Workshop Practice 2k13

Experiment 8
Objective:
To learn uses and connections of general measuring instruments.

Apparatus:
 Digital Multimeter
 Ohmmeter
 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Wattmeter
 Oscilloscope

Theoretical Background:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is used to produce visible patterns, or graphs, on a phosphorescent screen.
The graphs plot the relationships between two or more variables, with the horizontal axis normally being a
function of time and the vertical axis usually a function of the voltage generated by the input signal to the
oscilloscope. Because almost any physical phenomenon can be converted into a corresponding electric
voltage through the use of a transducer, the oscilloscope is a versatile tool in all forms of physical
investigation.
Construction of Cathode ray Oscilloscope:
The cathode ray oscilloscope consists of three main elements:
a) Electron Gun:
Electrons are produced by thermionic emission. Essentially a cathode (negative electrode) is heated
and electrons boil off the surface to be attracted by a series of anodes (positive electrodes). The anodes
accelerate the electrons and collimate them into a narrow beam.
b) Deflection System:
The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates called the X-plates and Y-Plates. The
potential difference applied to the Y-plates is the signal to be examined. With the potential difference across
the X-plates (the time-base) switched off, a sinusoidal signal makes the dot go up and down, executing
simple harmonic motion. With the time-base on, sine waves is displayed.
c) Display Screen:
The display screen is coated on the inside with a very thin layer of a phosphor. This layer (gives out
green light) when electrons impact its surface.
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Basic Controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions and thus
make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to most oscilloscopes a
brief description of them follows.
a) Cathode-Ray Tube
Power: Turns instrument ON.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
b) Vertical Amplifier Section
Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps (Volts/Div.).
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps.
Sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier,
or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac
send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant
component.
c) Horizontal-Sweep Section:
Sweep Time/Div.:  Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to
horizontal amplifier.
Sweep Time/Div. Variable:  Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully
clockwise.
Position:  Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
d) Trigger: Selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
e) Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger
signal.
f) Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT (internal): from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT (external): from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT
LINE: 60 Hz trigger.
g) Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered.
Connections for the Oscilloscope:
a) Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the vertical amplifier.
b) External Trigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
c) Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves used in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Wattmeter:
It is an instrument for measuring the power of an electrical current in watts. The most common
wattmeters are the dynamometer type, in which the mechanism consists of an immovable coil connected in
series to a load (the current circuit) and then to a movable coil, which is connected through a large auxiliary
resistor (the resistor circuit) parallel to the load.
The operation of the dynamometer wattmeter is based on the interaction of the magnetic fields of the
movable and fixed coils as an electrical current passes through them. In the case of direct current the torque,
which causes a deviation in the movable part of the device and in the needle (indicator) connected to the
device, is proportional to the product of the current intensity and the voltage potential; in the case of
alternating current, it is also proportional to the cosine of the angle of displacement of the phases between
the current and the voltage potential. Ferro dynamic and, less frequently, induction, thermo electrical, and
electrostatic wattmeters are also used.
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The

traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair of fixed coils,

known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel.
Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the
measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil.
The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a
general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional
to both the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation P=VI.
For AC power, current and voltage may not be in phase, owing to the delaying effects of
circuit inductance or capacitance. On an a.c circuit the deflection is proportional to the average
instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true power, P=VI cos φ. Here, cosφ represents
the power factor which shows that the power transmitted may be less than the apparent power obtained by
multiplying the readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in the same circuit.
The two circuits of a wattmeter can be damaged by excessive current.
The ammeter and voltmeter are both vulnerable to overheating in case of an overload, their pointers will be
driven off scale but in the wattmeter, either or even both the current and potential circuits can
overheat without the pointer approaching the end of the scale. This is because the position of the pointer
depends on the power factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will give a low
reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the maximum safety limit. Therefore,
a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also in volts and amperes.
Moving Iron Instruments (Ammeter and Voltmeter):
Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In moving-
iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are
so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely:
1. Repulsion (or double iron)
2. Attraction (or single-iron)
.
The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given below:
 Workshop Practice 2k13
 Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
 Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to magnetize the iron
pieces.
 In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the same polarity.
 Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
 Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air chamber and a
moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
 Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.
Working:
The deflecting torque in any
moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a
small piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is
magnetized by a coil carrying
the operating current. In repulsion type
moving–iron instrument consists of two
cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed
current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held
fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate,
carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons
lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil
that consists of only few turns if the
instrument is an ammeter or of many turns
if the instrument is a voltmeter.
Current in the coil induces both vanes
to become magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional
rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making the instrument
reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only
the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high transient current. Moving iron
instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration.

Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current:

 Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter and Ammeter only.
 Both can work on AC as well as on DC.
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Ammeter:
 Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
 Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current to be measured.
 This current flowing through the coil produces the desired deflecting torque.
 It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
Voltmeter:
 Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a circuit.
 It was always connected in parallel.
 Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces deflecting torque.
 It should have high resistance. Thus a high resistance of order of kilo ohms is connected in series
with the coil of the instrument.
Ranges of Ammeter and Voltmeter:
 For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-turns necessary to produce full-scale deflection are
constant.
 One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a shunt coil with the moving coil. Voltmeter range
may be altered connecting a resistance in series with the coil.
 Hence the same coil winding specification may be employed for a number of ranges.
Advantages:
 The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.
 The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
Ohmmeter:
Ohmmeters are electrical devices used for measuring the resistance of a given conductor. This
measuring instrument works on the basis of Ohm’s Law, which applies to electrical circuits. According to
this law, the current (I) that flows between two points in a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) or potential difference across the two points. It is also inversely proportional to the resistance (R)
between them. Therefore, mathematically, V = IR.
In order to measure the resistance of a given conductor, the red and black leads of an ohmmeter are
connected to the positive and negative terminals of the conductor, respectively. The resistance of the wire or
circuit is indicated by a needle sliding on the device's scale. These meters measure the resistance in Ohms,
denoted by the Greek capital letter omega or Ω.

An

ohmmeter should never be connected to a voltage source, as it can damage the

equipment. This is because the device already has a source that supplies
 Workshop Practice 2k13
voltage for measuring the resistance of a given conductor. The resistance is measured according to the
voltage drop across the terminals of the conductor. In an analog meter, the far left-hand side of the scale
indicates infinite resistance and the far right-hand side denotes zero resistance.
A simple analog device consists of a battery, which is the voltage source, connected to a moving
meter. A variable resistor is also connected in series to this combination so that the needle exactly shows a
full scale deflection and does not slide beyond the zero resistance mark. This resistor also limits the current
and corrects for the decrease in voltage caused by the aging of the battery. Analog ohmmeters must be
calibrated before use, whereas digital ones can usually self-calibrate.
In order to calibrate an analog meter, both the leads must be held together. The adjustment knob
helps in setting the variable resistor. It must be manually turned so that the needle indicates zero resistance;
in other words, the needle now rests at the far right-hand side. This step is known as "zeroing" the meter,
and it should be repeated every time before the resistance of any wire or circuit is measured. In the case of a
digital device, holding the leads together will indicate 0 Ω, which is sufficient for its calibration.
In addition to resistance measurement, ohmmeters can be used to check the continuity of an electrical
connection. For instance, if the needle rests on infinite resistance on far left of the scale, it indicates no
continuity in the circuit. This implies that there is an open point in the circuit. On the other hand, if the
measured resistance value is zero or far less than the expected value, it implies a short in the circuit.
Digital Multimeter:
The digital multimeter, DMM, is one of the most common items of test equipment used in the
electronics industry today.
While there are many other items of test equipment that is available, the multimeter is able to provide
excellent readings of the basic measurements of amps, volts and ohms. In addition to this the fact that these
digital multimeters use digital and logic technology, means that the use of integrated circuits rather than
analogue techniques, enables many new test features to be embedded in the design. As a result, most of
today's digital multimeters incorporate many additional measurements that can be made.
DMM facilities:
While the facilities that a digital multimeter can offer are much greater than their analogue
predecessors, the cost of DMMs is relatively low. DMMs are able to offer as standard the basic
measurements that would typically include:
 Current (DC)
 Current (AC)
 Voltage (DC)
 Voltage (AC)
 Resistance
However, using integrated circuit technology, most DMMs are able to offer additional test
capabilities. These may include some of the following:
 Capacitance
 Temperature
 Frequency
 Transistor test
 Continuity (buzzer)
While some of these additional test features may not be as accurate as those supplied by dedicated
test instruments, they are nevertheless very useful, especially where approximate readings only are needed.
In addition to an increase in the number of basic measurements that can be made, refinements of
some of the basic measurements are also available on some models. True RMS multimeters are available. In
many instances, AC waveforms use forms of average measurements that are then converted to RMS
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measurements using a form factor. This method of measurement is very dependent upon the shape of the
waveform and as a result a true RMS digital multimeter may be required. In addition to the availability of a
true RMS meters, similar refinements of the other basic measurements are also available in some instances.

