc .........................
............ ..........................
..........................
....................
....... ;
j. Istkbmakñh j
ji
i gC< bijkmhti rmz
rmzchis
chis ji Ai:+/Ai1+ih akrañh .............
............ . ;

9. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Zibpirmturm Z-ncf(gC<) ........................................... ==

7. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Luggir GB]............................................................... =<
6. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Gufmakjmj ji mzugri ................................................ =1
4. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws pD ............................................................................ =1
;. Mpnkamakñh ih nnm
m Ix
Ixpncrmakñh
pncrmakñh ji [makbki
[makbkihtcs
htcs Bkhirmnis ............
..........................
.................. =:
;.=. Qclri in is
istmjc
tmjc ji cxkjmakñh ji ncs
ncs bmfbms mscakmjcs m pñ
pñrgkjcs
rgkjcs
auprâgircs ...................................................................................................... =:
;.<. Girtknkjmj ji ncs bmfbms frmhâtkacs cxkjmjcs .........................
............ ........................
........... =7
=0. Achanuskchis ..........................
............. ..........................
...........................
...........................
..........................
........................
........... =6
==. Lklnkcfrmgâm.............................
Lklnkcfrmgâm............... ..........................
.........................
..........................
...........................
...........................
............. =4

<
 

=. \isubih
In usc jin achaiptc ji "istmjc ji sungurmakñh", ih pmrmninc ach in istmjc ji
cxkjmakñh, ih in istujkc ji jipñsktcs ji bkhirmn acbkihzm ach ncs istujkcs ji
\ihc Qmnis y Admrnis Biyir mt Lutti, Bchtmhm. Qi skfukñ nm jitirbkhmakñh
ixpirkbihtmn ji nm istmlknkjmj ji ncs bkhirmnis ji sungurc ih tërbkhcs ji   gQ< y
tibpirmturm, nc qui achjuoc m nm jigkhkakñh ji achtrmstis ih ihtcrhcs
gcrbmjcris ji bkhirmn.
skstibms vcnaíhkacs Istujkcs bísmatkvcs
y fictërbkacs riakihtis ji acbpcskakchis
pirbktih ji vmpcr
acbpmrmakchis ih
jkriatms
ach ihtcrhcs ficquâbkacs jijuakjcs jin istujkc pitrcnñfkac.
Ncs istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh ji ncs bmfbms ji mrac mhjisâtkac si riprisihtmh ih
uh frupc mpritmjc ihtri gmymnktm + bmfhitktm + aumrzc y pkrrctktm + pkrktm +
bmfhitktm. Mn iquknklrmrsi jilmoc jin sñnkjc, ncs pnutchis ji mrac si jisvâmh
dmakm istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh bís mntcs. Ncs istmjcs ji sungurmakñh ji ncs
bmfbms ji mrac sch buy lmocs c lmocs, y si ihauihtrmh ihtri gmymnktm +
bmfhitktm + aumrzc + pkrrctktm y pkrrctktm + pkrktm.
Istujkcs rimnkzmjcs ih nms ÿntkbms jëamjms dmh achanukjc qui ncs bmfbms
qui jmh crkfih m ncs ymakbkihtcs tkpc pñrgkjc sch guhjkjcs jji
i mrac cxkjmjcs.
In istmjc ji cxkjmakñh achtrcnm nm ispiakmakñh jin mzugri, jchji in mzugri
bmfbítkac ih gcrbm ji sungmtc (QC :<-) pcsii uhm scnulknkjmj buadc bmycr ih
guhjkjcs sknkamtmjcs qui acbc sungurc.
Lmoc achjkakchis cxkjmhtis si gmvcriai nm scnulknkjmj ji mzugri y, pcr
achskfukihti, nm scnulknkjmj, trmhspcrti y ihrkquiakbkihtc ji bitmnis acbc
Au y Mu, puistc qui si ivktm nm priakpktmakñh ji sungurcs bmfbítkacs qui
siauistrih ncs bitmnis.
Ihtihjir ncs prcaiscs y achjkakchis qui jmh crkfih m ncs [makbkihtcs
bkhirmnis is ji frmh rinivmhakm, puis pirbkti mscakmr su gcrbmakñh m
jitirbkhmjcs mblkihtis ficnñfkacs, istkbmr ji biocr bmhirm su j
jkstrkluakñh
kstrkluakñh
ispmakmn y tibpcrmn y jmr ssihtkjc
ihtkjc m su amrmatirkzmakñh, gmatcris qui
achstktuyih kbpcrtmhtis dirrmbkihtms tmhtc pmrm nm ixpnctmakñh acbc pmrm
nm ixpncrmakñh ji huivcs ymakbkihtcs.

1
 

<. Khtrcjuaakch
Nms rutms ficquâbkams tcbmjms pcr ncs gnukjcs dkjrctirbmnis si puijih
jisarklkr ih tërbkhcs ji buadms vmrkmlnis. Yhc qui dm mlmramjc jurmhti
buadc tkibpc nms jksakpnkhms ji ficncfâm iachñbkam, pitrcncfâm y ficquâbkam
is in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh (gC< ih acbpmrmakñh ach uh istíhjmr), uhm vmrkmlni
ji pmrtkaunmr kbpcrtmhakm jilkjc m su igiatc sclri nm ispiakmakñh ji mzugri ih
bmfbms
Azmbmhsei, y gnukjcs
=;765 maucscs
Lurhdmb,y =;6;5
su pmpin ih in ytrmhspcrti
Lurhdmb ji bitmnis
Cdbctc, =;405 (Lmrhis
Amhjinm, y
=;;<).
In istmjc ji cxkjmakñh puiji istkbmrsi m pmrtkr ji ihsmblnmois bkhirmnis ih
rcams âfhims (p. Io., Vchis, =;4=5 Vdkthiy, =;4:) y jipñsktcs ji bkhirmn
(Dcnnmhj, =;9;5 Lmrhis y Eunniruj, =;7=5 Biyir y Dibniy, =;76), amnaunmrsi m
pmrtkr jin buistric jkriatc ih skstibms matkvc (Fkffihlmad, =;46).
Nm acbprihskñh jin acbpcrtmbkihtc ji Q is rinivmhti pmrm nm acbprihskñh ji
ncs prcaiscs bmfbítkacs pcr vmrkms rmzchis. In achtihkjc ji mzugri ih nms
ibkskchis gubmrñnkams si usm m bihujc pmrm jitiatmr matkvkjmj vcnaíhkam
rihcvmjm (Qybchjs it mn., =;;:).
In acbpcrtmbkihtc ji ncs inibihtcs amnañgkncs y skjirñgkncs (p. Io., Hk, Au5 Mu,
Pt, Pj) ih ncs skstibms bmfbítkacs istí jkatmjc pcr Q acbc sungurc (Q< ‑), y nm
smturmakñh ji sungurc ioirai uh achtrcn prkbmrkc sclri nm fëhisks ji ncs
jipñsktcs bitmnâgircs (Kbmk it mn. mn., =;;15 Qknnktci, =;;6). Ncs prkbircs
istujkcs (p. Io., Gkhadmb y \kadmrjsch, =;9:5 Dmufdtch it mn., =;6:5
Vihjnmhjt, =;4<) si aihtrmrch ih ncs skstibms ach achtihkjc ji sungurc y
smturmjc ji sungurc pcrqui ncs sungurcs sch nms gmsis ji scpcrti Q bís
acbÿhbihti clsirvmjms ih ncs skstibms bmfbítkacs (Jislcrcu it mn. mn.,
=;745 Bktadinn y Eimys, =;4=). Mjibís, nms istkbmakchis jin achtihkjc ji Q y
nm ispiakmakñh ih ncs bmfbms (p. Io., Bitrkad y Ancaadkmttk, =;;75 \cwi it mn.,
<006) buistrmh qui nms ispiakis ji sungmtc sch bís acbuhis ih ncs skstibms
bmfbítkacs ji nc qui si riachcaâm mhtirkcrbihti. Nm jitirbkhmakñh

ixpirkbihtmn jin qui

khiquâvcambihti achtihkjc ji puijih
ncs bmfbms Q ih ncs guhjkjcsbís
trmhspcrtmr jiQ sknkamtc
aumhjc Qbuistrm
7+
 is nm
ispiaki jcbkhmhti (Amrrcnn y \utdirgcrj, =;49, =;465 Nudr, =;;05 Oufc it mn.,
<009m). Nms istkbmakchis ji nm ispiakmakñh ji Q ih buistrms hmturmnis y
ixpirkbihtmnis bcstrmrch qui nm trmhskakñh ji skstibms jcbkhmjcs pcr sungurc
m skstibms jcbkhmjcs pcr sungmtc caurri ih uh khtirvmnc istriadc ji gC<
(mprcxkbmjmbihti ji gmymnktm-bmfhitktm-aumrzc UGB]R m GB] + <5 Vmnnmai y
Amrbkadmin, =;;:5 Oufc it mn., <009l). Isti rmhfc ji gC< is skfhkgkamtkvc
pcrqui si supirpchi ach nms achjkakchis ji gC< privmnihtis jurmhti nm
fihirmakñh ji bmfbm ih ihtcrhcs ji mrac (Pmrekhsch y Mraunus, =;;;) y nms
achjkakchis ji gC< privmnihtis ih lmaemra, mrac ji ksnms y bmfbms ji ksnms
caiíhkams ih in bcbihtc ji nm irupakñh (Lmnndmus, =;;1).

:
 

1. Gufmakjmj ji Cxkfihc (gC<) y gufmakjmj ji Mzugri (gQ<)

Nms rutms ficquâbkams tcbmjms pcr ncs gnukjcs dkjrctirbmnis si puijih
jisarklkr ih tërbkhcs ji buadms vmrkmlnis. Yhc qui dm mlmramjc jurmhti
buadc tkibpc nms jksakpnkhms ji ficncfâm iachñbkam, pitrcncfâm y ficquâbkam
is in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh (gC<), uhm vmrkmlni ji pmrtkaunmr kbpcrtmhakm jilkjc m
su igiatc sclri nm ispiakmakñh ji mzugri ih bmfbms y gnukjcs maucscs y su
pmpin ih iny trmhspcrti
Lurhdmb Cdbctc, ji bitmnis
=;405 (Lmrhis
Amhjinm, y Azmbmhsei,
=;;<). In istmjc=;765 Lurhdmb,puiji
ji cxkjmakñh =;6;5
istkbmrsi m pmrtkr ji ihsmblnmois bkhirmnis ih rcams âfhims (p. Io., Vchis,
=;4=5 Vdkthiy, =;4:) y jipñsktcs ji bkhirmn (Dcnnmhj, =;9;5 Lmrhis y Eunniruj,
=;7=5 Biyir y Dibniy, =;76), y amnaunmrsi m pmrtkr jin buistric jkriatc ih
skstibms matkvc (Fkffihlmad, =;46).
Nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc (gC<)  ioirai uh achtrcn kbpcrtmhti sclri nm
bkhirmncfâm. Ih pmrtkaunmr, ih khtruskchis mscakmjms m pñrgkjcs auprâgircs, su
khgnuihakm sclri in trmhspcrti ji bitmnis y nm gcrbmakñh ji sungurcs bmfbítkacs
nm achvkirti ih uhm vmrkmlni anmvi mn istujkmr
istujkmr nm gcrbmakñh ji isti tkp
tkpc
c ji
ymakbkihtcs (Cradmrj, <0=7).

Nm mpnkamakñh ji gufmakjmj ji mzugri (gQ<) bkfrñ mn íblktc ficnñfkac jisji nm

bitmnurfkm m bijkmjcs jin skfnc pmsmjc y su mpnkamakñh m bkhirmnis (pcr
ioibpnc, Birwkh y Ncblmrj, =;165 Qmnis y Biyir, =;:;5 BaEkhstry, =;9;) gui
buy skbknmr mn usc ji nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc ih pitrcncfâm. In istmjc ji
sungurmakñh, uhm guhakñh tmhtc ji gQ < acbc ji tibpirmturm (Lmrtch y Qekhhir,
=;765 Lmrtch, =;60) dm tihkjc uhm mpnkamakñh nkbktmjm ih nm anmskgkamakñh ji
jipñsktcs ji bkhirmn (pcr ioibpnc, Dimnj it mn., =;46) m pismr jin bmrac
achskstihti qui prcpcrakchm pmrm skstibmtkzmr ncs achouhtcs ji bkhirmnis ji
sungurc y istujkmr nm ivcnuakñh ji ncs skstibms dkjrctirbmnis.
Gkf urm =.  Jkmfrmbm ncf gQ< - Ncf gC< m <90 ° A
bcjkgkamjc ji Biyir y Dibniy (=;76) qui knustrm

nm
ih rutm ji luani
pñrgkjc m trmvës
y jipñsktcs jijin tkibpc
vihm y in ispmakc
rinmakchmjcs ach
 pñrgkjc. Nms nâhims ji pD achstmhti istíh
jksachtkhums (ih hifrktm, nc qui skfhkgkam nâbktis ji
 prijcbkhkc ihtri nms ispiakis maucsms ji mzugri).
Ncs ambpcs jigkhkjcs y itkquitmjcs ach hÿbircs
rcbmhcs pcr Biyir y Dibniy sch? K. Acvinnktm,
jkfihktm, amnacaktm y pkrktm ach mntirmakñh mrfânkam c
sirkaâtkam mvmhzmjm5 KK Amnacaktm, lcrhktm, pkrktm c
amnacpkrktm, lcrhktm, pkrktm ach mntirmakñh sirkaâtkam
zchmn y mrfânkam khtirbijkm5 KKK. Amnacpkrktm + pkrktm
ach sirkaktm zchkgkamjm (rinkatc ji ginjispmtc E) y
mrfânkam khtirbijkm5 y KW. Amnacpkrktm + bmfhitktm, c
lcrhktm + bmfhitktm ach mntirmakñh pctískam.
Zmblkëh si buistrmh ncs ambpcs pmrm ncs
jipñsktcs ipktirbmnis ji Dimnj it mn. (=;46) y
Ocdh (<00=).

9
 

:. Cxklmrcbitrâm
Qi ihtkihji pcr cxklmrcbitrâm m tcjms mquinnms tëahkams y bëtcjcs utknkzmjcs
pmrm jitirbkhmr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc (gC<) ji uh skstibm. Ixkstih jkvirsms
gcrbms pmrm amnaunmr nm gC<, nms aumnis si lmsmh ih nm sihsklknkjmj ji akirtcs
inibihtcs m nms achjkakchis rijcx jin mblkihti, mhti nc aumn mjcptmh jkstkhtcs
istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh.
cxkjmakñh. Msâ, is pcsklni rinmakchmr nm rmzñh qui ixksti ihtri uhm
ispiaki
istmjc jibís cxkjmjm
cxkjmakñh jinjiskstibm.
uh inibihtc y uhm bís rijuakjm m uh jitirbkhmjc

Jilkjc m su mluhjmhakm ih ncs skstibms bmfbítkacs, su bmramjm sihsklknkjmj

m ncs amblkcs ih nms achjkakchis ji cxkjmakñh y nm pcsklknkjmj ji bijkr su
rmzñh ji bmhirm jkriatm (jilkjc m qui prisihtm igiatc B÷sslmuir), nm frmh
bmycrâm ji ncs bëtcjcs ji cxklmrcbitrâm si lmsmh ih nm rmzñh ji Gi1+/Gi<+
ji nm rcam. Ih rcams pnutñhkams, nms istkbmakchis ji gC <  si rimnkzmh ih
fihirmn bijkmhti iquknklrkcs bkhirmnis qui khvcnuarih C<, achcakihjc mjibís
nm tibpirmturm ji iquknklrkc ji nm mscakmakñh bkhirmn.
 M achtkhumakñh si jisarklih mnfuhcs ji ncs bëtcjcs cxklmrcbëtrkacs bís
ÿtknis pmrm su mpnkamakñh ih rcams pnutñhkams, mhmnkzmhjc sus lihigkakcs y
acbpnkamakchis pmrm nm jitirbkhmakñh ji nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc ih
khtruskvcs frmhâtkacs.

:.=. Bëtcjcs cxklmrcbëtrkacs bís ÿtknis

ÿtknis pmr
pmrmm su mpnkamakñh ih
rcams pnutñhkams

m. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji lkctktm
Jmjm nm bkhirmncfâm amrmatirâstkam ji ncs khtruskvcs frmhâtkacs, jihtrc ji
nm aumn nm lkctktm, nm bmfhitktm y in ginjispmtc pctískac sch achstktuyihtis
mluhjmhtis, isti cxklmrñbitrc prisihtm uhm frmh vihtmom pmrm aínaunc ji nm
gC<  ih isti tkpc ji rcams, puis si msifurm nm ixkstihakm ji ncs
acbpchihtis hiaismrkcs, ih amhtkjmjis sugkakihtis pmrm pirbktkr uhm
mjiaumjm siniaakñh ji nms buistrms bkhirmnis bís kjñhims pmrm mhmnkzmr.
 Mjibís, nm acbpcskakñh ji ncs sknkamtcs is sihsklni m nms achjkakchis ji
gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc bmfbítkams y, pcr ctrc nmjc, nm acbpcskakñh ji nms
bmfhitktms acrrispchji
acrrispchji ih fihirmn
fihirmn m bmfhitktm amsk purm, pcr nc qui nm
utknkzmakñh ji iquknklrkcs ihtri sknkamtcs y bmfhitktm mpmrihtibihti pirbktkrâm
istkbmr nm gC<  bmfbítkam. Hc clstmhti, isti bëtcjc riqukiri ji uhm
amrmatirkzmakñh acbpcskakchmn acbpnitm ji nm lkctktm pmrm cltihir uh
aínaunc priaksc ji su matkvkjmj, nc aumn kbpnkam hc scnc jitirbkhmr su
acbpcskakñh ji inibihtcs bmycris, skhc tmblkëh su rmzñh ji Gi1+/Gi<+ y su
achtihkjc ji dkjrñfihc (D).

7
 

Pmrm amnaunmr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc (gC<) ih in skstibm bijkmhti in bëtcjc

ji nm Cxklmrcbitrâm ji lkctktm si utknkzm in iquknklrkc ji nm cxkjmakñh ji mhhktm m
smhkjkhm y bmfhitktm. Isti iquknklrkc dm skjc mbpnkmbihti utknkzmjc y amnklrmjc
ixpirkbihtmnbihti acbc ficdkfrñbitrc (Azmbmhsei & Vchis, =;615
Gmllrkzkc it mn., <0075 Gmllrkzkc it mn., <00;) jisji
jisji su jigkhkakñh pcr Vchis &
Iufstir (=;79). Qkh iblmrfc, m nm giadm dm skjc isamsmbihti utknkzmjc acbc
cxklmrñbitrc jilkjc m acbpniokjmjis rinmakchmjms ach ncs bcjincs ji
matkvkjmj ji nm mhhktm, y nm khairtizm rinmakchmjm ach nms vmrkmakchis
acbpcskakchmnis ji nm lkctktm.
Yhm ji nms vmrkmlnis anmvi ji isti cxklmrñbitrc is nm matkvkjmj ji mhhktm ih nm
lkctktm, nm aumn puiji sir istkbmjm m trmvës ji jkvirscs bcjincs ji
matkvkjmj, ach jkstkhtcs frmjcs ji acbpniokjmj, utknkzmhjc acbc pmríbitrcs
mhínksks aumhtktmtkvcs ji nm quâbkam bkhirmn. Qkh iblmrfc, nm jitirbkhmakñh
priaksm ji nm matkvkjmj ji mhhktm riqukiri achcair nm rmzñh ji
Gi1+/Gi<+ y in achtihkjc ji dkjrñ
dkjrñfihc
fihc (D) ih nm lkctktm, nc qui kbpnkam
kbpnkam rimnkzmr
mhínksks ispiaâgkacs pmrm achstriýkr istcs pmríbitrcs, mubihtmhjc
achskjirmlnibihti in acstc y in tkibpc khvirtkjc pmrm in aínaunc ji gC <.

In mhínksksjim ibpnimr
mhínksks pmrm jitirbkhmr
acbpcskakñh bkhirmn nmjirmzñh
mntmGi1+/Gi<+ is bijkmhti
priakskñh ach uh
bkarcschjm
iniatrñhkam (ispiatrcsacpkm B÷sslmuir), y in achtihkjc ji dkjrñfihc (D)
bijkmhti mhínksks ji rimaakñh huanimr
huanimr (H\M).
Nm gufmakjmj ji mfum (gD<C) khgnuyi guirtibihti ih in aínaunc ji nm
gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc, ih ispiakmn m lmoms priskchis, pujkihjc
sclriistkbmrnm sk si prisubi uhm bmycr prcguhjkjmj ji ibpnmzmbkihtc jin
khtruskvc c hkvin ji smturmakñh ji mfum.
Nm tibpirmturm tmblkëh pcsii
pcsii uh mntc kbpmatc ih nms jitir
jitirbkhmakchis
bkhmakchis ji gC<,
jchji vmrkmakchis ji tmh sñnc 90°A
90°A puijih prcju
prcjuakr
akr jkgirihakms ji dms
dmstm
tm 0.7
uhkjmjis ncfmrâtbkams ih ëstm m tibpirmturms bmfbítkams (~790-690°A), nc
qui nm achvkirti ih in pmríbitrc bís khgnuyihti. Nms matkvkjmjis ji smhkjkhm y
bmfhitktm, pcr su pmrti, hc pcsiih uh igiatc skfhkgkamtkvc ih nm gC<.
Bijkmhti nm mpnkamakñh jin cxklmrñbitrc ji lkctktm si cltkihih aurvms ji
Z-ncf(gC<).
In diadc ji qui tmhtc uh auirpc istërkn acbc uhc bkhirmnkzmjc prisihtih ncs
bksbcs rmhfcs ji gC<  sufkiri qui isti pmríbitrc, sk lkih is hiaismrkc p
pmrm
mrm
in trmhspcrti ji bitmnis, pcjrâm hc sir sugkakihti pcr sâ scnc pmrm qui si
prcjuzam jismrrcnnc ji bkhirmnkzmakñh ji khtirës iachñbkac.

6
 

Jitirbkhmakñh ji gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc

Nms achjkakchis ji gC <  ji nms rcams pnutñhkams m istujkmr si jitirbkhmh
utknkzmhjc nm skfukihti ixpriskñh?

