CHAPTER # 01

INTODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEM IN BUSINESS

MANGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

Basically management information system is
the combination of three words i.e. MANAGEMENT, INFROMETION and SYSTEM
and we will explain these as

MANAGEMENT:-
Management is a force that runs a business and is responsible for its
success and failure

OR
Management is a resource used by every body to achieve goal

INFORMATION:-
Actually information is base an data or in other words we can say that it is
a refine form of a data i.e. data may be defined as “unknown collection of raw facts”
where as an information is an “organized and processed data”
EXAMPLE:-
Consider a number”194”can be considering as a raw fact as it describes nothing.
This number may be a house number of some one, it may be a roll no of a student it may
be the flight number that will take us to Lahore etc, once we know that “194” is a roll
number of a student hence it becomes information.
SYSTEM:-
A system can be defined as a group of interrelated elements forming a unified
whole.
WHAT IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

An I information system is an organized combination of people,

hardware, software communication, networks, and data resource that collect and
transform information in an organization is known as an information system
OR
We can say that system involved in processing of data into information or in meaning full
results in an organization is known as information system
 WHY INFORMATION SYSTEM IS IMPORTANT:-

In order to know the importance of information system, consider

an example of an organization as
Organizations are made up of people who are managers and
subordinates. The managers are busy in managerial function i.e. planning, decision
making, organizing and controlling etc. The subordinates are involved in operations like
producing, packing, record keeping and accounting etc. information is the basic
requirement of all such activities
Manager must know where we are now before planning, where we should
be at a certain future time, before making a decision the manager must know the
alternative courses of action. Similarly all the other managerial activities require accurate
up to date and timely information
Those who involver in operation must know what to produce, how to sell,
where to sell, what to record etc, thus information is an important resource. therefore
every organization whether big or small must establish a system to collect ,process, store,
retrieve, and report the information to all those who need it , such a system is called
information system.
Moreover we can say that information systems are important because
information system and technologies have become a component of a successful business
and organization

TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM

An information system may be divided into two basic type’s i.e.

1. Manual information system

2. Computer Base Information System (CBIS)

MANUAL INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

Such an information system that contains only human resource as a

Major element is known as manual information system

COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

Such an information system that contains human as well as

computer resources is known as computer based information system
OR
We can say that the system in which computer play major role is known as computer base
information system
 INFORMATION SYSTEM RESOURCES & TECHNOLOGIES:-

As we already know that an information system is an organized

combination of people ,hardware, software and network resources that collect, process,
store and communication information to end user with in an organization and out side ,
these resources may be described as,

PEOPLE:-

The people in the information system are system analysts, programmers

and computer operators.

HARDWARE:-
The term hardware refers to computer physical equipments i.e. CPU,
Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer etc
SOFTWARE:-
The computer cannot perform any job. One must tell it what to do and
how to do it. The instructions given to computer are known as Software, Windows, MS-
Word, Excel etc are examples of software
NETWORKS:-
The networks are communication channels, when two or more computers
are interconnected a network is formed that enables us to send information from a
computer to other Examples of networks internet, Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide
Area Network (WAN) etc
END USERS:-
Any person who uses information system or the information produced by
the system is known as “end users”. All computer operators and managers are the end
users as they use information system

END USER PERSPECTIVE:-

The people who use the information system produced by

the information system must know the following facts
1. What application, software are use for calculating, drafting, data base to increase
the performance of an organization.
2. What are the basic concept of information technologies i.e. he should be able too
use internet, e-mail to communicate more effectively.
3. How to handle the errors situation if comes

AN ENTERPRISE PRESPECTIVE:-
As we know that information system are highly useful for
the business, enterprise in all set of operations i.e. buying, designing, manufacturing,
selling, accounting, storing, and office work etc, and if these information system use
electronic devices then it will work in more effective manner or we can say that a
business, enterprise can beat the competitors easily if it uses “CBIS”
 THE GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY:-

The development in information technology has turned the

entire world into a global village. The computer users are globally interconnected with
each other through network. People buy and sell good and make payments through
internet. Information is sent and received via e-mail. All end users are using computers in
various steps of decision making. Thus people around the globe are part of information.
Society in which ever person is a knowledge worker. They create, receive process and
exchange information without geographical and cultural limitation.

WHY BUSINESS NEEDS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES:-

In order to explain the importance of I.T in business, first

of all we are going to define I T as
“The maximum flow of information in shortest possible time by
using an electronic device i.e. computer system is known as I T.
The information technologies have brought revolution in the business methods and
operations “I T” is performing three roles in business organization i.e.

1. Support of business operations

2. Support if managerial decision making
3. Support of strategic competitive advantages

SUPPORT OF BUSINESS OPERATION:-

Computer systems are helping in designing, producing,

distributing, and marketing of goods and services. The internet is being used for buying
and selling of goods and services for making payments. Most of operations e.g. typing
letters, sending and receiving mail, keeping accounting records, storing data in files and
record are being done by computers with faster speeds and lower costs.

SUPPORT OF MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING:-

The managers are using computers for collection,

interpreting and analyzing information to arrive at most rational decisions. They are able
to access the data available with in the organization as well as the information available
on World Wide Web.

SUPPORT OF STRTEGIC COMETITIVE ADVANTAGE;-

Business organizations are using computers and computers

networks the beat competitors in the market. Information technologies is being used as a
resource to gain an edge over competitors FOR EXAMPLE computer help in reducing
manufacturing cost and enhancing quality of products online buying and selling help
customers in saving their money and time. Thus I T is a vital resource and every business
organization is trying to get maximum benefits from is while competing with other firms.
 THE INCREASING VALUE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

The rapid development in I T has brought rapid changes in the

business methods. The most important changes are as followed
1. The Internetworking of Computing
2. Globalization
3. Business Process Re-engineering(BPR)

THE INTERNETWORKING OF COMPUTING:-

The internetworking of computing is one of the most important

trends in information technology. Form the smallest micro computer to large main
frame, computer are being net worked by the internet, intranet over and other
telecommunication networks. This network helps them to processing, software,
hardware, data and data resources between client and servers.
E.G local area network (LAN) is use to interconnect the different sections
or departments of an organization in order to exchange the information for daily
purpose.

GLOBALIZATION:-

I T has turned the entire world into global village. The internet
connected the entire world together removing the geographic and time barriers. The
business is no longer restricted to local markets. Firms can find buyers and suppliers
in the global market with out increasing any expenditure. E-Commerce is becoming
popular day by day. The global companies are using internet by forming global
alliances and partnerships. E- Mail, Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), Electronic Data
Interchange has reduced the costs, improved quality of products and services and
increased profitability.

BUSINESS PROCESS RE-ENGINEERING (BPR):-

The revolution in I T has changed the business methods. The old

business process is giving ways to new method and approaches. For example

1. Only managers used to make decisions in the past. Today I T has enabled
every one to make decision.
2. Only experts could solve the complex problems in the past. Now every one
solve complex problems using computer software and hardware.
3. Field workers needed offices to store information and contact people. Now
they carry laptop PC’s through which they get connected to any organization.
 4. People visit markets to find goods of there choice now people are shopping in
internet.
5. Managers used to travel long to participate in meetings, now meet on the net.
A lot of money as well as time are saved.

COMPETITIVE ADCANTAGES WITH I.T:-

Companies use to compete with each other using tools, like

quality, price, services etc. A few companies were able to beat others. I.T has provided a
chance to every business unit to gain advantages over others in different areas i.e.
1. Customers
2. Suppliers
3. Competitors
4. New entrants

CUSTOMERS:-
Attract new customers lock in old customers by lowering the costs and by
improving the quality. New products can be tailored to specific needs of any customers.
Any manufacture can contact a customer on internet and ask him what types of products
he wants.
SUPPLIERS:-
Companies can lock in there suppliers by reducing cost and helping in
improving the services i.e. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Fund
Transfer (EFT) systems.
COMPETITORS:-
Companies can knock out the competitors by locking in there customers
making the competition, providing unmatched products and services and by providing
Tailored made goods and services.
NEW ENTRENTS:-
Companies can create barriers to prevent others from entering in market
by making investment unattractive and by complicating the entry decisions.
THE SYSTEM CONCEPT:-

The universe in which we are living is a unified system composing

of physical and biological interacting and inter related elements i.e. the sun, moon,
planets, the earth, human beings and the animals etc. with in each system there is sub
system i.e. human beings are sub system of this universe, with in which digestion system,
nervous system etc.
“A system can be defined as group of inter related elements forming a
unified whole”.
The elements of the system work together to achieve a common goal by
accepting input and producing output in an organize fashion. Thus a system has three
basic elements
1. Input
2. Processing
3. Output

INPUT:-

Input which involves in receiving and capturing elements for further processing.
For example eating food is input to digestion system, raw material for manufacturing,
capturing data for information processing etc.

PROCESSING:-

Processing which involves converting or transforming raw inputs into refined

products. The digestion system transforms food into blood, information system convert
data into useful information.

OUTPUT:-

Output which result of processing i.e. manufactured products is, transmitted

information etc.
Moreover information system is not only composed of input, process, and output.
Information system has also two additional elements i.e.

