Lecture 4 Dislocations & strengthening mechanisms

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals

and alloys?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

Edge dislocation and screw dislocation

The atom positions around an edge

dislocation

A screw dislocation within a crystal

Plictic deformation corresponds to the motion of large

numbers of dislocations

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 Dislocations & Materials Classes

• Metals:
Dislocation motion easier. + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions for slip. + + + + + + + +
electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics (Si, diamond):

Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
-need to avoid ++ and - - - + - + - + -
neighbors. + - + - + - +

Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by plastic
shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides over adjacent
plane by defect motion (dislocations).

• If dislocations don't move, deformation doesn't occur!

Adapted from Fig. 7.1,

Callister 7e.

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 Dislocation Motion

• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction

perpendicular to dislocation line
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector

Edge dislocation

Screw dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Slip system
_
Slip plane
• plane allowing easiest slippage
• wide interplanar spacings
• highest planar densities

– Slip direction
• direction of movement
• highest linear densities

Adapted from Fig.

7.6, Callister 7e.
– A {111} <110>Slip system within an FCC unit cell
– Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110> directions
(close-packed).
– Three <110> slip directions as shown in (b), within the (111)
plane.
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– Slip system in BCC unit cell: {110} <111>

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Slip system

Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.

Applied tensile Resolved shear

stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs/As
F slip plane
A tR
normal, ns
AS
FS
n n
p io p io
sli rect sli rectt
di di R
F

Critical resolved shear stress tCRSS:

Fs = Fcosl The minimium shear stress required to
initiate slip.
As = A/cosf
The applied stress required to initial
tR = scosfcosl yielding sy:
tR (max) = s(cosfcosl)max sy = tCRSS / (cosfcosl)max

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Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

Slip in a zinc single crystal.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

Slip Motion in Polycrystals s

• Stronger - grain boundaries

pin deformations

• Slip planes & directions

(l, f) change from one
crystal to another.

• tR will vary from one

crystal to another.

• The crystal with the

largest tR yields first. 300 mm

• Other (less favorably

oriented) crystals Slip lines on the surface of a
yield later. polycrystalline specimen of
copper that was polished and
subsequently deformed. Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.

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Mechanisms of strengthening in metals

•Strain hardening (work hardening)

•Grain boundary strengthening
•Solid-solution strengthening
•Precipitation strengthening

Strain hardening (work hardening)

Strain hardening
Within the region between Y.S (stress at 2)
and T.S (stress at 3)

The region after T.S

Neck down of a tensile test specimen within
the gage lengh
Dislocations in plastically necking
deformed stainless steel

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Strain hardening (work hardening)

• Room temperature deformation (cold work).

• Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:

-Forging force -Rolling

roll
die Ad
Ao
A o blank Ad
Adapted from Fig. roll
11.8, Callister 7e.

force
-Drawing -Extrusion
Ao
container die holder
die Ad
tensile force
Ao ram billet extrusion Ad
force
die container die

A - Ad
Percent Cold Work: %CW = o x 100
Ao

Dislocations During Cold Work

• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 mm University.)

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 As cold work is increased:

• Yield strength (sy)

increases
• Tensile strength (TS)
increases
• Ductility (%EL or %AR)
decreases

Exercise:
Compute the tensile strength and
ductility (%EL) of a cylindrical copper rod
if it is cold worked such that the diameter
is reduced from 15.2 mm to 12.2 mm.

Cold Work Analysis example problem 7.2 p194

Copper
• What is the tensile strength & ductility Cold
after cold working? Work

pro2 - prd2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6 Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm

pro2
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa)
ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

600 40
500

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e.

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Grain boundary hardening

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.

• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.

• Smaller grain size:

more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:

Grain boundary hardening

Hall–Petch (H-P) relationship

1
-
2
s y = s 0 + kd
s0 and sy: yield strength
k: the Hall–Petch slope
d: grain size
k: constant

In analogy, hardness (Hv) can be related to the grain size by

1
-
2
H v = H 0 + kH d H0 and kH are constants.

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Homework
1. The following yield strengths were obtained in ferritic steel as a function of
grain size. Estimate the two constants in the Petch equation for this material
and predict the expected yield strength of the steel in which the grain size is
reduced to i micron.
grain size (micron) Yield strength (MPa)
250 105
40 180
12 280

Solid-Solution strengthening

Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.

• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional

impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

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 Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Strengthening by Alloying

• small impurities tend to

concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation
\ increase strength

Tensile lattice strain Possible locations of small

imposed on host atoms impurity atoms relative to
by a small substitutional an edge dislocation such
impurity atom that there is partial
cancellation of impurity-
dislocation lattice strains

• large impurities
concentrate at dislocations
on low density side

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

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Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

• Tensile strength & yield strength for copper-nickel alloys increase

with wt% Ni.

180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

60
200 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: sy ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

Summary

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work

• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density

and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.

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 Lecture 5 Creep p 238

Tensile test at elevated

temperatures under a
constant load – the strain will
increase with time

Creep curve Creep is defined as time

dependent plastic
deformation at constant
stress and temperature.

Creep deformation
becomes important only
for temperatures greater
than about 0.4Tm (Tm =
absolite melting
temperature)

The slope of this curve is

the creep rate

Questions and problems 8.26 p249

Give the approximate temp. At which creep deformation becomes an important
consideration for each of the following metals: Sn, Mo, Fe, gold, Zn and Cr.

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 The primary stage:
a decreasing strain rate
dislocation climb
The secondary stage:
straight line
constant-strain rate
Final stage:
Strain rate increase due
to necking or internal
cracking

Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.

Homework 8.26 p249

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 Influence of stress s and temperature T on creep behavior
with either increasing stress or temperature:
1. The instantaneous strain at the time of stress
application increases;
2. The steady-state creep rate is increased;
3. The rupture lifetime is diminished

Diffusion mechanisms in creep

Activition energy Q

Diagram showing stress-

directed flow of vacancies
(solid lines) from tensile to
compressive grain boundaries
Rate = C exp (-Q/RT)
and corresponding reverse flow
R: gas constant of atoms or ions (dashed lines

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Dislocation climb

At elevated temperature
Thermally activated atom mobility

Creep rate of the secondary stage – the steady-state

creep rate: de
dt
s: applied stress
n -p d: grain size
e& = As d D exp(-Q / RT )
0 D0: diffusion coefficient
Q: activation energy for diffusion
T: absolute temperature

Herring Nabarro creep, n=1, p=2, (D0 and Q refer to bulk

diffusion)
Coble creep (GB diffusion), n=1, p=3, (D0 and Q refer to
GB diffusion)
Dislocation climb n=4-7, p=0, (D0 and Q refer to bulk
diffusion)
Grain boundary sliding

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Arrhenius plot

n -p
e& = As d D exp(-Q / RT )
0

(ln e&) versus (1/T):

When stress s is a constant:
e& = k exp (-Q/RT)
ln e& = K + (-Q/R)•(1/T)
The slop of the curve gives the activition
energy for the creep mechanism

Creep mechanism – the stress exponent n

n -p
e& = As d D exp(-Q / RT )
0

(log e& ) versus log s

When temperature is a constant,
e& = ks n

(log e & )= K + n log s

The slop of the curve gives the (n ) value

for the creep mechanism

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Creep deformation map

Pure silver,
Grain size 32 mm,
Elastic boundaries
determined at a strain
rate of 10-8/sec

s: stress, m: shear modulus

T: temperature (K), Tm melting temperature (K)

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Turbine blade

Subjected centrifugal forces

Creep map for MAR-M200 nickel base alloy (100mm)

The creep rate below 10-10 sec-1 is usually negligible.

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Larson-Miller plot
Give a plot in the form of stress - life time
•Applied stress versus time to failure at a given temperature
•Applied stress versus time to a certain strain at a given T

Log s - T (C + log t)
•C is a constant, for most materials C = 20
•T temperature (K)
•t: life time
for steady – state, t = e / e&
e.g. t0.01 means the time to get a strain e = 0.01
t0.01 = 0.01 / e&

Creep Failure • p242 design example 8.2

Estimate rupture time S-590 Iron,
• Failure: T = 800°C, s = 20 ksi
along grain boundaries.
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied
Stress, ksi

Trans. ASME, 74, 765

20
stress (1952).)
10

data for
S-590 Iron
1
12 16 20 24 28
3
L(10 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20 + logt r ) = L T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr

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Sample problems

(the life time is t0.01, i.e. the time to a strain of 10-2)

Larson prediction, problem 4

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homework
A common creep requirement is a 1000h creep life to 2% strain at a (shear) stress of 100
MPa (1MPa = 106 N/m2)
(1) Calculate the creep rate ( e& ) for this creep requirement
(2) Referring to the creep maps below (Ni-base superalloy), at what temperatures in
the two materials is this requirement met?
(3) What is the dominant creep mechanism in the two cases?

Grain size d = 100 mm d = 1cm

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