Pmrm aumhtkgkamr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc si riqukiri jitirbkhmr nms matkvkjmjis

ji  Mhhktm smhkjkhm bm hitktm
nc aumn si rimnkzm bijkmhti bcji
bcjincs
ncs ji ma
matkvkjmj.
tkvkjmj. Nm acbpcskakñh prkbmrkm
(bmfbítkam) jin ginjispmtc pctískac si puiji cltihir bijkmhti IBPM,
riachstruyëhjcnm m trmvës ji nm rikhtifrmakñh ji nmbinms
n mbinms pirtâtkams ih ncs amscs
ji ixscnuakñh.
Nm gufmakjmj ji
ji mfum (gD<C) si istkbm msubkihjc ssmturmakñh
mturmakñh ji mfum ih uh
bmfbm ji acbpcskakñh frmhâtkam m nms achjkakchis nktcstítkams airamhm mn
sñnkjus (PD<C 2 PZCZMN), achskjirmhjc uhm prcguhjkjmj ji ~1 eb mn
bcbihtc ji nm khtruskñh, acrrispchjkihti m gD <C~=elmr. Pmrm cltihir uh
vmncr mlscnutc ji gC< is hiaismrkc jitirbkhmr nm tibpirmturm ji

iquknklrkc ji bmhirm
aurvms Z-ncf(gC <).
khjipihjkihti, ji nc achtrmrkc, scn
scnc
c is pcs
pcsklni
klni achstrukr

l. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji ñx
ñxkjcs
kjcs ji Gi-Zk
In bëtcjc bís usmjc pmrm nm istkbmakñh ji nm gC <  ih rcams pnutñhkams
acrrispchji mn bëtcjc ji „jcs ñxkjcs‒, lmsmjc ih rimaakchis ihtri ncs
ñxkjcs ji Gi y Zk ji nnms
ms scnuakchis sñnkjms bmfhitktmunv÷ispkhinm y dibmtktm-
knbihktm. Gui pnmhtimjc pcr Lujjkhftch & Nkhjsniy (=;7:) y utknkzm nms
rimaakchis?
(=)

(<)

Nm rimaakñh (=) si utknkzm pmrm jitirbkhmr nm tibpirmturm ji iquknklrkc,

bkihtrms qui nm rima
rimaakñh
akñh (<) pirbkti amnaunmr nm gC<.
Nm prkhakpmn vihtmom ji isti bëtcjc pmrm nm jitirbkhmakñh ji nm gufmakjmj ji
cxâfihc is nm mbpnkm prisihakm ji ñxkjcs ji Gi-Zk ih frmhktckjis, auyms
acbpcskakchis sch rinmtkvmbihti sihaknnms ji jitirbkhmr.
Yhm ji sus nkbktmakchis rmjkam ih qui ncs ñxkjcs ji Gi-Zk tktkihjih
ihjih m
risitimrsi jurmhti in ihgrkmbkihtc
<00<). Mjkakchmnbihti, ih skstibmsnihtc
ach ji
mntmsrcams
gC <, khtruskvms (Lmnnmrj
isti bëtcjc it mn.,m
tkihji

4
 

sulistkbmr nm tibpirmturm pcr jilmoc ji nms achjkakchis bmfbítkams y

msâ m sclriistkbmr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc mn mpnkamrsi ih rcams
khtruskvms gënskams gcrbmjms ih achjkakchis ji gC <  sclri HHC+= (Jknnis,
=;465 Acrhioc & Bmdccj, =;;6). Pcr ctrm pmrti, si dm clsirvmjc
clsirvmjc q qui
ui in
bëtcjc ji jcs-ñxkjcs tkihji m sulistkbmr nm gC < aumhjc dm ixkstkjc riiquknklrkc
ji ncs ñxkjcs ih achjkakchis sul-sñnkjus. Qkh iblmrfc, is pcsklni
cltihir bijkjms ji gC<  achgkmlnis m pmrtkr ji nm rimaakñh (<) sk nm
tibpirmturm ji iquknklrkc is jitirbkhmjm ji bmhirm khjipihjkihti.
a. Cxklmrcbitrâm ji pkrcxihc/ñxkjc

Isti bëtcjc pirbkti istkbmr nm gufma

gufmakjmj
kjmj ji cxâfihc
cxâfihc m pmrtkr ji rimaakch
rimaakchis
is ji
cxkjmakñh ihtri bkhirmnis girrcbmfhiskmhcs y ñxkjcs ji Gi-Zk.
Yhm ji nms prkhakpmnis vihtmoms ji nm utknkzmakñh ji nms rimaakchis ji iquknklrkc
ihtri pkrcxihcs y ñxkjcs ji Gi-Zk is qui nms rimaakchis jipihjih ih frmh
bijkjm ji nm acbpcskakñh ji ncs sknkamtcs ih viz ji ncs ñxkjcs. Ncs sknkamtcs
ritkihih ach bmycr prclmlknkjmj su acbpcskakñh
acbpcskakñh jurmhti in ihgrkmbkihtc
jilkjc m uhm bihcr jkguskñh y rifkstrmh nms achjkakchis bmfbítkams ji gC<
(Acri, <00:) pcr nc qui, mn arkstmnkzmr ih itmpms tibprmhms,
tibprmhms, in iquknklrkc
iquknklrkc ji
pkrcxihcs y ñxkjcs pirbkti, sk ëstcs hc dmh skjc pcstirkcrbihti riiquknklrmjcs,
istkbmr nms achjkakchis ji gC<  bís prkbkfihkms. Mjibís, mn ixkstkr uh mbpnkc
hÿbirc ji rimaakchis, si puiji utknkzmr istms jkstkhtms mprcxkbmakchis pmrm
achstriýkr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc, pujkihjc msâ acbpmrmr uhms ach ctrms i
kjihtkgkamr sktumakchis ji jisiquknklrkc c risitic ach bmycr gmaknkjmj. Qkh
iblmrfc, nm mpnkamlknkjmj ji isti bëtcjc istí suoitm m nm prisihakm ji
pkrcxihcs skh mntirma
mntirmakñh
kñh hk skfh
skfhcs
cs ji jisiquknklrkc ih amhtkjmj y tmbmý tmbmýcc
sugkakihtis ih nm rcam, nc qui jkgkauntm su utknkzmakñh ih rcams frmhâtkams.
j. Istkbmakñh ji gC< bijkmhti rmzchis ji
ji Ai:+/Ai1+ih akrañh

Lmnnmrj it mn. (<00<)

(<00<) pnmhtimrch q qui
ui nms rmzchis ji Ai:+/Ai1+ ih akrachi akrachiss
puijih sir utknkzmjms acbc prcxy pmrm istkbmr nm gC< ji rcams khtirbijkms m
gënskams mscakmjms m pñrgkjcs auprâgircs. Jismrrcnnmrch
Jismrrcnnmrch uh bëtcjc lmsmjc
lmsmjc ih in
supuistc ji q qui
ui in akrañh rifkstrmrí in istmjc j ji
i cxkjmakñh
cxkjmakñh bmfbítkac, puis
ësti pmrtkakchm Ai:+ ach guirti prigirihakm rispiatc mn Ai1+ ih su
istruaturm arkstmnkhm, pujkihjc msâ rinmakchmr jkriatmbihti nm rmzñh ihtri mblcs
ach nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc jin skstibm. Qkh iblmrfc, nm rinmakñh ihtri nm
rmzñh ji Ai:+/Ai1+
Ai:+/Ai1+ y nm gC< pmrm in bëtcjc ji Lmnnmrj i itt mn. (<00<) is
aumnktmtkvm, pirbktkihjc ixanuskvmbihti acbpmrmr jkadms rmzchis pmrm
kjihtkgkamr mubihtcs c jisaihscs ih nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc, hc rimnkzmr uh
aínaunc ji su vmncr mlscnutc.

;
 

In bëtcjc ji istkbmakñh ji gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc bijkmhti mhcbmnâms

ji Ai dm skjc pcstirkcrbihti istujkmjc ji bmhirm ixpirkbihtmn pcr Zrmkn it
mn. (<0=<),
(<0=<), nc
ncfrmhjc
frmhjc istmlniair nm ixpriskñh (=) y amnklríhjcnm pmrm amnaunmr nm
gC< m pmrtkr ji nm mhc
mhcbmnâm
bmnâm ji Ai ih aakrañh.
krañh. Istm huiv
huivm
m ixpriskñh sâ pirbk
pirbkti
ti
cltihir vmncris aumhtktmtkvcs ji gC<, m jkgirihakm jin bëtcjc pnmhtimjc pcr
Lmnnmrj it mn. (<00<).