In addition
to the
additional

measurement capabilities, DMMs also offer flexibility in the way measurements are made. Again this is
achieved because of the additional capabilities provided by the digital electronics circuitry contained within
the digital multimeter. Many instruments will offer two additional capabilities:
Auto-range: This facility enables the correct range of the digital multimeter to be selected so that the
most significant digits are shown, i.e. a four-digit DMM would automatically select an appropriate range to
display 1.234 mV instead of 0.012 V. Additionally it also prevent overloading, by ensuring that a volts range
is selected instead of a millivolts range. Digital multimeters that incorporate an auto-range facility usually
include a facility to 'freeze' the meter to a particular range. This prevents a measurement that might be on the
border between two ranges causing the meter to frequently change its range which can be very distracting.
Auto-polarity: This is a very convenient facility that comes into action for direct current and voltage
readings. It shows if the voltage of current being measured is positive (i.e. it is in the same sense as the
meter connections) or negative (i.e. opposite polarity to meter connections). Analogue meters did not have
this facility and the meter would deflect backwards and the meter leads would have to be reversed to
correctly take the reading.
Digital multimeters are widely used and very useful items of test equipment. They enable
measurements of quantities such as current, voltage and resistance to be made very quickly and easily. In
addition to this, many DMMs are able to measure other useful parameters, making these items even more
useful. While they do not allow more complicated measurements to be made, if many engineers were
allowed only one item of test equipment, it would probably be the digital multimeter.
Working of DMM:
The key process that occurs within a digital multimeter for any measurement that takes place is that
of voltage measurement. All other measurements are derived from this basic measurement.
There are many forms of analogue to digital converter, ADC. However the one that is most widely
used in digital multimeters, DMMs is known as the successive approximation register or SAR. Some SAR
ADCs may only have resolution levels of 12 bits, but those used in test equipment including DMMs
generally have 16 bits or possibly more dependent upon the application. Typically for DMMs resolution
levels of 16 bits are generally used, with speeds of 100k samples per second. These levels of speed are more
than adequate for most DMM applications, where high levels of speed are not normally required.
As the name implies, the successive approximation register ADC operates by successively homing in
on the value of the incoming voltage. The first stage of the process is for the sample and hold circuit to
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sample the voltage at the input of the DMM and then to hold it steady. With a steady input voltage the
register starts at half its full scale value. This would typically require the most significant bit, MSB set to "1"
and all the remaining ones set to "0". Assuming that the input voltage could be anywhere in the range, the
mid-range means that the ADC is set in the middle of the range and this provides a faster settling time as it
only has to move a maximum of the full scale rather than possibly 100%.

Successive approximation registers ADC used in most DMMs

To see how it works take the simple example of a 4-bit SAR. Its output will start at 1000. If the
voltage is less than half the maximum capability the comparator output will be low and that will force the
register to a level of 0100. If the voltage is above this, the register will move to 0110, and so forth until it
homes in on the nearest value. It can be seen that SAR converters, need one approximating cycle for each
output bit, i.e. an n-bit ADC will require n cycles.

Conclusion & Comments:

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Precautions:
 While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully.
 Make sure the connections (if any) are tight.
 Observe the readings carefully (if any).