1. Feed Back
2. Control

FEED BACK is the data about performance of the system where as CONTROL
involves monitoring and checking feed back to determine whether the system is going
to accomplish its objectives or not
 INFORMATION SYSTEM ACTIVITIES:-

The following activities are involved in almost all information systems

1. Input
2. Process
3. Output
4. Storage
5. Control

INPUT:-

Input of data resources for example capturing data, entering data in computer
through keyboards or scanners, entering transaction into computer terminal etc. the data
is collected on documents, vouchers and form before it is input to the computer. These
documents are called source documents. These documents are checked to ascertain that
the data is correct and authentic and are sorted in some order before entering to
computers. Thus input includes capturing data, verification, sorting and entry to
computers.

PROCESS:-

The data entered into computer is processed and converted to useful information.
This involves, sorting, calculating classifying, summarizing for example the transactions
entered are classified to determine which account are to be debited and credited, accounts
are updated, balanced, analyzed, total sales, total purchases, total debtors etc as well as
income statements and balance sheet are prepared.

OUTPUT:-

The result of processing s information which must be produced and reported to

end users. The goal of information system is the production of right information products
i.e. reports, messages, graphics forms and screen displays etc.

STORAGE:-

The data resources/information must be stored for later use. Devices like disks
and tapes are used for storing information. The data is organized/indexed before storing
so that is can be easily and quickly retrieved.

CONTORL OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE:-

As the goal of the information system is to produce timely and accurate

information, there must be a feed back system to verify that accurate data is input,
processing is required, and reports meet the need of the end users.
ATTRIBUTES OF INFORMATION:-

Like any other products, information must also posses’ high quality to satisfy that needs
of end users. The products of information system (reports, information) must posses the
following attributes or characteristics.\

TIME DIMENSION:-

TIMELINESS:-
The information must be provided when it is needed, information must be
provided at right time to managers and other end users.
CURRENCY:-
Information must be current and up to date.
FREQUENCY:-
Information must be provided regularly, as often it is needed.
TIME PERIOD:-
The information must be available about present, past and about future.

CONTENT DIMENSION:-

ACCURACY:-
Information must be accurate and free from errors.
RELEVANCE:-
Information must be provided according to the needs of the users.
Unnecessary information just wastes the time of end users.
COMPLETENESS:-
Information must be complete in all respects.
CONCISENESS:-
Only required information should be provided. Managers are busy people
they do not have time to read lengthy and detailed reports.
SCOPE:-
Information may be broad or narrow, internal or external as desired.
PERFORMANCE:-
Information must reveal the performance of activities (feed back).

FORM DIMENSION:-

CLARITY:-
Information must be easy to understand.
DETAIL:-
Information must be provided in detail or in summery form as desired.
ORDER:-
Information must be arranged in some order to facilitate its users.
PRESENTATION:-
Information must be presented in the form as desired, i.e. written, oral, or
in the form of graphics.
MEDIA:-Appropriate media must be used (printed paper, video display etc) for providing
info to end users.
 COMPONENTS OR INFORMATION RESOURCES:-

Following are the resources of information system

1. People Resources
2. Hardware Resource
3. Software Resources
4. Data Resources

PEOPLE RESOURCES:-

People are required for the operation of all information systems.

Theses people resources include “end users” and “I S specialist”

END USERS:-

These are also called users or client. These are people who use an
information system. They can be accountants, sales persons, clerks, customers or
managers. Most of users of information system are end users.

I S SPECIALISTS:-

IS specialists are people who develop and operate information system

They include system analysts, programmers and computer operators. Briefly, system
analyst designs the information system or analyses the system base information
requirements of end users and programmers prepare computer programs on the
specification of system analyst then computer operator operates the large computer
system.

HARDWARE RESOURCES:-

The concept of hardware resources includes all type of physical devices

and material used in information processing. Specifically, it includes not only machines
such as computer and other equipments but also object on which date is recorded from
sheet of paper etc. Examples of hardware in CBIS are

 Computer System
 Computer Devices

COMPUTER SYSTEM:-

It consist of central processing unit containing micro processors and verity

of inter connected devices. Examples are micro-computer systems, mid range-computer
systems, and large-mainframe computer systems.
COMPUTER DEVICES:-

These devices includes such as keyboards, mouse, form input of data and
commands, a video screen or printer form output of information and disks for storage if
data resources.

SOFTWARE RESOURCES:-

The concept of software resources includes all set of information

processing instructions. This concept of software includes not only the sets of operating
instructions called “Programs” which directly control computer hardware. Also sets of
information processing instructions needed by people called “Procedures”. The following
are the examples of software resources

 System Software
 Application Software
 Procedures

SYSTEM SOFTWARE:-

System software’s are software such as an operating system which control

and support the operation of a computer system.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE:-

Application software’s are programs that direct processing for particular

use of computer by end user. Examples are a sales analysis program, MS WORD
program etc.

PROCEDURES:-

Procedure is a set of pre planned steps and policies which the computer
adopts in order to perform a specific task.

DATA RESOURCES:-

Data is more that a raw material of information system. The concept of

data resources has been broadened by the managers and information system
professionals. They realize that data constitute a valuable organizational resource. Thus
we should view data as data resources that mist be managed effectively to benefit all end
users in an organization

TYPES OF DATA:-
Data can take many forms, text data consisting of sentences and
paragraphs used in written communications, image data such as graphic shapes and
figures, and audio data such as human voice and other sounds are also important form of
data.
TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

Information system found in different shapes and fashions in different

organizations. Information system basically classified into two conceptual systems
“OPERATIONAL SUPPORT SYSTEM” the routine operation of business and
“MANAGEMENT SUPPRT SYSTEM” that support management in decisions making.
These two systems are further classified as:

INFORMATION SYSTEM

OPERATIONAL SUPPORT SYSTEM MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM

TPS PCS ECS MIS DSS EIS

OPERATION SUPPORT SYSTEM:-

Information system has always been needed to process data generated by

end users in business operations. Such operation support system produces a variety of
information products for internal and external use. However they do not emphasize
producing the specific information product that can best be used by managers. Further
processing by management information systems usually required. The role of business
firm’s operations support systems is to control industrial process, support enterprise
communication and update corporate data base. It contains sub system as:

 Transaction Process System (TPS)

 Process Control System (PCS)
 Enterprise Collaboration System (ECS)

TRANSACTION PROCESS SYSTEM (TPS):- The computer use for transaction

processing is called “TPS” since early 1950’s companies are using computer form
recording business transactions, calculation wages and processing sales. Transactions are
input to the computer which take care of their debit and credit to respective accounts. The
products or result of TPS are updates inventories and account, cheques for payments,
statements and reports for various end users.
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM (PCS):-

Various PCS are used in manufacturing. Computers are used for making
appropriate decisions to control operations such as inventory reorder decisions. In
manufacturing, flow of material in a pipe line or conveyer belt is monitored, checked,
examined for having appropriate elements/weights etc. and stopped under specific
instructions. All mechanical processes can be controlled by computer systems.

ENTERPRISE COLLABRATION SYSTEM (ECS):-

Most operations in organizations are carried out collectively by terms of

workers. Project and designed and operated by team members (net workers) who share
information resources, interact with each other, hold meeting and perform tasks
collectively. ECS creates conditions that produce desirable results and leads to the
achievement of the goal

MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM:-

When information system focus on providing information and support for

effective decision making by managers they are called “MANAGEMENT SUPPORT
SYSTEM” management support system began when the concept of management
information system originated in the 1960’s
It has also three sub systems
 MANAGEMENT INFORMTAION SYSTEM (MIS)
 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS)
 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS)

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS):-

The term “MIS” is in use since 1960’s when information is provided to

management for transactions processing. Even today “MIS” is referring to reporting
information to managers so that they are able to make better decisions. The result of
“TPS” is reported to managers in form of printed paper or video displays in order to keep
informed of the operators “MIS” not only provide information about internal operations,
it also provide information about external business environment.

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS):-

The information system that are used by managers to assist the decision
making process are known as “DSS” managers use specialized data base and electronic
spread sheet to work out, as analysis decision models and simulations to explore possible
alternate course of action. Managers use “DSS” only when they need to know possible
alternatives. “DSS” is not a regular flow of information products like “MIS”.
Thus they are different form of transactions processing system, which
focus on processing data generated by business transactions and operations, they also
differs from “MIS” which focus on providing managers with reports that can be used to
help them, make them more effective, structured types of decisions.
 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS):-

The system that provides specific information to top management and

helps them in strategic decisions making is known as “EIS”, the top managers gather
information from carious sources i.e. documents, meeting, friends, news paper and
magazine etc. they seldom use computer based information. The “EIS” aims that
providing selective information about key factors to help in strategic decision making.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

EXPERT SYSTEM:-

Experts are those people who have some special laity in their work e.g.
medical experts, geological expert, like human expert, the expert system is a software
coded in one of the (A.I) languages in particular domain form solving those problem that
normally requires human expertise. Expert system are developed using A.I languages like
prolog, lisp etc. it is used to replace the expertise of human being taking a lot of time to
solve by human itself.
From the above discussions we can say that an expert system is a
knowledge based information system i.e. it uses its knowledge about a specific area to act
as an expert consultant to users or we can say that it is used for answer the questions of
the users.
Expert systems are being used in many different fields, including
medicine, engineering, the physical sciences and business.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:-

Many companies realize that they must become knowledge creating

companies or learning organizations in order to survive in a rapidly changing business
environment, for techniques and information technology.
Thus many organizations are developing knowledge management systems
that manage organizational learning and business. For example many knowledge
management systems rely on internet web sites, for gathering, storing business
knowledge.

BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

As a future managers end users, it is important for us to realize that

information system directly support both “operations and management activities in the
business” functions of accounting, final marketing and operation management. Such
business information systems are needed by all the business functions.
For example, marketing manager need information about sales
performance, finance managers need information concerning costs and investment return
provided by financial information system, similarly production managers need
information about resources requirement and worker productivity.
SOLVING BUSINESS PROBLEMS USING INFORMATION SYSTEM:-

Manager at all levels face problems that need solutions. Top level
managers face problems i.e. how to increase sales, profit, how to compete etc. these
managers have a vision that what is coming and how to move their, organizations in
response to that vision their problems are un-structured e.g. their solutions are not know
in advance. Such decisions cannot be programmed for future use.
Middle level managers face problem like (identify the best way to get the
job done) i.e. how to advertise, which product to produce, evaluate employees etc. such
decisions are called semi-structured decisions. Decisions about advertising and about
products are unstructured but in the other hand evaluating the employees are structured
decisions. Their solution can be learnt in advance and can be programmed for future use.
Low level managers face structured problems which are already
programmed like how to get raw material form store, how to supply goods etc. they use
programmed decisions to solve their routine problems.

THE SYSTEM APPROCH:-

Managers use “SYSTEM THEORY” in decision making. Managers view

the situation as a system composed of interacting element. He must be able to identify the
elements concerning the problem.
Following are the system approaches:-

1. Recognize and Define a Problem

2. Develop and Evaluate Alternative System Solutions
3. Select The Best Possible Solutions
4. Design The Selected System Solution
5. Implement the Designed Solution

DEFINE PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES:-

Problems and opportunities Identified in the first step of the system

approach. A “Problem” can be defined as “basic condition that is causing undesirable
results. An opportunity is basic conditions that present the potential for desirable results.
System must be separated form problems from problems, system are merely signals of
the underlying cause or problem.
EXAMPLE:-
SYMPTOM:-
Sales of a company’s products are declining.
PROBLEM:-
Sales persons are losing orders because they cannot get current
information on product process and availability.
OPPORTUNITY:-
We could increase sales significantly if sales persons could receive
instant response to request for price quotation and product availability.
SYSTEM THINKING:-
Using system thinking to understand a problem or opportunity is
one of the most important aspects of the systems approach
 EXAMPLE:-

The sales function of a business can be viewed as a system we

could than ask is poor sales performance (output) caused by lacks in selling efforts
(input) out of sales procedures (processing) incorrect sales information (feed back).

DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION:-

There are usually several different ways to solve any problem. Jump
immediately from problem definition to a simple solution is not a good idea. We may
combine the best points of several alternatives solutions.
Now a question may arise to where do alternative solution came from?
Answer to this question is the experience is a good source. Moreover another good source
or solution is advice of others, including recommendation of consultants and decision
support software packages can be used.

EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION:-

Once alternative solution has been developed, they must be evaluated so

that the best solution can be identified.

SELECTING THE BEST SOLUTION:-

Once all alternative solutions have been evaluated, we can begin the
process of selecting the best solution. Alternative solutions can be compared to each other
because they have been evaluated using the same criteria.

DESGNING IMPLEMENTING SOLUTION:-

Once a solution has been selected, it must be designed and implemented.

We may have to depend on other business end users and technical staff to help us to
develop specifications and on implementation plan. Typically, design specification might
describe the detailed characteristics and capabilities of the people, hardware, software
and data resources etc. There as an implementation plan specifies the resources, activities
and timing needed for proper implementation.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:-

Every organization needs some sort of information system to provide

accurate and timely information to managers for making better decisions. When an
information system has been developed using the system approach the process is known
as “INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT”. Using system approach a team of
information specialists and end users design information based analysis of the
information requirements of an organization. This is a multi-step process called System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) as shown below:-
“SDLC” DIAGRAM:-

SYSTEM SYSTEM
MAINTEN INVETEGA
-ANCE -TION

SYSTEM
IMPLEMEN SYSTEM
-TATION ANALYSIS

SYSTEM
DESIGN

SYSTEM INVESTIGATION:-

The first step in “SDLC” starts with identification of a problem. A team

comprising of information specialists and end users of information starts investigating the
problem and studying the proposed information system. The result of this investigation is
the preparation of the feasibility study which describes the resource requirements. Costs,
benefits and the feasibility of the proposed system. If the management approves the
feasibility study, the next step will be taken. The management evaluates the feasibility
study on the four following classifications.

1. Organizational Feasibility:-
How well the proposed system will support the objectives of the
organization and will be beneficial in the achievements of the
plans.

2. Economic Feasibility:-
Whether the benefits of the proposed system will be more that the
cost of implementation of the new/proposed system. If the
proposed system will reduce the cost, increase profits and its cost
is less than expected profits and benefits, only then it will be
approved.

3. Technical Feasibility:-
Whether the hardware & software required is easily available and
feasible to install and operate? If the proposed system resources
e.g. hardware are easily available, software is also available or
easily can be developed and if repairs and maintenance services are
available then the system may be approved.

4. Operational Feasibility:-
Are the end users e.g. managers and operators willing to use the
system and are able to operate it? The team will gather the
information for feasibility study using following methods.
 Interviews with employees, managers and customers.
 Filling questionnaires from end users of information.
 Personal observation of the activities and procedure carried out in the
organization.
 Examination of the documents, forms, reports already being used in the
organization

SYSTEM ANALYSIS:-

System analysis is the close and deep study of the end users information
needs. It includes detail study of:
 The information needs of organization and end user.
 The present activities, resources and procedures being followed.
 The capabilities required by the new system

The team has carried out three types of analysis

 ORGANIZATION ANALYSIS:-
Know about organization e.g. people, procedures, activities,
problems, what information is needed by end users. As the end
 users play a vital role in analysis, they must be included in the
team.

 ANALYSIS OF PRESENT SYSTEM:-

Before designing a new system, it is important to examine the old
system and find its weaknesses and faults.

 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS:-

Team has determined what info people need, in what form info
should be provided /communicated, and how frequently the info
needs to be provided. This requires a deep study of the
organizational procedures and activities of employees.

SYSTEM DESIGN:-

System design specifies how the proposed system will accomplish the
objectives. The design will depend upon the system requirements discovered during
system analysis stage. System design is prepared in three parts i.e. Interface Design, Data
and Process design

 USER INTERFACE DESIGN:-

The users have to interact with computer to input and output data,
the screen design for data entry must be attractive, simple and user
friendly. The screens for input and web pages must be attractive
and must guide the user towards step by step operations.

 DATA DESIGN:-
The data to be stores in records, files and database has to be
designed to facilitate its storage and retrieval. The design work
includes determining type of data, attributes, scope of details and
relationship of data items to each other.

 PROCESS DESIGN:-
Process design refers to the programs and software required for the
proposed system. Which software is to be purchased or developed?
How it will be used by end users? How data will be made available
to programs etc.

SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION:-

Once a new system is developed, it must be implemented, implementation

Stage involves following activities:
 Hardware and Software acquisition
 Software development and testing of programs
 Development of Documents and Procedures
  Training & Education of end users( Operators of System)

SYSTEM MAINTANESS:-

System maintainess is the last stage of (SDLC). It involves both

monitoring & modifying the new system. The information specialists examine the system
if they find any fault or error and try to solve them. More over the specialists and end
users obtain regular feed back from the system thus it is a continuous process.
APPROCHES TO SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:-

Since every business organization has unique environment and therefore

information need are different in every organization, so information system developed for
In Company cannot be satisfactorily applied in another company and thus several
different approaches are being used for developing systems e.g.
 TRADITIONAL APPROCH
 PROTOTYPE APPROCH
 USER DEVELOPMENT APPROCH

TRADITIONAL APPROCH:-

In this approach all five steps are taken in sequence. The team of system analysts
and end users perform all activities and at end submit the reports to management for
approval. If management find the work satisfactory, it is accepted and system
development team is allowed to go for next step. All system development jobs are
performed in this method. However traditional approach is being criticized for its delay
and loss of time

PROTOTYPE APPROCH:-

Prototype is the smaller version of a system. Instead of going through all five
stages of system development in proper sequence, a smaller version called prototype is
developed and applied. The user uses it and suggests modification, improvements in it.
Small systems like “DSS”, “EIS” etc are developed using prototype approach. Prototype
can also be used in traditional system development for speedy completion of a particular
stage. Prototype is sometimes called “Rapid Application Development” (RAD).
Computer Aided System Engineering (CASE) tools are available to help the designer in
speeding up the process. The use of this software changes some of the activities and
improves the quality of information system development making it easier for “IS”
professionals.
Prototype is a process comprising of following
.

