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then the
∂η ∂U ∂V
+ + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂U ∂η τxS τB
− f V = −gH + − x
∂t ∂x ρ ρ
S
∂V ∂η τy τyB
+ f U = −gH + − .
∂t ∂y ρ ρ
where " # " #
∂u ∂v
τxS = ρν , τyS = ρν (7.4.7)
∂z z=0
∂z z=0
" # " #
∂u ∂v
τxB = ρν , τyB = ρν (7.4.8)
∂z z=−h
∂z z=−h
As an order estimate
τS u2
U∼ ∼ ∗
ρf f
2
where u∗ is the friction velocity. A vertical boundary layer (of Ekman) can exist wherein
Coriolis force ρf U balances the viscous stress
∂u U 1
τ B ∼ ρν ∼ ρν
∂z h δ
Therefore, the Ekman layer thickness is
s !
ν
δ=O
f
A typical value of eddy viscosity is ν = 1 cm2 /s and f = 10−4 1/s. Therefore the Ekman
layer thicknss is O(1) m.
Our strategy is to get the horizontal transport, then the details of the boundary layers.
∂U ∂V
+ = 0.
∂x ∂y
∂η
−f V = −gH
∂x
∂η τyS
+f U = −gH +
∂y ρ
with
V = 0, y = 0 (7.4.9)
Because of the infinite coast,
∂η
U= = 0,
∂x
we must have
∂V
= 0,
∂y
It follows that V = 0 everywhere, and
∂η τyS
gH = . (7.4.10)
∂y ρ
τyS
η = y + constant
gH
ρu2∗ u2
= y = ∗ y.
ρgH gH
If u∗ = 1 cm/sec then τyS = 0.1 Pa. If g = 10 m/sec2 and H = 30 m
2
u2∗ (10−2 )
= = 3 × 10−7 .
gH 10 · 30
Note that
1
1 atm = 105 N/m2 , 1N/m2 = 1P a = psi.
670
For g = 10m/s2 H = 30m the set up is calculated as follows.
∂η
τyS ∂y
∆y ∆η
0.1 Pa 3 × 10 −7
100 km 3 cm
3 Pa 300 km 3 m
Although there is no mean flow (or flux), there is internal flow. We now look at the
detailed distribution in z, by deviding the depth into three parts: the geostrophic interior,
the surface Ekman layer, and the bottom Ekman layer.
u∗ u2∗ u∗ δ
δ = 0.1 , ν= , Re∗ = = 20
f 200f ν
Pedlosky :
ν = 1 ∼ 103 cm2 /sec
s
1 ∼ 103
δ= cm = 102 cm ∼ 3 × 103 cm.
10−4
Let the total velocity in the surface boundary layer be
u∗ 2
u = ug + uE = − + uE , v = v g + v E = v E . (7.4.15)
fH
so that (uE , vE ) are the boundary layer corections. Then for z < 0, we have
∂ 2 uE
−f vE = ν (7.4.16)
∂z 2
∂ 2 vE
f uE = ν (7.4.17)
∂z 2
The boundary conditions are
∂uE ∂vE
ν = 0, ν = u2∗ on z = 0
∂z ∂z
uE , v E → 0 z → −∞.
This is the Ekman boundary-layer problem. The solution is best obtained by introducing
the complex velocity,
qE = uE + ivE
then
∂ 2 qE
qE = ν
∂z 2
5
d 2 qE if
or 2
− qE = 0
dz ν
Let the solution be of the form,
qE ∝ eDz
then
if
D2 − =0
ν
Since
1+i
(i)1/2 = ±eiπ/4 = ± √ .
2
We get
1+i z z/δ
qE = A exp √ q = A e(1+i) . (7.4.18)
2 ν/f
Let s
2ν
δ= (7.4.19)
f
denote the boundary layer thickness. Apply the boundary condition on the sea surface,
∂qE 2
ν = i u∗
∂z 0
hence
i u2∗ δ
A= .
(1 + i)ν
The solution is
2
iδ u2∗ (1+i)z/δ δ u∗ z z
qE = u E + i v E = e = (1 + i) ez/δ cos + i sin (7.4.20)
(1 + i)ν 2ν δ δ
Separating real and imaginary parts, we get the velocity components,
δ u2∗ z/δ z z
uE = e cos − sin (7.4.21)
2 ν δ δ
δ u2∗ z/δ z z
vE = e cos + sin . (7.4.22)
2 ν δ δ
The hodograph is shown in Figure 7.4.1,
1. Physical Remark #1:
Maximum velocity occurs on z = 0:
!
uE (0) vE (0) u∗ U u∗
= = = .
u∗ u∗ fδ u∗ h fh
and is 45 degrees to the right of wind.
6
2. Physical Remark #2 :
The total flux in Ekman layer is
Z 0 Z 0
UxE + iVyE = dz (uE + i vE ) = dz qE
−∞ −∞
δ u2∗ 0
Z
= (1 + i) e(1+i)z/δ dz
2ν −∞
δ u2∗ δ z/δ 0
δ 2 u2∗ u2
= (1 + i) · · e(1+i) = = ∗.
2ν 1+i −∞ 2ν f
where
2ν
.δ2 =
f
Therefore the total mass flux in Ekman layer is 90 degrees inclined with respect to
wind.
3. Physical remark # 3:
Note that the flux in the surface Ekman layer is counter balanced by the geostrophic
return flow beneath. This implies the assumption that the bottom Ekman layer is very
weak and contributes little to the flux. Let us check.
Let
uE = u − u g vE = v (7.4.23)
so that
∂ 2 uE ∂ 2 vE
−f vE = ν , f u E = ν (7.4.24)
∂z 2 ∂z 2
Let us shift to new coordinates with the origin on the sea bed so that the boundary conditions
are
z → ∞, uE , vE → 0 (7.4.25)
and
z = 0, uE = −ug , vE = 0 (7.4.26)
Let
qE = uE + ivE qE = A e−(1+i)z/δ (7.4.27)
Since there is no slip at z = 0
qE = −ug .
We conclude,
A = −ug .
and
qE = (uE + ivE ) = −ug e−(1+i)z/δ
z z
= −uG e−z/δ cos − i sin .
δ δ
Therefore,
z
uE = −ug e−z/δ cos
δ
z
vE = ug e −z/δ
sin .
δ
The bottom shear stress is
∂qE 1+i
ν = ug e−(1+i) z/δ
∂z δ
at z = 0
∂qE 1+i 1 + i u2∗
ν = u g = − .
∂z 0 δ δ fH
The total flux in bottom Ekman layer is
Z ∞
UE + iVE = (uE + ivE ) dz
0
Z ∞
= −ug e−(1+i/δ)z dz
0
1 ∞
= −ug e−(1+i/δ)z
−(1 + i)/δ 0
2
δ u δ δ u2
= −ug = ∗ = (1 − i) ∗
1+i fH 1 + i 2 fH
8
7.4.5 Summary
: