Petroleum Production Engineering II

YN
Causes of low well productivity

Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. okab
Group 2. | Mohaymen Alutbi, Jaafer Shayar,
Ekhlas Abdulwahid, Um Albaneen Rasheed.
OBJECTS
WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS
• Rservior dominated CLASS…
factors
• Wellbore Find out the most important reasons that
dominated factors cause a drop in oil production
• Mechanical failuer
EDUCATION
SKILLS The role of a production engineer is to
maximize petroleum and gas production in a
Get a knowledge about
cost-effective manner. Familiarization and
problems of low
understanding of oil and gas production
productivity
systems are essential to the engineers. This
class provides graduating production
engineers with some basic knowledge about
REFERENCES production systems. More engineering
principles are discussed in the later
• Odeh, A.S. 1968. chapters.
Steady-State Flow
Capacity of Wells
With Limited Entry
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE OR
to Flow.
LEADERSHIP
A class presentation in Production
Engineering at University of Thi-Qar/
Petroleum and Gas department.
Group 2. Mohaymen Alutbi, Jaafar, Ekhlas,
Um Albaneen.
Low Productivity is a drope in production in oil wells

due to resevior and wellbore dominated factors and
mechanical failure.
Effect of pressure:
Is one of the factors of low production and is the main
factor that controls the increase or decrease of production
in the well.
Decrease in relative permeability:

As the well is produced, the lowest pressures are
observed near the wellbore. In oil reservoirs, this
pressure drop can result in the release of gas.
Similarly, in a gas reservoir, the lower pressure can
observe condensate fluids around the wellbore.
The increase in saturation fluid decreases permeability,
the ability of these different fluids to flow is defined by the
relative permeability characteristics of the rock and the
fluids.
Um Albaneen.
Near wellbore restrictions:

These restrictions are a result of changes in the formation
or fluid properties around the wellbore, chemical
reactions within the formation or the wellbore, mechanical
problems, or inadequate completion techniques.
Formation Damage:
formation damage is defined as the weakness in reservoir
(reduced production) caused by wellbore fluids used
during drilling, completion and work over operations.
It is a zone of reduced permeability near the wellbore
(skin) as a result of foreign-fluid invasion into the
reservoir rock.
Figure(1)Formation skin damage

Um Albaneen.
Skin Factor
Skin Factor is usually defined to account for additional

pressure drop due to damage or stimulation around the
wellbore in an oil / gas formation.
Skin factor is a constant that is used to adjust the flow
equation derived from the ideal condition (homogeneous
and isotropic porous media) to suit the applications in
nonideal conditions.
Skin factor effect:

1. The decrease in the pearmability of any damage
was called the positive skin factor.
2. When the affected layer is treated by Stimulation
Or other processorsIt is called a negative skin
factor.
Mathematical expression of skin factors:

S = Sd + Sc + Sɵ + Sp
where:
S = total skin effect of a well .
Sd = skin due to damage (drilling and completion
operations ) .
Sc = skin due to partial penetration formation Spp .
Sɵ = skin due to deviation .
Sp = skin due to perforation.
Um Albaneen.
Skin due to damage is a measure of the amount of damage or

improvement to the formation near the wellbore. Damage
can be caused by drilling fluids, migration of fines, invasion,
etc. and results in a reduced permeability near the wellbore.
Skin due to partial penetration formation when dealing with

partially penetrated wells flow restriction can occur due to
the restricted perforation region accessible to fluid flow.
As the flow streamlines converge to fit into the effectively

perforated area, as shown in the following illustration, the
flowing fluid experiences an additional pressure drop.
This pressure drop can be represented as a skin factor due

to partial penetration (spp) (also called pseudo-skin).
Um Albaneen.
Skin due to deviation is a skin component due to partial

completion and deviation angle, which make the flow pattern
near the wellbore deviate from ideal radial flow pattern.
Skin due to perforation is a skin component due to the
nonideal flow condition around the perforations associated
with cased-hole completion.
perforation skin is often referred to as being the thin layer of
crushed rock created between the perforation and the
reservoir during the perforation event and reduced
permeability due to presence of a crushed zone around the
perforation.
Effect on well pore radius

There are many damages that affect the diameter of the
pores, the most important of which are the drilling and
pumping drilling fluids and the processes of completion
and perforation these factors cause a decrease in the
daimeter and consequently a decrease in production due
to the decline of pearmability.
Formation collapse:
In loosely consolidated or weakly cemented formations,
the severe pressure drop that occurs around a wellbore
can cause the formation to collapse. When this occurs, the
pore structure is altered and the permeability is reduced,
causing skin damage around the wellbore.
Um Albaneen.
Mechanical failures
Mechanical failures can occur in a well for a variety of
reasons. They are usually related to one of the following:
1. The corrosion of downhole equipment.
2. The collection of debris or scale in the
wellbore.
3. The production of formation sand or collapse
of the formation.
4. Insufficient cement protection.
5. Using equipments that is not designed to
withstand the depth, temperature, or
pressure of a well.
Um Albaneen.
Questions
What does low productivity mean?
It is a drop-in production of oil wells due to reservoir and
wellbore dominated factors and mechanical failure.
Numerate factors that lead to a decrease in production?