Identify Requirements

Develop First Prototype

 Implement And Use
Revise And Enhance

END USER DEVELOPMENT:-

The availability of low costs PC’S and software made it possible for
organizations to develop their Information System through end users instead of hiring the
services of computer professionals. End user, who better know the information
requirements and business processes, can develop information system themselves. Again
they go through a traditional step by step approach or prototype.

COMPUTER AIDED SYSTEM ENGINEERING (CASE):-

CASE involves using software called “CASE” tools to perform may of the
activities of the system development life cycle “CASE” provides many software tools
form both the front end of the SDLC and the back end of SDLC.
For example, a system repository is a software tool to manage a special data for
all analysis and design details a system generated with other systems development tools.
The repository helps to ensure consistency & compatibility in the design of the data
elements, process and other aspects of the system being developed

COMPUTER HARDWARE:-

The physical and mechanical parts of computer are known as hardware.

All input/output, processing, storage devices are called hardware.

COMPUTER:-

The computer comes from word “compute” which means to calculate or

generally we can define computer in three words

INPUT------ PROCESSING----- OUTPUT

A computer may be defined as “a electronic machine that both store and process data”
OR

An electronic machine that can solve problems by accepting data performing certain
operations and presenting the results of those operations under the direction of step by
step instructions.
CHARACTERSTICS OF COMPUTER:-

Following are characteristics or compatibilities of computer.

 Speed
 Accuracy
 Storage

SPEED:-

Computer operates at a very high speed, it can perform billions of calculation with
in a minutes.

ACCURACY:-

Computers are very perfect and accurate machines. It never commits errors. It is a
diligent machine and unlike human beings, it never gets tires or bored.

STORAGE:-

Computer stores high volumes of data on a small disk or tape and saves space and
cost. A room full of paper files can be stores on a single hard disk of 3x4 inch size.16
volumes of encyclopaedia can be stores on a single CD.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS:-

FIRST GENERATION (1951-1959):-

The computer involved in this generation has following features.

1. Electronic circuits used volume tubes.

2. Punch cards used for feeding information.
3. Paper used for getting results.
4. Magnetic tapes were used for external storage.
5. Development of machine language (binary).

SECOND GENRATION (1959-1965):-

Some principal characteristics of second generation are:-

1. Electronic circuits characterized by the use of transistors.

2. Punch cards used for input of data.
3. Papers are used for getting results.
4. Magnetic tapes are used for external storage.
5. Development of assembly language.

THIRD GENRERATION (1965-1971):-

 Main features of this generation are as follows:-

1. Electronic circuits characterized by ______ electronic, microscopic in size and

equivalent of many transistors.
2. Keyboards were introduced for input.
3. Monitors were used for getting results.
4. Magnetic disks used for external storage.
5. More high level languages are introduced like “PASCAL”, “BASIC” etc.
FOURTH GENERATION (1971-Present):-

1. Further refinement in which complete circuits were reduced to microscopic size

hundreds of circuits may be placed on chip size of a pin head.
2. Further refinement of input and out put devices.
3. Magnetic disks become the primary means of external storage.
4. The beginning of board’s use of special software for managing large data bases.

FIFTH GENERATION (Future):-

The future may be holding the following possibilities.

Developers now a day working to prepare such type of computers who are
capable for calculating billions of instructions per second, advance in artificial
intelligence or a computer that can “think” and “reason” or further minimize the
hardware.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) may be described as a computer science branch
that is involved with using computers to solve problems that appear to require human
imagination or intelligence For example Concept of Super Computer and Expert System.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:-

1. Digital computers
2. Analog computers
3. Hybrid computers

DIGITAL COMUTERS:-
In these computers the input and output data are in digits form or in human
readable form. These are multipurpose computers, found in offices and homes.

ANALOG COMPUERS:-
Ana-log computers are those computers which have input and output data
in Ana-log form instead of digits. Such a computer may input information via
temperature, current, vibration, etc and output by way of moving arm on a dial etc.
For example measurement of temperature, pressure, voltage etc. these computers are
special purpose computers and are used in laboratories and engineering works.

HYBRID COMPUTERS:-
 Hybrid computers are combination of digital and Ana-log features, either
input output is in digital or Ana-log form. These are also special purpose machines used
in labs and engineering works.

TYPES OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS:-

1. Main Frame computers.

2. Mini computers.
3. Micro computers
4. Super computers
1. MAIN FRAME COMPUTERS:-

Main frame computers are large computers having large “CPU”. A large
number of persons can use it at a time even form a distance place i.e. more than 1000
work stations can be accommodated by a typical main from computer.

2. MINI FRAME COMPUTERS:-

Mini computers are smaller version of main frame computer, due to

smaller size as compare to main frame it can be moved easily as compared to main frame.

3. MICRO COMPUTERS:-

Micro computers are smaller that both main & mini computers. The prefix
“micro” refers mainly to the size of computer rather than its capabilities.

4. SUPER COMPUTERS:-

Super computers are most powerful and ultra high speed machines used
for complex scientific applications. Super computers are not allowed for
sale out side the “USA”; however it has been sold to “INDIA” “CHINA”
and “RUSSIA” for research purpose. Super computers are used in research
in the areas of weather forecast, nuclear programs and in military defense
system. Its price is about from 5 MILLION$ to 10 MILLION$.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

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(M U) (ALU)
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Keyboard aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Monitor
Mouse aaaaaaPROCESSORaaaaa Printers
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Control Unit
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STORAGE DEVICES

INPUT DEVICES:-

These devices which are used form inputting the data into the computer or
used for feeding the information is known as input devices e.g.
 Keyboards
 Pointing devices
 Image scanners
 Touch pad
 Touch screen
 Light pen

KEYBOARDS:-

Keyboard is a device used for entering the data. It input the data in the
form of signals. When a key is pressed signals are generated, these signals are converted
into binary form. A keyboard is also called alpha numeric keyboard because it is a
combination of both alphabetic and numeric keys.

POINTING DEVICE:-

Pointing device contains devices as given below:-

  Mouse
 Track ball

MOUSE:-
A mouse is a small hand holding box used to position the screen cursor.
The basic purpose is to convert physical motion of hand on the screens and these actions
generate signals. Mouse cannot be used in “DOS” environment; therefore it was
introduced after the introduction of windows. It is a graphical user interface.

TRACK BALL:-

A track ball uses a hard spherical ball to control cursor movement. The
ball can be rotated by hand in any direction. Track ball translate the sphere’s direction
and_____________ speed of rotation into digital signal use to control the cursor.

IMAGE SCANNERS:-

The device which is used to store the drawings, graphics, photos etc is
known as scanners. Various editing operations can be performed on stored documents.
Some scanners are able to scan, either graphical representation or text and they come in a
variety of sizes and capabilities. Scanners can be classified into two parts according to its
size
 Flat ball:-These scanner are smaller in size and can scan only small size
images
 Drum belt: - these scanners are large in size and can scan large images.

TOUCH PAD:-

Touch pad is the replacement of mouse form laptop; cursors can be moved
to perform certain actions over the screen by physical movement of finger over the pad.
Some laptops have the one button touch pad & some have two buttons touch pad. Its
function is similar that of mouse.

TOUCH SCREENS:-

It allows to displayed object or screen position to be selected with the

touch of a finger. A typical application of touch screen is for the selection of _______
processing option that is represented with graphical icons. Touch screens input can be
recorded using optical and electrical methods. An electrical touch screen is constructed
with two transparent plates separated by a small distance. One of these plates is coated
with a conductive material and the second plate is coated with resistive material. When
the outer plate is touched, it is forced into contact with inner plate, this contact create a
voltage drop across the resistive plate that is converted to the coordinate rules of the
selected screen position.

LIGHT PEN:-
 Light pen is a digitize pen which is used for input of data into the
computer. This type of pen base computing is used on the sensitive layer called LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display) screens, so instead of entering data through keyboard device, we
can use a light pen to make selections, send e-mail and enter hand writing data directly
into computer.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):-

The central processing unit is the most important component of the

computer system. It is also known as “CPU”. A “CPU” can be subdivided into two major
sub units.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit

ALU control all the arithmetic and logical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and greater then, less then and equal to conditions.
Where as the Control Unit of the CPU maintains order and directs the operation of
the entire system

PROCESSING SPEED:

The term processing speed often used to describe the speed of a computer
system. It refers to the time computer take form input to output. Generally speed of
computer measured in MEGA HEARTZ (MHZ) and GEGA HERTZ (GHZ).

MULTIPLE PROCESSORS:-

Many current computers use multiple processors for their processing

function. Let briefly look at the major types of such multi processors.
 A Support Processor
 A Coupled Processor
 Reduced Instructions Set Computer (RISC) Processor

A SUPPORT PROCESSOR:-

A support processor design _______ a specialized micro processors to

help the main CPU perform a variety of functions. These microprocessors may be used
for input/output, arithmetic computation etc, thus freeing the main processor to do the
primary job of executing program instructions.