(=)

Nm prkhakpmn vihtmom ji ut utknkzmr

knkzmr nms rmzchis ji Ai:+/Ai1+ c nm mhcbmnâm
ji Ai pmrm istkbmr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc is nm griauihti caurrihakm jin
akrañh ih khtruskchis amnacmnamnkhms gënskams y su mntm riskstihakm nm mntirmakñh
dkjrctirbmn y prcaiscs
prcaiscs ji riiquknklrkc sul-sñnkjus, prisirvmhjc j
ji
i isti bcjc
nms achjkakchis bmfbítkams. Isti bëtcjc, hc clstmhti, prisihtm
mluhjmhtis nkbktmakchis. Ih Ih prkbir nufmr, nm jitirbkhmakñh ji nm rmzñh ji
Ai:+/Ai1+ hc si rimnkzm ji bmhirm jkriatm5 dmstm nm giadm sñnc si dmh
jismrrcnnmjc bitcjcncfâms pmrm istkbmr su vmncr m pmrtkr ji nm mhcbmnâm ji Ai
ih in akrañh ach rispiatc m nm rcam tctmn, cltihkëhjcsi fihirmnbihti mbpnkcs
rmhfcs ji irrcr. Pcr ctrm pmrti, in supuistc ji qui nm rmzñh ji
Ai:+/Ai1+ rignioi jkriatmbihti nms achjkakchis ji cxkjmakñh bmfbítkams
hc pcsii sugkakihtis guhjmbihtcs, puis ixkstih ctrms vmrkmlnis qui puijih
khgnukr ih nm khacrpcrmakñh prigirihakmn ji Ai:+ ih nm istruaturm arkstmnkhm jin
akrañh y hc dmh skjc mjiaumjmbihti achskjirmjms, ihtri innms nm acbpcskakñh
tctmn jin skstibm c nm arkstmnkzmakñh skbuntíhim ji ctrm gmsi bkhirmn qui
khacrpcri Ai, auyc igiatc griauihtibihti si prisihtm ih acblkhmakñh ach
mquin prcjuakjc pcr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc ih skstibms bmfbítkacs pmrm
prcjuakr uhm akirtm tihjihakm
tihjihakm ih nms rmzc
rmzchis
his ji Ai:+/Ai1+, pujkihjc nnivmr m
acrrinmakchis irrñhims ihtri nm gC< y jkadms rmzchis.

Gkfurm <.  \mzchis ji Ai:+/Ai1+ ih

akrachis amnaunmjms pmrm khtruskvcs
frmhâtkacs ji jkvirscs jkstrktcs mscakmjcs
m skstibms ji pñrgkjcs auprâgircs, ach
rispiatc m nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc
(gC<). In frígkac khjkam qui nms rmzchis
ji Ai:+/Ai1+ hc rigniomh nms vmrkmakchis
ih nm gC<. Zcbmjc ji Acri (<00:)

=0
 

9. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Zibpirmturm Z-ncf(gC<)

Ih nm Zmlnm = si buistrmh ncs vmncris ji gC <  cltihkjcs sifÿh tibpirmturm
utknkzmhjc jkstkhtcs bcjincs ji matkvkjmj ji mhhktm ih in pnutch Nm Fncrkm-Adkni.
Zmlnm =.  Gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc (gC<) jin pnutñh Nm Fncrkm, pmrm tibpirmturms ihtri
:00°A y ;00°A, utknkzmhjc ncs bcjincs ji matkvkjmj ji mhhktm ji Azmbmhse
Azmbmhsei i&
Vchis (=;61), Lcdnih it mn. (=;40) y in prcfrmbm MT (Dcnnmhj & Pcwinn, =;;4), ach in
irrcr mscakmjc (<ρ). Nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc si ixp rism ih uhkjmjis ncfmrâtbkams,
 ouhtc m nm acbpmrmakñh ach rispiatc mn luggir GB] ih uhkjmjis nc fmrâtbkams sclri
jkadc luggir (ΚGB]). 

Gkfurm 1.   Gufmakjmj ji
cxâfihc (gC<) jin pnutñh Nm
Fncrkm pmrm tibpirmturms
ihtri :00°A y ;00°A,
utknkzmhjc ncs bcjincs ji
matkvkjmj ji mhhktm ji
Azmbmhsei & Vchis (=;61),
Lcdnih it mn. (=;40) y in
 prcfrmbm MT (Dcnnmhj &

Pcwinn,
ji cxâfihc=;;4).
si Nmixprism
gufmakjmj
ih
uhkjmjis ncfmrâtbkams. Qi
frmgkam in luggir GB]
(C‛Hiknn, =;46) acbc
rigirihakm.

  Ji ncs jmtcs mhtirkcrbihti prisihtmjcs, is pcsklni clsirvmr qui nm

gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc mubihtm ach nm tibpirmturm, ixkstkihjc uhm vmrkmakñh
ji ihtri 4.:4 y ;.14 uhkjmjis ncfmrâtbkams ihtri ncs :00°A y ;00°A.
  Is hiaismrkc hctmr qui, pisi mn kharibihtc ji nm gC < ach nm tibpirmturm,

in ΚGB] jksbkhuy
jksbkhuyi,
i, mairaíhjcsi m
msâ
sâ ncs vmncris ji gufmakjmj ji cx
cxâfihc
âfihc
amnaunmjcs mn luggir GB].
==
 

7. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Luggir GB]

Nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc si ixprism ih uhkjmjis ncfmrâtbkams sclri in luggir
GB] (ΚGB]).

Gkfurm :.   Gufmakjmj ji
cxâfihc ih guhakñh ji nm
tibpirmturm ihtri 790°A y
400° A ji khtruskvcs frmhâtkac
ji Adkni Aihtrmn (Nm Fncrkm y
Qmh Fmlrkin) y in cisti ji
IIYY (Zyrchi y Dmhcvir-
Gkirrc).

  Ji nm gkfurm mhtirkcr si puiji kjihtkgkamr qui in khtruskvc bís cxkjmjc

acrrispchji mn pnutñh Nm Fncrkm, ach uhm gC <  prcbijkc ji GB]+:.1=5 ih
sifuhjc nufmr si ihauihtrm in stcae ji Zyrchi, auym gC< is ji GB]+:.=9,
sifukjc jin stcae ji Dmhcvir-Gkirrc, ach uh vmncr ji gC< ji GB]+1.;: y,
pcr ÿntkbc, in khtruskvc bihcs cxkjmjc acrrispchji mn pnutñh Qmh
Fmlrkin, ach uh prcbijkc ji gC< ji GB]+1.77.

Gkfurm 9. Jkmfrmbm ji tibpirmturm

virsus ncf (gC<), bcstrmhjc ncs rmhfcs
ji achjkakchis amrmatirâstkams ji
jipñsktcs ji tkpc pñrgkjc ji Au-Mu,
bmfbms amnacmnamnkhcs tkpc K, bmfbms
tkpc Q y lmsmntcs ji jcrsmnis
biscaiíhkams (BC\L), mjibís ji
aurvms luggir ji gC<. Qi buistrmh nms
aurvms ji gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc jin
 pnutñh Nm Fncrkm (rcoc) y Dmhcvir Gkirrc
(mbmrknnc), jistmamhjc in rmhfc ji
vmncris jitirbkhmjc pmrm amjm uhc
sifÿh su tibpirmturm ji iquknklrkc.

Bcjkgkamjc ji \kadmrjs (<0=:).

=<
 

6. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws Gufmakjmj ji mzugri

Ih jkmfrmbms ji ncf gC<  vs ncf gQ<, pnctimhjc nms achjkakchis ji priskñh y
tibpirmturm jitirbkhmjms bijkmhti istujkcs ji khanuskchis gnukjms, y
ncamnkzmhjc ncs ambpcs ji nms mscakmakchis bkhirmnñfkams amrmatirâstkams ji nm
mntirmakchis dkjrctirbmnis, si puiji cltihir uhm bijkjm mprcxkbmjm ji nms
gufmakjmjis ji cxâfihc y mzugri, qui ixkstkirch jurmhti nm bkhirmnkzmakñh ji
ncs pñrgkjcs.

