DAYANANDA SAGAR UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering
KUDLU GATE, BANGALORE-560068

Department of Electronics and Communication

Scheme and Solution
Course: Antenna and Wave Propagation Course code: 16EC307
Internal Assessment: 1 Year/Semester: III/VI
Session: Jan - May 2020 Max. Marks: 50

Question Scheme and Solution Marks

No.
1A (i) Beam width: 2 ×4
Antenna beamwidth is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beam
width is an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern
(major lobe) between points where the radiated power has fallen to half its
maximum value. This is called as “beam width” between half power points
or half power beam width(HPBW).
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(ii) Radiation Intensity:
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the
radiation intensity U (watts per steradian or per square degree). The
radiation intensity is independent of distance.
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(iii) Directivity:
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power
density P(θ,φ)max to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far
field of an antenna.

. Directivity from Pattern.

Directivity from beam area( ).

Gain:
The ratio of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced in the
same direction with same input power. i.e.

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(iv) Aperture Efficiency
The ratio of the effective aperture to the physical aperture is the aperture
efficiency. i.e

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1B 1+1
(i)

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(ii)

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2A 2+2+
2
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Applying a voltage across the two-conductor transmission line creates an
electric field between the conductors. The electric field has associated with it
electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at each point and
their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The electric lines of
force have a tendency to act on the free electrons associated with each
conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of the charges
creates a current that in turn creates a magnetic field intensity. Associated with
the magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the
magnetic field. If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the
electric field between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal
to that of the applied source. The relative magnitude of the electric field
intensity is indicated by the density (bunching) of the lines of force with the
arrows showing the relative direction (positive or negative). The creation of
time-varying electric and magnetic fields between the conductors forms
electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line, as shown in
Figure. The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with
them electric charges and corresponding currents.
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Consider a small dipole antenna where the time of travel is negligible. This is
only necessary to give a better physical interpretation of the detachment of the
lines of force. Figure displays the lines of force created between the arms of a
small center-fed dipole in the first quarter of the period during which time the
charge has reached its maximum value (assuming a sinusoidal time variation)
and the lines have travelled outwardly a radial distance λ/4. For this example,
let us assume that the number of lines formed are three.
During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an
additional λ/4 (a total of λ/2 from the initial point) and the charge density on
the conductors begins to diminish. This can be thought of as being
accomplished by introducing opposite charges which at the end of the first half
of the period have neutralized the charges on the conductors. The lines of force
created by the opposite charges are three and travel a distance λ/4 during the
second quarter of the first half, and they are shown dashed in Figure. The end
result is that there are three lines of force pointed upward in the first λ/4
distance and the same number of lines directed downward in the second λ/4.
Since there is no net charge on the antenna, then the lines of force must have
been forced to detach themselves from the conductors and to unite together to
form closed loops. This is shown in Figure. In the remaining second half of the
period, the same procedure is followed but in the opposite direction. After that,
the process is repeated and continues indefinitely and electric field patterns
are formed.
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2B Radian: A radian is defined with the aid of figure (a). It is the angle subtended 1.5+
by an arc along the perimeter of the circle with length equal to the radius. 1.5+
The measure of a plane angle is a radian. 1

Steradian:
A steradian may be defined using figure (b). Here, one steradian (sr) is
subtended by an area r2 at the surface of a sphere of radius r.
The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.
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3 A short dipole is one in which the field is oscillating because of the oscillating 1+2+
voltage and current. It is called so, because the length of the dipole is short and 2+5
the current is almost constant through-out the entire length of the dipole. It is
also called as Hertzian Dipole, which is a hypothetical antenna and is defined
as a short isolated conductor carrying uniform alternating current.
❶
When the current on the dipole is constant over its length, it is called infinitesimal
dipole antenna. For constant current, the length of dipole must be very small as
compared to wave length (L << λ) so is called as infinitesimal or short dipole.

The antenna is placed symmetrically at the origin of the coordinate system and
oriented along the Z- axis.
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4A The different types of arrays with regard to beam pointing direction are as 2+1+
follows, 2+1
1. Broadside array
2. End fire array
3. Collinear array and
4. Parasitic array.

1 . Broadside Array
Broadside array is one of the most commonly used antenna array in practice.
The array in which a number of identical parallel antennas are arranged along
a line perpendicular to the line of array axis is known as broadside array,
which is shown in figure. In this, the individual antennas are equally spaced
along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude, all in the
same phase. The radiation pattern of broadside array is bidirectional, which
radiates equally well in either direction of maximum radiation.

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2 . End Fire Array
The array in which a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a
line and Individual elements are fed with currents of unequal phases (i.e., with
a phase shift of 180°) is known as end fire array .This array is similar to that of
broadside array except that individual elements are fed in with, a phase shift of
180 .In this, the direction of radiation is coincides with the direction of the
array axis, which is shown in figure. The radiation pattern of end fire array is
unidirectional. But, the end fire array may be bidirectional also. One such
example is a two element array, fed with equal current, 180° out of phase.

❶
3. Collinear Array
The array in which antennas are arranged end to end in a single line is known
as collinear array.
Figure, shows the arrangement of collinear array, in which one antenna is
stacked over another antenna. Similar to that of broadside array, the individual
elements of the collinear array are fed with equal in phase currents. A collinear
array is a broadside radiator, in which the direction of maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the line of antenna. The collinear array is sometimes called as
broadcast or Omni directional arrays because its radiation pattern has circular
symmetry with its main to be everywhere perpendicular to the principal axis.
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4. Parasitic Array
In this array the elements are fed parasitically to reduce the problem of feed
line.

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4B 4

The usefulness of the aperture concept is well illustrated by using it to derive

the important Friis transmission formula published in 1946 by Harald T. Friis
of the Bell Telephone Laboratory.
Referring to Fig., the formula gives the power received over a radio
communication link. Assuming lossless, matched antennas, let the transmitter
feed a power Pt to a transmitting antenna of effective aperture Aet . At a
distance r a receiving antenna of effective aperture Aer intercepts some of the
power radiated by the transmitting antenna and delivers it to the receiver R.
Assuming for the moment that the transmitting antenna is isotropic, the power
per unit area available at the receiving antenna is

If the antenna has gain Gt , the power per unit area available at the receiving
antenna will be increased in proportion as given by
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Now the power collected by the lossless, matched receiving antenna of

effective aperture Aer is

The gain of the transmitting antenna can be expressed as

Substituting this in the previous equation yields the Friis transmission

formula

❹
5A 2+3+
1
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5B 1+2+
❶ 1

❶
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6 3+3+
Φ=θ angle made 4
by line joining
point source to
observer

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θ 0° 60° 90° 120° 180°

E 1/√2 0 1/√2 1 1/√2
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