A COUPLED PROCESSOR:-

A coupled processor design use multiple microprocessors to do the

multiprocessing, that is executing more than one instructions at same time.
RISC PROCESSOR:-

Many advance technical work stations other computers rely on a processor

design called (RICS). Processors design optimizes a CPU’s processing speed or we can
say that a “RISC” processor can reduce the time needed to execute programs instructions.

OUTPUT UNIT OR OUTPUT HARDWARE:-

The information which is given us by computer after processing is known

as outputs and the devices that translate information’s into a form that human’s can
understand is known as output devices. There are two types of output called as.
 Soft copy or Video output
 Hard copy or Printed output

SOFT COPY:-

Soft copy refers to data that shown on display screen or in audio video
form. This kind of output cannot be touched. The most important device used for video
output is “MONITOR” the use “CRT” cathode rays tube technology, similar to that “TV”
used in homes.
Different types of monitors are used for this manner. i.e. “Color monitor
or “RGB” monitors used with the computers used in offices and in homes etc. where as
other of monitors which are known as “Flat panel Monitors” used in laptops, because
laptops PC’s use space saving i.e. less than ½ inches thick.

HARD COPY:-

The outputs which are given to us in printed forms are known as hard copy
output. This kind of outputs can be touched e.g.

 Printers
 Plotters

PRINTERS:-

Printer is an output device which is used to produce hard copy output of

images or text. Here are some types of commonly used printers
 Dot matrix printers
 Line printers
 Laser printers

DOT_MATRIX PRINTERS:-

It uses printer heads containing nine to twenty four pins which produce
patterns of dots on the paper fro form a character. Dot matrix printers are very popular as
they relatively inexpensive.
LINE PRINTERS:-

Line printer use special mechanism that can print a whole line at once.
They are faster as compare to Dot matrix with speed ranging from 1200 to 6000 lines per
minute.

LASER PRINTERS:-

When speed and quality comparable to type set material are required and
cost is no factor, a laser printer is the solution. Laser printer as compare to dot matrix and
line printer, print a page at a time. Its speed is very high. It can print 2100 lines or 437
pages per minutes.

PLOTTERS:-

A plotter is also an output device which is also for printing like drawings,
maps etc. more over high quality bar graphs, pictures charts with a plotter give a good
quality outputs.

MAIN MEMORY OR MEMORY UNIT:-

In the memory unit the computer programs and data are stored during
processing. There are two types of memory stored in a system i.e.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read Only Memory)

RAM:-

“RAM” stands for “Random Access Memory”. More over we can say that
to manipulate stored data with in a computer system, we must have a way of storing and
retrieving it. Data and instructions are stored on temporary during processing in “RAM”
The main tasks done by “RAM”
 It holds data for processing
 It holds instruction for processing the data
 It holds the processed data waiting to be sent to an output or secondary
device.

ROM:-

“ROM” stands for “Read Only Memory” its main function to process the
electronic data flow form the keyboard to “CPU” and from “CPU” to video display
screen or to another attached device.

UNITS OF MEMORY:-

Bit stands for binary digit i.e. (0, 1)

4 Bits = 1 Nibble
8 Bits = 1 Byte
16 Bits = 1 Word
1024 Bits = 1 KB (Kilobyte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Megabyte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Gigabyte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Terabyte)

COMPUTER STORAGE DEVICES:-

Before explaining the computer storage devices we must have to know

about storage.

STORAGE:-
The portion of computer that holds or stores the data and programs.
Storage involves the process of writing (recording) data to the storage medium. The
physical components or materials on which data is stores are called storage medium and
the device which is used to operate these medium are called storage devices. For
example, a diskette is storage medium, where as diskette drive is a storage device.
SECONDARY STORAGE:-

Secondary storage which is known is mass storage holds data instructions

and information for future use. Secondary storage is necessary because memory or
primary storage can store data temporary. Examples of secondary storage devices are
magnetic disk, optical and magnetic tapes etc.

MAGENTIC DISK:-

Magnetic disks are the most common medium of secondary storage of our
computer system because they provide fast access and high storage capacities at a
reasonable cost. Following are some types of magnetic disk

 Floppy Disk
 Hard Disk
 Optical Disk

FLOPPY DISK:-

Floppy disk is a device use for storage of data but only small amount of
data is store on it. It is called floppy because the disk with in the case is flexible. The
maximum spin of a diskette is 300 to 360rpm. Similarly the maximum storage capacity of
disk is 1.44MB.

HARD DISK:-

Hard disk which is also called fixed disk is a type of magnetic disk use for
storage of data. It is made-up of material such as aluminium. Hard disks are tightly sealed
with enclosed hard drive unit to prevent any foreign matter from getting in it. Hard disks
have a couple of real advantages over diskette, of capacity and speed. It can store data up
to 250GB and spins continuously at a high speed from 3600 to 7200rpm.

OPTICAL DISK:-

An optical disk is a storage medium on which data is written through the

use of laser beams, the most familiar type of optical disk is the one which is used in the
music industry i.e. audio or video CD. The maximum capacity of data storage on a
standard optical disk is about 600 MB.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

SOFTWARE:-

Computer software may be defined as a collection of programs which

helps the computer hardware to perform different functions.
OR
Software can be defined as “A set of step-by-step instruction that tell the computer
hardware how to perform a task. For example windows, DOS, Excel and Word etc.
Software can be divided into two categories
 System Software
 Application Software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE:-

System software may be defined as the software consist of programs that

manages a computer system or we can say that these software makes a link or interface
b/w computer system and end user e.g. operating system, different translator of language
etc. further more system software may be classified as
 System Management Programs
 System Development Programs

SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS:-

 Programs that manages the hardware software and data resources of the
computer system during its execution of various information processing jobs of users.
Examples of important system management programs is “Operating Systems”

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS:-

Programs which help the user to develop different type of information

available for computer processing, Examples of major development programs are
programming languages and translators etc.

OPERATING SYSTEMS:-

When computer is manufactured it is just an electronic device that does

not having processing capabilities. Fro the purpose software is developed that acts as an
interface b/w user and hardware that is called an operating system. The operating system
consists of programs that manage the basic operations of the computer i.e. running,
storing and processing of data. The primary purpose of an operating system is to
maximise the productivity of a computer system by operating is in the most efficient
manner. More over it manages all output/input devices attached to computer. Operating
system remains in main memory until the computer is switched off.

OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS:-

An operating system controls over all operations of a computer system. An

operating system performs basic function in the operation of a computer system.
 The User Interface
 File Management
 Task Management
 Utility And support Services

THE USER INTERFACE:-

The user interface is the part of the operating system that allows user to
communicate with it so he can load program, access files and perform other tasks. The
graphical user interface “GUI” rely on pointing devices like mouse and track ball by
using icons, bars, button, boxes and other images to make selection.

FILE MANAGEMENT:-

An operating system contains file management programs that control the

creation, selection, access of files of data and programs. File management also involves
keeping track of physical location of files on magnetic disk and on other secondary
storage devices.

TASK MANAGEMENT:-
 An operating system manages the computing of end users. Task
management may involve multitasking capabilities where several computer tasks can
occur at the same time. Multi tasking may take the form of multiprogramming, where the
CPU can process the task of several programs at the same time. The efficiency of
multitasking operations depends on the processing power of a CPU.

UTILITY AND SUPPORT SERVICES:-

An operating system also provides utility programs that perform different

tasks. For instance a wide variety of utilities are available to carry out special tasks like
back up, data compression, screen savers virus protections and data recovery programs
etc.

POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEMS:-

The most popular and commonly used operating systems are

 MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
 MS-WINDOWS (Microsoft Windows)
 MS-WINDOWS-NT (Microsoft Windows New Technology)

MS-DOS:-

MS-DOS is a text based command driven and single user operating

system. It can execute one program at one time. The most widely used micro computer
still using DOS due to its power ability. More over we can say that in 1992 more that
75% micro computers were using “DOS” as operating system.

MS-WINDOWS:-

Windows is a multi user system that provides user with graphical user
interface, which allows them to _______ small pictures, called icons on
computers______ to issues commands. Windows is most widely used operating system in
the world. Here it does not have to remember commands like DOS. We can interact with
our computer resources by activating the icons that represent resource, which is mostly
done by a device called mouse.

MS-WINDOWS-NT:-

Microsoft Windows NT is introduced in 1995, which is multi users, multi

processing network operating system with a graphical user interface. Multi-user systems
are used to support computer work group. A work group is a group of computer
connected with the networking hardware and software, so the user can share resources,
such as files and data base.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:-

 In computer systems a database management system is considered an
important system software package that controls the development, use and maintenance
of the database of computer sing organization. A”DBMS” programs help organizations to
use their integrated collection of data record and files known as data base. For example, a
“DBMS” makes it easy for an employee database to be accessed by payroll, more over a
“DBMS” also simplifies the process of retrieving information from database in the from
of display and reports.

NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS:-

Now a days information system rely heavily on internet, local area

networks and other telecommunication networks to inter connect end user work stations
with other computer systems. This requires a variety of system software for network
management. Including network operating system etc. those programs are used by
network servers and other computer in a network to manage network performance.
Network management programs perform such function as automatically checking clients
PC’s and video terminals form input/output activity. An example of network management
program is “Microsoft Windows NT”.

SYSTEM SUPPORT PROGRAMS:-

These are special programs that performs variety of functions/services fro

the operating of a system. The principal services offered by those programs are the
following.
 Back up
 Data recovery
 Virus protection
 Data compressor

BACK UP:-

Back up means duplicate, suppose a user’s hard disk suddenly fails and he
is no more programs or files with a back up utility, which make a duplicate of each and
every file on the disk, one can be back in contact.

DATA RECOVERY:-

A data recovery utility is used to UN delete the file or information that has
been accidentally deleted, UN deletes means to undo the last delete operations that has
taken place. Windows 95 and higher have a built in data recovery utility called recycle
bin.

VIRUS PROTECTION:-
 Antivirus is a program that scans hard disk, diskette and memory to detect
viruses. Some utilities destroy the viruses on the spot; others notify the users of possible
virus behaviour.

DATA COMPRESSION:-

Data compression utilities remove redundant elements, gaps and

unnecessary data from a computer storage space, so less space is requires storing or
transmitting the data. With the data compression utility files can be made more compact
for storage on hard disk drive.

PROGRAMING LANGUAGES:-

Before explaining the programming languages we must define what

language is:-
A language is a way of communication b/w two ends. When two persons
want to communicate with each other they use some characters, word and sentences.
Language that is used by two persons for conversation are called “HUMAN
LANGUAGE”, where as when a person want to communicate with the computer for a
solution he uses the element of a predefined language written for computer which is
known as ‘COMPUTER LANGUAGE”. Similarities b/w computer and human languages
are

 Both have character sets

 Both have grammatical rules
 Both have punctuations

DIFFERENCE B/W HUMAN & COMPUTER LANGUAGE:

HUMAN LANGUAGE COMPUTER LANGUAGE:-

1. It has unlimited words 1. It has limited sets of command

2. A word contain multiple meanings 2. Each command has its unique meaning

3. Complex 3. Simple and smaller

There are two types of computer languages, low level language and high level language

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES:-

A language nearest to machine language is called low level language.

There are two types of low level languages
 Machine language
 Assembly language

MACHINE LANGUAGE:-
 Machine language is the language that can be understand by the computer
with out any translator. Since a computer is a collection of electrical switches which can
understand only instructions in two states “OFF” & “ON” which are represented by the
binary digits “0”& “1” respectively. The language of “0” & “1” is called machine
language or binary language; in this language all the instructions are stored in the form of
“0” & “1” in computer memory. For example in machine language the instruction
“ADD” Is written as
0100 0000 0000 0101 (for addition)
Programming in machine language is very difficult and time consuming. Since it is
almost impossible to memorize unique combinations used to represent the different
characters. The really big advantage of programs written in machine language is very fast
and efficient to run.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE:-

Since programming in machine language was very difficult to learn and

use, therefore a new language called “ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE” was developed. In
this language, symbolic codes (i.e. ENGLISH abbreviation) are used to devote the
instructions. For example, ADD, SUB, MULT and DIV are used for addition subtraction,
multiply and division respectively. The instructions of addition in assembly language is
written as ADD Y

HIGH LEVEL LANGUGES:-

A computer language4 nearest to English language is called high level

language i.e. BASIC, C, C++, JAVA etc. such languages are easy to understand and
learn. The trend of high level languages was started in mid 1960’s. all high level
languages are called third generation languages. Coding of programs in such a language
is easy. These languages must be translated into machine code by a program called
compiler or interpreter. As the instruction written in assembly language as
ADD X
ADD Y
STORE Z
Means, add X & Y and then stored in Z. these instructions can be written in high level
languages as; Z=X+Y
Thus we see that a single instruction in a high level language is equivalent to any
instruction in assembly language.

FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE:-

A very high level language is often called “FOURTH GENERATION

LANGUAGE” or “4th GL” these are more and more user oriented and allows user to
develop programs with few commands as compared with third generation languages,
although “4th GL” require more computing power. “4th GL” are also called rapid
application development (RAD) tools.
 Most “4th GL” are non procedural languages that encourage users and
programming to specify the results they want. In short we can say the “4th GL” can help
the user and programmer to save a lot of time in developing application.

OBJECT ORIENTED LANGUGES:-

Object oriented languages use object and messages, instead of applying

functions to data as conventional programming languages do, object oriented languages
have the messages tell the object what to do and objects decide how to do. Many experts
feel that object oriented languages have the potential to increase productivity because of
its potential to shorter application program development. Further more another feature of
object oriented language is reversibility. Reversibility means once objects are
programmed, they are reverse to develop other application.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATING PROGRAMS:-

TRANSLATION:-

A program written in and high level language cannot be understood

directly by computer because it understands only machine language of that computer;
therefore, the user written program must be translated from high level language to
assembly language. This task is performed by the special computer program known as
translator or language processor. The original user written program in a high level
language is valued as source program and the resulting machine language program is
called an object program.
Different translators used for translation are,

 Compilers
 Interpreter
 Assembler

COMPILER:-

A compiler is a language translator that converts the entire program of a

high language into machine language at one time before the computer executes it. The
program written by the users or programmer called a source program or code, is
translated by the compiler into object program, thus after translation this executable
program can be executed directly from the computer. The advantage of compiler
language is that once the object code is obtained the program runs faster. Examples of
high level languages using compilers are “COBOL”, “C” and C++.

INTERPRETER:-

An interpreter translates a high level language programs into machine

language, one statement at a time. It means that interpreter reads, translate and execute
source programs one line at a time. Interpreters required much less space then compilers
but they are much slower. An example of high level language using interpreter is
“VISUAL BASIC” and “BASIC” etc. The advantage of an interpreter language is that
programs are easier to develop.

DIFFERENCE B/W COMPILER & INTERPRETER:-

Difference b/w compiler and interpreter is that an interpreter translate and

execute the first instruction before it goes to the second while the compiler translate
whole programs before execution, further an interpreter takes more time for the execution
of a program as compared to a compiler because a statement has to be translated every
time it is read, thus an interpreter is slower and much different then compiler.

ASSEMBLER:-

An assembler is a language translator that translates only assembly

language instructions into machine code.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE:-

Software that has been developed to a particular problem is called

application software. They perform useful task. These are such as word processing,
spread sheets; data bases etc have become commonly used tool for increasing people’s
productivity. Application software is subdivided in to two subparts.
 General Purpose Software
 Application Specific Software

GENERAL PURPOSE SOFTWARE:-

General purpose applications are those that perform common information

processing for end users. For example, word processing programs, spread sheet programs
and graphic programs are popular with micro computer user’s fro home, education,
business and many other purposes. Other examples include web browsers, electronic mail
etc.

APPLICATION SPECIFIC SOFTWARE:-

Application specific software includes programs and packages that support

the activities of workers in the particular subunit. For example accounting, payroll and
other particular scheduling are usually classified as application, specific software because
they are used by more limited number of users or subunits than general purposes
application. Application specific software for science and engineering plays a major role
in the research and development programs of industry and design of efficient production
processes for the high quality products.

WORD PROCESSING PACKAGE:-

Word processing software also called as word processor which allows user
to use computer to transform the process of writing. Word processing package
computerize the creation, editing, and printing of documents such as letter and reports by
electronically processing of text i.e. (words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs) etc. the
most popular word processing used now a days is MS-WORD. Word processing package
also prove advanced features e.g. spelling checking capabilities & correct grammar etc,
as we suggest possible improvement in our style, with grammar and style checks. Word
processor even creates documents publishing in the World Wide Web computer with
hyperlinked text, graphics and can convert all documents to “HTML”. Word processing
software also process “WYSIWYG” (What You Say Is What You Get) display so, user
can see exactly what the finished document will look like before it is printed.

ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET PACKAGES:-

A work sheet that present date in grid of rows and columns is called a
spread sheet. An electronic spread sheet or work sheet is a computerized version of a
paper spread sheet. Working with a spread sheet in a computer eliminates much work as
compare with manual spreadsheet.
In general an electronic spreadsheet works like this, user enters the data he
wants on his spread sheet and then keys in the types of calculations he needs, the
electronic spread sheet program automatically does all that calculations completely error
free and produces the results on spread sheet. User can print a copy of the spread sheet
and store the data on disk, so the spread sheet can use again. Electronic spread sheet
packages like “LOTUS 123” and MS-EXCEL used for business analysis and planning
etc. they help users develop an electronic spreadsheet that can be stored on computer or
converted to HTML format and stores as a webpage in the word wide web.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT PACKAGE:-

A database is a collection of interrelated files in computer system. A

company database might include files on all past and current employees in all
departments, there would be various files for each employee for. For example payroll,
retirement benefits, sales achievements and so on. These computer based files are
organized according to their common elements that they can be retrieved easily. This
some thing is called database manager or database management system (DBMS). Now a
question arises that how these databases are creates, the answer is that there are software
or database software that controls the creation, maintenance and use of the database of an
organization and its end users, which are known as database management package such
as “MS-ACCESS” in short we can say that the primary task performs by Database
management System is

 Database development
 Database maintenance

TELECOMMUICATIO PACKAGES:-

Telecommunication refers to the electronic collection and transfer of

information from oe location to another location. The data being communicated may
consist of voice, sound, or video graphic etc,
 Communication software manages the transmission of data b/w computers
for most microcomputers users. The sending and receiving of data is by way of a modem
and telephone lie. A modem is a electronic device that allow computer to communicate
with each other aver telephone lies. The modem translate the digital signal of computer
into analog signals that can travel over telephone lines to another modem, which
translates the analog signal back to digital signals and the popular software package used
fro communication over internet is “WEB BROWSER” such as
 Ms Internet Explorer
 Net Space Java
 Hot Java
 Opera etc

GRAPHICS PACKAGES:-

Presentation graphics packages help the user to convert data numeric data
into graphics display such as lie charts, bar graphs, pie charts and many other types of
graphics. These packages also help to prepare multimedia presentation of graphics,
photos, animation and video clips.
Presentation graphics has proved to be much more effective then table
presentations of numeric data for report and communication in advertising media
management reports or other business presentations.
Presentation graphics software packages like MS-POWERPOINT give
may easy to use capabilities that encourages the use of graphics

TELECOMMUNICATION

BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF TELECOMMUNICATION:-

TELECOMMUNICATION:-

Telecommunication is the sending of information in any form (e.g.

voice, data, text and images) from one place to another using electronic media. Data
communication is a more specific term that describes the transmitting ad receiving of
data over communication links b/w one or more computer systems. The different
application of telecommunication in business involves as
 Enterprise Collaboration Application
 Electronic Commerce Application
 Internal Business Application

ENTERPRISE COLLABORATION APPLICATION:-

Enterprise collaboration application use telecommunication networks to

supports communication and co-ordination among the members of business teams and
work groups. For example employees and external consultant in a project team may use
the internet, intranets and extranets to support electronic mail, electronic discussion
groups and multimedia web pages to communication on business projects.

ELECTRONIC COMMERCE:-

Electronic commerce application support the buying and selling of

products and services and information over the internet and other computer networks.
Form example a business could use the internet to give customers access the multimedia
products on the World Wide Web, use extranets, so large no of customers or
organizations can access the company’s inventory database, and use a corporate intranet
so employees can easy look up customer record, Stored on the intranet services.

INTERNAL BUSINESS:-

Internal business applications of telecommunications depend on a variety

of computer networks to support a company’s business operations. Form example
employees may use an intranet to access benefits information on a human resources
department server.

A TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK MODEL:-

In order to explain telecommunication, first of all we should understand

the basic components of a telecommunication networks. Generally a telecommunications
networks consist of a five basic categories such as
1. Terminals
2. Telecommunication Processors
3. Telecommunication Channels
4. Computers
5. Telecommunication Software

TERMINALS:-

Terminals such as networked personal computers, network computer or

any input/output device that uses telecommunication networks to transmit or receive data
is a terminal, including telephones, office equipments etc, these all are may be act as
terminals.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS PROCESSORS:-

Telecommunication processors which support data transmission and

reception b/w terminal and computer devices, such as modem, switches and routers
performs a variety of control and support functions in a telecommunications network.
Form example, they control the speed, accuracy and efficiency of a telecommunication
flow b/w computers and terminals in a telecommunication network.

TELECOMMUNICATION CHANNELS:-

Telecommunication channels are those over which data is transmitted and

received. Telecommunication channel use combination of media, such as copper wires,
coaxial cable and fibre optic cables, microwave systems and communication satellites, to
interconnect the other components of a telecommunication network.

COMPUTERS:-

Computers of all sizes and types are interconnected by telecommunication

networks, so that they can carry out their information processing assignments. For
example a micro computer may act as a network server for a small network of micro
computer work stations.

TELECOMMUNICATION CONTROL SOFTWARE:-

Telecommunication control software consists of a program that control

telecommunication activities and manages the functions of a telecommunication
networks. For example a “web browsers” network operating systems and network
management programs etc.

TYPES OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS:-

There are many different types of telecommunication networks; however

from an end user point of view, there are only few basic types. More over we can syat
that in early days of computing, computer were used as stand alone system. Since last
two decades there is a growing trend towards networks. Computers are interconnected to
transmit exchange and share information. These connections are termed as networks or
computer networks, these are as

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Intranets & Extranets
 Internet

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) :-

LAN is a network of small computers (Pc’s) lying with in a hall linked

together via a main server to enable the users to share data and applications stored in the
main server. Application software and data stored in the server is shared by all computer
users.
 LAN use a variety of telecommunication’s media such as ordinary telephone wire,
coaxial cable and optical fibre etc. to communication over the network each PC usually
has a circuit board called a network interface card.

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) :-

A network which covering a large geographic area is called “WIDE

AREA NETWORK”. “WAN” is user by the many multinational companies to transmit
and receive information among their employees, customers, suppliers and other
organization across cities, regions, countries and the world.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN) :-

When an organization has its offices located in different parts of a large

city, a network may be established to connect its entire computer for information
interchange; such type of networks is called “MAN”.

INTRANETS & EXTRANETS:-

An organization may have different departments such as production,

marketing, research and development, finance and human resources department. All these
departments may have their own local area networks. In order to share information b/w
departments, these LAN are interconnected with each other, such type of networks are
called intranet.
Similarly when an organization has to share information with other related
organization e.g. suppliers and customers, such purpose the intranets are interconnected
such networks are known as Extranets.

INTERNET:-

It is a world wide network of interconnected computers containing

protocol for accessing the web, e mail etc. the computers are interconnected via a huge
network of telecommunication links such as by phones lines and wireless connections
In order to explain the different terms used in internet first we discuss a briefly
history of internet. The intranet began in 1969 as experimental four computer network
called ( Advance Research Project Agency Network) ARPANET which was designed by
the us defence department, so that research scientists could communicate. in 1990
“ARPANET was officially disabled & the network which know consisted of hundred of
sites came to known as internet such a network which converted the whole world into a
global village, by e-mail & e- commerce. Different application used in an internet such
as; web site, webpage, domain names, URL (Universal Resource Locator) etc.

WEB SITE:- web site is a place over internet which provides different type of
information e.g. hotmail.com, yahoo.com.
WEBPAGE: - Web page are hyperlinked pages which combines together to form a web
site.
DOMAIN NAME:- by the term domain name we mean the address of a website which
includes following things
  Name of website
 Name of organization
 Type of organization
 Country from which it belongs

www.ptv.com.pk is the domain name which full fill the above four requirements.

URL:- as “URL” stands for “universal resource location” that point to specify piece of
information anywhere on the web. A “URL” consists of
 Web protocol
 Name of web server
 Directory on that server
 File within the directory

http//www.gomal.edu.pk/computerscience/welcome

Http// protocol
www.gomal.edu.pk/ web server
Computer science/ directory
Welcome file

BUSINESS ON INTERNET OR E_COMMERCE:-

Before defining e-commerce first we define that what commerce is:-

COMMERCE:-

Commerce means buying and selling of goods and services of all kinds.
We see commerce all around us in millions of different forms e.g. when we are buying
something from store we are practicing in commerce. More over when we go to work
each day for a company we are also participating in commerce and so on.

E-COMMERCE:-

The buying and selling of products and services over internet is known as
E-Commerce. Internet based commerce is divided into two sub categories know as
 Business to Customers (B2C)
 Business to Business (B2B)

BUSINESS TO CUSTOMER (B2B):-

Business to customers is also known as retailing on the web. The website

of a business which gives the benefit from where customer does online shopping. The
unique feature of this market is that no website is far or close to the customer, all there
are equal distance.
 Following factors are considers important for the success of an online business by
using B2C.
 Performance and services
 Personalization
 Incentives
 Socialization
 Security & Reliability

PERFORMANCE AND SERVICES:-

The websites must be designed to make selecting and ordering easy and
quick. The customer don’t like complicated, difficult and slow website. The server must
also be fast.

PERSONALIZATION:-

Good websites give personal attention to customers by registering their

name, address choice of products and last visit etc. the website welcome the customer in
very attractive manner.

SOCIALIZATION:-

Website can create groups of like minded people i.e. having similar
choice, interest, using same products or services.

INCENTIVES:-

A web store offers a variety of incentives to attract customers i.e. to buy

and return, special discount etc.

SECURITY & RELIABILITY:-

The customers of web site must feel confident their credit card, personal
information, and details of their transactions are secure from unauthorized use.

BUSINESS TO BUSINESS (B2B):-

Business to business e-commerce’s the whole sale process. A company

that sail goods has to purchase raw material or finished goods from one or more firms
such as purchases are in a large volumes and the goods are termed as business goods or
industrial goods. The relationship built by firm with suppliers is known ass “Supply chain
electronic commerce” system. Companies connect their intranets to the intranets of the
supplier forming extranets from information interchange.
 OR
Further more we can say that “B2B” e- commerce is the selling of goods and services by
one business to another business. For example a computer manufacturer has _____ their
entire inventory on line and ____ through their web sites. The manufacturer allow access
to this information to their re seller around the world. The re- seller log into website at
any time and use the site to custom build a system form their customers and purchase the
system online.