Gkf urm 7. Jkmfrmbm ji gufmakjmj ji

cxâfihc virsus gufmakjmj ji mzugri
 pmrm nm mntirmakñh pctískam. Ih nâhims
hifrms, ncs ambpcs jin skstibm Gi-C
y ih nâhims rcoms, ncs ambpcs jin
skstibm Au-Gi-Q.

4. Gufmakjmj jin C< Ws pD

Nkfmhtis acbc ancrc c mzugri sch in bijkc ji trmhspcrti ji ncs bitmnis ih uh
gnukjc dkjrctirbmn, nm uhkñh ji uh nkfmhti y uh inibihtc bitínkac achstktuyi uh
acbpnioc bitínkac. Pmrm achcair nm istmlknkjmj ji ncs
n cs acbpniocs bitínkacs ih nm
scnuakñh dkjrctirbmn y nm scnulknkjmj ji ncs bitmnis ih nms achjkakchis
tirbcjkhíbkams ji nm mntirmakñh y bkhirmnkzmakñh ji pñrgkjcs, si achstruyirch
jkmfrmbms ji pD virsus ncf gC <  ach aurvms ji kscscnulknkjmj ji bitmnis
mscakmjms m ncs ambpcs ji istmlknkjmj ji ncs acbpniocs bitínkacs y ji nms
ispiakis maucsms ji nm scnuakñh dkjrctirbmn.

Gkfurm 6. Qcnulknkjmj ji pnmtm ih nms

achjkakchis tirbcjkhíbkams ji nm mntirmakñh
 pctískam. Nm nâhim mzun sipmrm in ambpc ji nm
 pnmtm hmtkvm y nm mamhtktm, nm nâhim rcom sipmrm in
ambpc ji ncs acbpniocs ancrurmjcs y
sungurmjcs y nm nâhim virji sipmrm ncs ambpcs
ji nms ispiakis maucsms sungurmjms y
sungmtmjms.

=1
 

;. Mpnkamakñh ih nm Ixpncrmakñh ji [makbkihtcs

[makbkihtcs Bkhirmnis
Bkhirmnis

;.=. Qclri in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh

cxkjmakñh ji ncs bmfbm
bmfbmss msc
mscakmjcs
akmjcs m
pñrgkjcs auprâgircs
 Mn rigirkrsi m nms achjkakchis ji gcrbmakñh ji pñrgkjcs auprâgircs,
istujkcs rimnkzmjcs ih nms ÿntkbms jëamjms dmh achanukjc qui ncs bmfbms
qui jmh crkfih m isti tkpc ji ymakbkihtcs sch guhjkjc
guhjkjcss ji mrac ccxkjmjcs.
xkjmjcs. M
pmrtkr jin istujkc ji hubircscs jmtcs ji nm rmzñh ji Gi<C1/GiC ih
rcams bmfbítkams ji jk jkgirihtis
girihtis mblkihtis tiatñhkacs si dm ihachtrmjc qui
ixksti uhm akirtm jkstrkluakñh fihirmnkzmjm rispiatc m sus istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh,
jchji nms rcams ji mracs bmjurcs sch skstibítkambihti bís cxkjmjms
qui mquinnms ji ctrcs mblkihtis (\kadmrjs, <0=:). In istmjc ji cxkjmakñh
achtrcnm nm ispiakmakñh jin mzugri, jchji in mzugri bmfbítkac ih gcrbm ji
sungmtc (QC:<-) pcsii uhm scnulknkjmj buadc bmycr ih guhjkjcs
guhjkjcs sknkamtmjcs qui
<-
acbc sungurc (Q ) (Oufc, <00;). Msâ, lmoc achjkakchis cxkjmhtis si
gmvcriai skfhkgkamtkvmbihti nm scnulknkjmj ji mzugri y, pcr achskfukihti, nm
scnulknkjmj, trmhspcrti y ihrkquiakbkihtc
ihrkquiakbkihtc ji bitmnis aacbc
cbc Au y Mu (Lcrkscv &
Pmnbi, =;;7, =;;65 Oufc it mn., =;;;5 Oifc it mn., <0=05 Oufc, <00;5 Acri it
mn., <00=), puistc qui si ivktm nm priakpktmakñh ji sungurcs bmfbítkacs
qui siauistrih ncs bitmnis. Yhm mntm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc ih ncs bmfbms ji
mrac priaurscris ji pñrgkjcs auprâgircs supchi m su viz qui in bmhtc lmoc nms
zchms ji mrac (c auým mstihcsgërkam), in aumn
aumn jm crkfih m istcs bmfbms,
bmfbms, tkihi
uh istmjc ji cxkjmakñh
cxkjmakñh mntc, puis si prisubi qui in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh ji
ncs bmfbms rigniomrâm nms achjkakchis rijcx ji su guihti (Amrbkadmin, =;;=,
Dccf it mn., <00:). Nm kjim ji qui jkadc bmhtc pcsii mntms gufmakjmjis ji
cxâfihc prcjuatc ji bitmscbmtksbc pcr gnukjcs cxkjmjcs jirkvmjcs jin snml
dm skjc pnmhtimjm y jigihjkjm pcr hubircscs mutcris (Amrbkadmin, =;;=5
ji Dccf
Dccf it mn., <00:5 Einniy & Acttrinn, <00;5 Pmrekhsch & Mraunus, =;;;).
Ctrcs mutcris siýmnmh qui prcaiscs caurrkjcs jurmhti nm ivcnuakñh
bmfbítkam, tmnis acbc nm jkgirihakmakñh (Nii it mn., <0095 Bmnnbmhh &
C‛Hiknn, <00;), nm arkstmnkzmakñh grmaakchmjm (\kadmrjs <0=: y rigirihakms mnnâ
khjkamjms) y nm jisfmskgkamakñh y ixscnuakñh ji vcnítknis (Einniy & Acttrinn, <00;5
< 00;5
Oufc it mn., <009m) fihirmh amblkcs skfhkgkamtkvcs ih nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc
jin bmfbm, pcr nc qui nm jitirbkhmakñh jin istmjc ji cxkjmakñh ji nms rcams
âfhims hc hiaismrkmbihti riprisihtm nms achjkakchis ji nm guihti. Nm
jkgirihakmakñh mgiatmrí in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh ji ncs bmfbms, ih fihirmn
prcjuakihjc uh mubihtc ih nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc, bís auym bmfhktuj
jipihjirí ji jkvirscs gmatcris (\kadmrjs, <0=:). Nm arkstmnkzmakñh grmaakchmjm
ih itmpms tibprmhms ji bkhirmnis rkacs ih Gi acbc sknkamtcs bígkacs (cnkvkhc,
pkrcxihcs y dcrhlnihjm) c ispkhinms rkams ih Gi, Ar y Zk tkihji m mubihtmr
prcfriskvmbihti in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh jin bmfbm, puistc qui istms gmsis
pmrtkakchmh prigirihtibihti in Gi<+ rispiatc mn Gi1+, ihrkquiakihjc msâ mn

=:
 

guhjkjc ih ësti ÿntkbc (\kadmrjs, <0=:). Nc mhtirkcr is tmblkëh

rispchsmlni ji prcjuakr skfhmturms amnacmnamnkhms prcpkms ji ncs bmfbms ji
mrac y, ih camskchis
camskchis,, skfhmturms mjmeâtkams ih
ih khtruskchis bís dkjrmtmjms,
mblms mscakmjms pcr jkvirscs mutcris mn jismrrcnnc ji frmhjis
ymakbkihtcs ji pñrgkjcs auprâgircs (\ikad it mn., <001
<00155 Cymrzÿh it mn., <00=
<00=55
_dmhf it mn., <007). Hc clstmhti, ji tcjcs ncs prcaiscs bihakchmjcs,
bihakchmjcs, qukzís
qukzís
in qui prcjuzam uh igiatc bís rinivmhti ih in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh jin bmfbm
si rigkiri m nm ixscnuakñh ji gnukjcs y jisfmskgkamakñh, ym sim prcjuakjm pcr
smturmakñh ih vcnítknis pcr igiatc ji jisprisurkzmakñh („gkrst lcknkhf‒) c ji
nm arkstmnkzmakñh grmaakchm
grmaakchmjm
jm ji bkhirmni
bkhirmnis
s mhdkjrcs („siachj lcknkhf‒). Pcr  uhm
(„siachj   uhm
pmrti, nm ixscnuakñh
ixscnuakñh ji uh gnukjc jilkjc m uhm sclrissclrismturmakñh
mturmakñh ji mfum
prcjuakrí uh sÿlktc mubihtc ih nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc, jmjc qui in Gi<+ is
bís scnulni ih gnukjcs maucscs qui in Gi1+, mubihtmhjc msâ nm rmzñh
Gi1+/Gi<+ ih in bmfbm riskjumn (\kadmrjs, <0=:). Pcr ctrc nmjc, nm përjkjm ji
ispiakis fmsicsms
fmsicsms rijuakjms c jëlknbihti cx cxkjmjms
kjmjms acbc D<,D<, D<Q c QC<
tkihi uh igiatc
igiatc cxkjmtkvc kbpcrtmhti (Fmknnmrj it mn., <00=), jchji
jchji in QC< is
prclmlnibihti in bís mluhjmhti ih bmfbms ji mrac y auym nklirmakñh
mubihtm jrmbítkambihti
jrmbítkambihti m hkv
hkvinis
inis scbircs
scbircs.. Ji isti bcjbcjc,
c, ncs bmf
bmfbms
bms ji
mrac bcjirmjmbihti cxkjmjcs, tâpkambihti rkacs ih mzugri, tkihjih tkihjih m sugrkr
prcaiscs ji cxkjmakñh tmrjâcs jirkvmjcs prkhakpmnbihti ji nm jisfmskgkamakñh
ji QC<, nm ixscnuakñh ji gnukjcs maucscs y, ih bihcr bijkjm, ji nm
arkstmnkzmakñh tmrjâm ji bmfhitktm (\kadmrjs, <0=:).
Pcr nc tmhtc, pmrm pcjir ihtihjir mjiaumjmbihti in rcn ji ncs bmfbms qui
jirkvmh ih nm gcrbmakñh ji skstibms ji pñrgkjcs auprâgircs, is hiaismrkc
cltihir bijkakchis jitmnnmjms y priaksms ji su gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc (gC<).
Qkh iblmrfc, si dmh cltihkjc buy pcams bijkjms aumhtktmtkvms ji nm gufmakjmj
ji cxâfihc ih khtruskvcs frmhâtkacs qui pirbktmh achstriýkr nms achjkakchis ji
cxkjmakñh ji ncs bmfbms mscakmjcs
mscakmjcs m pñrgkjcs auprâgircs ih zchms ji mrac,
jilkjc prkhakpmnbihti m nm isamsiz ji ncs acbpchihtis hiaismrkcs pmrm utknkzmr
bëtcjcs cxklmrcbëtrkacs bís achscnkjmjcs, acbc nm cxklmrcbitrâm ji Zk-Gi
(Jknnis, =;465 Acrhioc & Bmdccj, =;;6). Ih vkstm ji mquinnc y jmjm nm
bkhirmncfâm tâpkam ji nms khtruskchis frmhâtkams, si prcpchi nm utknkzmakñh ji nm
cxklmrcbitrâm ji lkctktm pmrm jitirbkhmr nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc ih isti tkpc
ji rcams.

=9
 

;.<. Girtknkjmj ji ncs bmfbms frmhâtkacs cxkjmjcs

Nm gcrbmakñh ji frmhjis jipñsktcs ji tkpc pñrgkjc riqukiri ji nm
achouhakñh skbuntíhim, maubunmtkvm y cptkbkzmjm ji hubircscs gmatcris, jisji
nm fihirmakñh ji vcnÿbihis sugkakihtis ji bmfbms gërtknis dmstm uh
igkakihti trmhspcrti ji bitmnis bijkmhti gnukjcs dkjrctirbmnis y su
achsiauihti jipcskakñh (\kadmrjs, <0=:). Qi dm istujkmjc qui nm ispiakmakñh
jin mzugri is uh mspiatc anmvi ih in trmhspcrti ji bitmnis, jchji m
mntcs istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh (ΚGB] ≩ +=) ësti si ihauihtrm ih in guhjkjc
bmycrktmrkmbihti acbc sungmtc ih viz ji sungurc (Ouf
(Oufc
c it mn., <0=0). Ih isi
sihtkjc, gufmakjmjis
gufmakjmjis ji cxâfihc inivmjms
inivmjms gmvcriairâmh nm girtknkjmj ji nncs
cs
bmfbms jilkjc m qui kbpkjih nm smturmakñh y grmaakchmbkihtc ji gmsis
ji sungurc qui siauistrih bitmnis amnañgkncs, ih pmrtkaunmr Au, mhtis ji nm
ixscnuakñh ji uh gnukjc dkjrctirbmn (\kadmrjs, <0=:). Is, pcr nc tmhtc,
ispirmlni, qui bmfbms amnacmnamnkhcs ji mrac, auycs istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh
sch ih fihirmn rinmtkvmbihti cxkjmjcs, pujkihjc mnamhzmr ncamnbihti gC<
khanusc supirkcris m GB]+1, aubpnmh ncs arktirkcs prkhakpmnis pmrm nm
fihirmakñh ji jipñsktcs ji tkpc pñrgkjc auprâgirc (\kadmrjs, <0=:).

Istujkcs
khtruskvcs rimnkzmjcs ih Adkni
istirknis puijih sirjitirbkhmrch
inivmjms acbcqui
ih nm gufmakjmj
khtruskvcs achjibkhirmnkzmakñh,
cxâfihcs ih
nc qui sufkiri qui sk lkih inivmjcs istmjcs ji cxkjmakñh puijih mubihtmr nm
girtknkjmj ji ncs bmfbms, hc ixksti uhm rinmakñh jkriatm ihtri mntms gufmakjmjis
ji cxâfihc ih bmfbms ji mrac y fihirmakñh ji bkhirmnkzmakñh ji khtirës
iachñbkac, khgkrkëhjcsi msâ qui nm cxkjmakñh ih ncs guhjkjcs puiji sir uhm
achjkakñh hiaismrkm, pirc ih hkhfÿh amsc sugkakihti, pmrm nm gcrbmakñh ji
jipñsktcs ji tkpc pñrgkjc auprâgirc, ixkstkihjc ctrcs prcaiscs caurrkjcs
jurmhti su ivcnuakñh ioiraih uh achtrcn jitirbkhmhti pmrm su ivihtumn
jismrrcnnc. Ih isti ssihtkjc,
ihtkjc, nm jitirbkhm
jitirbkhmakñh
akñh ji nm gC< ih rcams khtruskvms hc
pcjrâm sir utknkzmjm pcr sâ scnm acbc dirrmbkihtm pmrm nm ixpncrmakñh ji
huivcs jipñsktcs bkhirmnis, skhc qui pcjrâm achstktukr uhc bís ji vmrkcs
mhtiaijihtis ficnñfkacs y ficquâbkacs m lusamr.

=7
 

=0. Achanuskchis

  Ncs bmfbms
bmfbms qui jmh crkfihcrkfih m ncs ymakbkihtcs ji pñrgkjcs
pñrgkjcs auprâgircs
sch guhjkjcs ji mrac cxkjmjcs, ym qui ih istms achjkakchis si gmvcriai
skfhkgkamtkvmbihti nm scnulknkjmj ji mzugri y, pcr achskfukihti, nm
scnulknkjmj, trmhspcrti y ihrkquiakbkihtc ji bitmnis acbc Au y Mu,
puistc qui si ivktm nm priakpktmakñh ji sungurcs bmfbítkacs qui
siauistrih ncs bitmnis.
  In istmjc ji ji cxkjmakñ
cxkjmakñhh achtrcnm nm ispiakmakñh jin mzugri, jc jchji
hji in
<-
mzugri bmfbítkac ih gcrbm ji sungmtc (QC : ) pcsii uhm scnulknkjmj
buadc bmycr ih guhjkjcs sknkamtmjcs qui acbc sungurc (Q<-).
  Yhm mntm gufmakjmj j jii cxâfi
cxâfihc
hc ih ncs bmfbms ji mrac priaurscris ji
pñrgkjcs auprâgircs, tkihi
tkihi uh istmjc ji cxkjmakñ
cxkjmakñh
h mntc, puis si pri
prisubi
subi
qui in istmjc ji cxkjmakñh ji ncs bmfbms rigniomrâm nms achjkakchis
rijcx ji su guihti.
  In diadc ji qui qui tmhtc uh au auirpc
irpc istërkn acbc uhc bkhirmnkzmjc
prisihtih ncs bksbcs rmhfcs ji gC< sufkiri qui isti pmríbitrc, sk
lkih is hiaismrkc pmrm in trmhspcrti ji bitmnis, pcjrâm hc sir sugkakihti
pcr sâ scnc pmrm qui si prcjuzam jismrrcnnc ji bkhirmnkzmakñh ji khtirës
iachñbkac.
  M pmrtkr ji istujkcs ji nm gufmakjmj jin cxâfihc
cxâfihc bijkmh
bijkmhtiti ncs bëtcjcs
ji Cxklmrcbitrâm si jitirbkhñ qui nm gC<
g C< mubihtm ach nm tibpirmturm.

=6
 

==. Lklnkcfrmgâm

LM\ZCH, P. L., O\., MHJ QEKHHI\, L. O., =;76, Qungkji bkhirmn stmlknktkis, khLmrhis, D.
N., ij., Ficadibkstry cg dyjrctdirbmn cri jipcskts? Hiw [cre, Dcnt, \khidmrt mhj Vkhstch,
p. <17-111
LM\HIQ, D. N., MHJ A_MBMHQEI, F. E., =;76, Qcnulknktkis mhj trmhspcrt cg cri bkhirmns,
khLmrhis, D. N., ij., Ficadibkstry cg dyjrctdirbmn cri jipcskts? Hiw [cre, Dcnt, \khidmrt
mhj Vkhstch, p. 11:-14=.
AMHJINM, P. M., =;;< , Achtrcns ch cri bitmn rmtkcs kh frmhkti-rinmtij cri jipcskts? mh
ixpirkbihtmn mhj acbputmtkchmn mpprcmad? Zrmhsmatkchs cg tdi \cymn Qcakity cg Ijkhlurfd?
Imrtd Qakihais, v. 41, p. 1=6-1<7.
LY\HDMB, A. V., MHJ CDBCZC, D., =;40 , Nmti-stmfi prcaissis cg ginska bmfbmtksb?
Bkhkhf Ficncfy Qpiakmn Kssui, v. 4, p. =-==.
AC\I, J. P., EIQNI\, Q. I., IQQIHI, I. O., <00=.  Cxyfih gufmakty mhj sungur
spiakmtkch kh ginska khtruskvi rcaes grcb tdi Vmsmtad mhj Cqukrrd \mhfis, Ytmd. Ih
Inivihtd Mhhumn WB Fcnjsadbkjt Achgirihai. p. 1:99.
AC\I, J. P., <00:. Cxyfih mhj sungur gufmaktkis cg frmhktckjs? kbpnkamtkchs gcr cri-gcrbkhf
prcaissis. Zisks Jcatcrmn. Mhh Mrlcr, II.YY. Yhkvirskty cg Bkadkfmh.
AC\HIOC, P. A., BMDCCJ, F. M., =;;6.  Qiikhf pmst tdi iggiats cg ri-iquknklrmtkch
tc riachstruat bmfbmtka frmjkihts kh pnutchs? Nm Fncrkm Pnutch, aihtrmn Adknimh Mhjis.
Achtrklutkchs tc bkhirmncfy mhj pitrcncfy, vcn. =<6, hc. =-<, p. =9;-=69.

GMLL\K_KC, I., \CYQI,

lkctkti+ bmfhitkti+ smhkjkhiP. O., AM\\CNN,
smturmtij <007. mhj
B. \.,bints
pdchcnktka Hiw ixpirkbihtmn
mppnkamtkch jmtm ch
tc tdi
istkbmtkch cg bmfbmtka wmtir gufmakty. Mbirkamh Bkhirmncfkst, vcn. ;=, hc. ==-=<, p. =471-
=460.
GMLL\K_KC, M., QAMKNNIZ, L., AM\\CNN, B. \., <00;.  Istkbmtkch cg pri-iruptkvi
bmfbmtka wmtir gufmakty kh tdi Pdnifrimh Gkinjs, Hmpnis, Ktmny. Iurcpimh Ocurhmn cg
Bkhirmncfy, vcn. <=, hc. =, p. =06-==7.
FKFFIHLMAD, V. G., =;46,   \ijcx prcaissis fcvirhkhf tdi adibkstry cg gubmrcnka fms
jksadmrfis grcb Vdkti Ksnmhj, Hiw _imnmhj? Mppnkij Ficadibkstry, v. <, p. =:1-=7=.
FKFFIHLMAD, V.G., =;;<,  Bmfbm jifmsskhf mhj bkhirmn jipcsktkch kh dyjrctdirbmn
systibs mnchf achvirfiht pnmti lcuhjmrkis, Iachcbka Ficncfy, v. 46, p. =;<6-=;::.
OMWKI\M C\ADM\J, <0=7,  Cxklmrcbitrâm ji lkctktm ji khtruskvcs frmhâtkacs istërknis y
mscakmjcs m pñrgkjcs auprâgircs? igiatcs ji nm rmzñh Gi1+/Gi<+ y in achtihkjc ji dkjrñfihc
ih nm jitirbkhmakñh ji nm gufmakjmj ji cxâfihc. Zisks pmrm cptmr in tâtunc ji fiñncfm,

ADKNI.
OËFC, Q.,Yhkvirskjmj ji Adkni.
PKADMWMHZ, B., BMW\CFIHIQ, O. M., <0=0.  Achtrcns ch fcnj scnulknkty kh mra
bmfbms? Mh ixpirkbihtmn stujy mt =000° A mhj :elmr. Ficadkbkam it Acsbcadkbkam M Matm,
atm,
vcn. 6:, hc. 6, p. <=79-<=4;.
OYFC, P. O., <00;. Qungur achtiht mt sungkji smturmtkch kh cxkjkzij bmfbms. Ficncfy, vcn.
16, hc. 9, p. :=9-:=4.
OYFC, P. O., NYZD, \. V., \KADM\JQ, O. P., <009.  Ixpirkbihtmn jmtm ch tdi
spiakmtkch cg sungur ms m guhatkch cg cxyfih gufmakty kh lmsmntka bints. Ficadkbkam it
Acsbcadkbkam Matm, vcn. 7;, hc. <, p. :;6-901.
BMNNBMHH, F., C‛HIKNN, D., <00;.   Zdi arystmn/bint pmrtktkchkhf cg W jurkhf bmhtni
bintkhf ms m guhatkch cg cxyfih gufmakty acbpmrij wktd scbi ctdir ctdir inibihts (Mn, P, Am,
Qa, Zk, Ar, Gi, Fm, [, _r mhj Hl). Ocurhmn cg Pitrcncfy, vcn. 90, hc. ;, p. =679-=6;:.
\KADM\JQ, O. P., <0=:. Zdi cxkjmtkch stmti, mhj sungur mhj Au achtihts cg mra bmfbms?
kbpnkamtkchs gcr bitmnncfihy. Nktdcs, vcn. <11, p. <6-:9.
QKNNKZCI, \. D., MHJ DIJIH]YKQZ, O. V., <00<,   Nkhemfis litwiih vcnamhctiatchka
sittkhfs, cri-gnukj acbpcsktkchs, mhj ipktdirbmn priakcus-bitmn jipcskts? tdks vcnubih.  

=4