SECURITY ISSUES IN E-COMMERCE:-

Security is the fundamental issue in e- commerce e.g. consumer are

buying products, trading stocks and banking online. They are entering credit card
numbers, Social security number or other highly confidential information through
websites so they must be sure of the following things.
 How they ensure that the information they transmit over the internet has not been
captured or passed on to a third party with out their knowledge.
 How do the sender and receiver of the message prove their identities to each other
 How do they prove that a message was received?

So from this we can say that the channel through which data is transmit over internet are
not secure, so private information that is passed through the internet must be secure. To
secure information data is encrypted and encrypted data is only unencrypted by only such
person who is allow to see the data.
For this purpose different protocols are used which are known as “Network
Security protocols” these protocols includes as

 SSL:- ( Secure Socket Layer) protocols which is developed by Netscape This

protocols i.e. “SSL” is used to transferred secure information over the web
 Other protocol which is used over internet for secure transaction is called “SET”
(Secure Electronic Transaction). This protocol is developed by “VISA
international” and MASTER CARDS”

TELECOMMUNICATION MEDIA:-

A variety of telecommunication media are used fro transfer of signals.

These include “Twisted Pair Wires”, “Coaxial Cable” and “Fibre Optics”. All of which
physically link the devices in a network. Similarly it includes communication satellites
and wireless LAN etc.

TWISTED CABLE:-

Ordinary telephone wire consisting copper wire twisted into pairs, is the
most widely used media fro telecommunications. The lines are used in established
communications networks through out the world for both voice and data transmission.
This twisted pair wiring is used extensively in home and office telephone systems and
many local area networks.
COAXIAL CABLE:-

Coaxial cable consist of a copper wore, wrapped with an insulation which

protects it. The cables cover minimizes interference and distortion of the signals. These
high quality lines can be placed underground and laid on the floors of lakes and oceans.
They allow high speed data transmission and are used instead of twisted pair wire lines in
high service metropolitan area, for cable TV systems etc. coaxial cables are also used in
many office buildings and other work sites for local as well as wide areas networks.

FIBER OPTICS:-

Fiber optics used cables consisting of one or more hair thin filaments of
glass fiber wrapped in a protective jackets. They can conduct light generated by lasers at
transmissions rate as high as 30 billions bitts per second. This is about 60 times greater
than coaxial cable and 4000 times better than twisted cable. That’s why the quality of
signals in fiber optics is much better as compare to other two wires i.e. twisted pair and
coaxial cable. Fiber optics is used in both local area as well as wide area networks.

TERRESTIAL MICROWAVE:-

Terrestrial microwave involves microwave systems that transmit high

speed radio signals in line of sight path b/w relay stations. Its speed approximately 50 to
60 miles a part. Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings towers, hills
etc and they are familiar sight in many sections of the country. They are a popular
medium for both long distance and metropolitan area networks.

COMMUNICATION SATELITES:-

Communication satellites also use microwave as their telecommunication

medium. There are many communication satellites from several nations and
organizations. Satellites are powered by solar panels and can transmit microwave signal
at a rate of several hundreds million bit per second.
Example of communication satellites used for entertainment purposed is
“DISH Antennas” several firms which operates communication satellites system are
“COMSAT” and “American Mobile Satellite”. These satellites networks are also known
as “bypass networks” because firms are bypassing the regular communication networks
provided by communication carriers.

WIRE LESS LAN:-

As we already known that LAN is established with the help of different

wires but wiring in office for local area networks is often a difficult and costly task.
Difficult in that respect that when a wore is damage it is difficult to repair it and
costly means when LAN network stations and other components are re locations, so the
solution for this problem is wireless LAN using one of several wireless technologies.
An important example is LAN radio which may involves a high frequency
radio technology. The other wire less LAN technologies is called infrared because it used
beams of infrared light to establish network links b/w LAN components. So from this we
can say that wire less LAN eliminates the need for wires and cables, the making a LAN
easier to set up, relocate and maintain.

TELECOMMUNICATION PROCESSORS:-

Telecommunication processors such as modems, multiplexers, switched

and routers perform variety of functions b/w the computer and other devices in a
telecommunication networks. Let take a look at some of these processors and their
functions.

MODEMS:-

Modems are the most common type of communication processor. They

convert the digital signals from a computer into analog frequencies that can be
transmitted over ordinary telephone lines. A modem at the other end of the
telecommunication lines converts transmitted data back into digital form at a receiving
terminal. This process is known as “modulation” and “demodulation” and the work
modem is a combined abbreviation of those two words. Modems comes in several forms,
including stand alone unit, and may be plug in circuit boards also support a variety of
telecommunication functions, such as transmission error control, automatic dialing
capabilities etc.

MULTIPLEXERS:-

A multiplexer is a communication processor that allows a single

communications channel to carry simultaneous data transmission from many terminals.
Thus single communication line can be shared by several terminals; typically a
multiplexer merges the transmission of several terminals at one end on communication
channel, while a similar unit separates the individual’s transmission at the receiving end.
This is accomplished in to two basic ways. In “Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)”.
A multiplexer effectively divides a high speed channel into multiple slow speed channels.
In time division multiplexing (TDM) the multiplexer divided the time. Each terminal can
use the high speed line into very short time slots, or time frames.

INTERNETWORK PROCESSOR:-

Telecommunication networks are interconnected by special purpose

communication processors called internet work processors, such as switches, routers, and
gateways.
A switch is a communication processor that makes connection b/w
telecommunication circuits in a network so a telecommunication messages cam reach its
indented destination.
A router is a more intelligent communication processor that interconnects
networks based on different rules, so a telecommunication messages can be routes to its
destination.
A gateway is an intermediate element used to connect two different types of
network. It is use to connect wireless domain with the internet.
TELECOMMUNICATION SOFTWARE:-

Telecommunication software consists of programs that control

telecommunication activities and mange the function of telecommunication networks.
Examples includes network operating system and web browsers like Internet Explores
and Netscape Navigator
This telecommunication software’s performs a variety of function,
however several major functions are commonly provided by these packages.
 Access control
 Transmission control
 Error control
 Security management

ACCESS CONTROL:-

This function established the connection b/w terminals and computers in a

network. The software works with a communication processor (such as modem) to
connect and disconnect communication links and establish communication parameters
such as transmission speed, mode and directions. Access control may also involve
automatic telephone dialing and redialing etc.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL:-

This function allows computer and terminals to send and receive

commands, messages, data and programs. Data and programs are usually transmitted in
the form of file, so this activity is frequently called file transfer.

ERROR CONTROL:-

This function involves detection and correction of transmission errors.

Errors are usually caused by distortion in the communication channel, such as line noise
etc.

SECURITY MANAGEMENT:-

This function protects a communication network from unauthorized

access. Network operating system restricts access to data files and other computing
resources in LANS and other types of networks. Data transmissions cal also be protected
by encryption techniques i.e. data is converted into coded form before transmission and
decides upon arrival.

TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:-

The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, devices and

communication facilities is known as “NETWORK TOPOLOGIES” . the basic
topologies used in WAN and LAN are
  Bus network
 Ring network
 Star network

BUS NETWORK:-

In a bus network each computer is connected to a single communication

cable and every computer can directly communicate with or we can say that in bus
network is a network in which a local processor shares the same communication channel.

RING NETWORK;-

In a ring network several devices as computers are connected to each other

in until arrive at the required station. A ring can be unidirectional or bi directional. In a
unidirectional ring data moves in one direction only and in bidirectional ring data moves
in both direction but in only one direction at one time.

STAR NETWORK:-

In a star network several devices or computer are connected to one

centralized computer. The advantage of star network is that none of the other computer
can communicate with each other is the central computer breaks down. If it is desired to
transmit information from one computer to another, it can be done only by sending the
details to the central computer which in turn sends them to the destination.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURES:-

The goal of network architectures is to promote a simple flexible and

efficient telecommunication environment. This is accomplished by the use of standard
protocols, standard communications hardware and software interface b/w end users and
computer system. The network architectures are consisting of a model known as OSI
model.

OSI MODEL:-

The international standards organization (ISO) has developed a seven

layer Open System interconnections (OSI) model to server as a standard model for
network architectures. These seven layers are as
 Application layer
 Presentation layer
 Session layer
  Transport layer
 Network layer
 Data link layer
 Physical layer

Each layer has its unique feature as

APPLICATION LAYER provides communication services for end user application.

PRESENTATION LAYER provides appropriate data transmission formats and codes.

SESSION LAYER supports the accomplishment of telecommunication session.

TRANSPORT LAYER supports the organization and transfer of data b/w nodes in
network.

NETWORK LAYER provides routing by establishing connections among network links.

DATA LINK LAYER supports error free organization and transmission of data in he
network

PHYSICAL LAYER provides physical transmission of data on the telecommunications

media in the network.