(List five only).
1. Pressure effect.
2. Decrease in permeability.
3. Skin factor.
4. Near wellbore restrictions.
5. Formation Damage.
6. Effect on well pore radius.
7. Formation collapse.
8. Mechanical failure.
Give two reasons for the mechanic's failure?

(List two only).
2. The collection of debris or scale in the wellbore.
3. The production of formation sand or collapse of the formation.
5. Using equipment that is not designed to withstand the depth,
temperature, or pressure of a well.
Talk about formation damage.

Formation damage is defined as the weakness in reservoir
caused by wellbore fluids used during drilling, completion
and work over operations.
Um Albaneen.
Talk about pressure effect on low productivity.

During production the pressure will partially drop down in
relation with several factors in wellbore or formation, it can
also be happened by incorrect measurements before the
production is started.
During pressure dropping and be below bubble point the
production will be changed from single-phase into two-phase
flow.
Define the skin factor.

It is the damage in layers causing decrease in permeability of
the layers produced.
Give Mathematical expression of skin factors:
Give expression to each symbol in the equation

S = Sd + Sc + Sɵ + Sp ?
S = total skin effect of a well.
Sd = skin due to damage.
Sc = skin due to partial penetration.
Sɵ = skin due to deviation.
Fill the blanks

• The main factor of low productivity is pressure.
• The corrosion of downhole equipment is mechanical
failure.
Um Albaneen.
Put true or false:

• The most important factors that cause skin factor are drilling,
completion and perforation. True
• The decrease in the permeability of any damage was called
the negative skin factor. False
Choose the correct answer:

• The main factor of wellbore and reservoir lead to low
productivity is (pressure, skin factor, formation damage).
• (pressure, skin factor, formation damage) is a constant that
is used to adjust the flow equation derived from the ideal
condition to suit the applications in non-ideal conditions.
Draw plot of formation damage.

YN
Transient Test and Near Wellbore Damage
Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Done by: Group 4 (Mohaymen Alutbi, Hamza Mohammed,
Hussein Saad, Hussein Aziz)
WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS CLASS…

•
OBJECTS Sand production is the cause of many problems in the
oil industry and it affects the completion adversely.
• Sand production takes place if the material around the
• Prediction Sand cavity is disaggregated and additionally, the operation
production (PSP). of the well generates sufficient seepage force to
• Production Log remove the sand grains.
tool (PLT). • When mud filtrate invades the formation surrounding a
• Near Wellbore borehole, it will generally remain in the formation even
Damage. after the well is cased and perforated. This mud filtrate
in the formation reduces the effective permeability to
hydrocarbons near the wellbore.
SKILLS
EDUCATION
the types of transient
In this class we will learn the types of transient test and what
test and near wellbore
the differents between them, we would learn more about
damage
gravel packs and the near wellbore damages when they will
characterization. be happened and how to prevent them.
REFERENCES
• Petroleum
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE OR LEADERSHIP
Production System
Economides. A class presentation in Production Engineering at University
of Thi-Qar/Petroleum& Gas department.
• S. M. Willson, Z. A.
Moschovidis, J. R.
Cameron “New
model for predicting
the rate of sand
production.
Prediction Sand production (PSP)

There are a number of analytical techniques and guidelines to
assist in determining if sand control is necessary, but no technique
has proven to be universally acceptable or completely accurate. In
some geographic regions, guidelines and rules of thumb apply that
have little validity in other areas of the world. Predicting whether a
formation will or will not produce sand is not an exact science, and
more refinement is needed. The best way of determining the need
for sand control in a particular well is to perform an extended
production test with a conventional completion and observe
whether sand production occurs. Normally, it is not necessary to
predict sand production on a well-by-well basis because wells in
the same reservoir tend to behave similarly. The prediction
required is on a reservoir-by-reservoir basis. However, initial good
results may prove misleading, as reservoir and flow conditions
change.
How to determine the quantity of sand production?

It can be determined by several techniques including (Sonic log,
Density log and Neutron log).
Formation strength
The procedure followed by most, to consider whether sand control
is required, is to determine the hardness of the formation rock (i.e.,
the rock’s compressive strength). Because the rock’s compressive
strength has the same units as the pressure difference between the
2
reservoir and the well (the drawdown), the two parameters can be
directly compared, and drawdown limits for specific wells can be
determined. Research performed in the early 1970s[1] showed that
rock failed and began to produce sand when the drawdown
pressure was more than about 1.7 times the compressive strength.
As an example, formation sand with a compressive strength of
1,000 psi would not fail or begin to produce sand until the
drawdown exceeded 1,700 psi. Others use Brinnell hardness as an
indicator of whether to apply sand control. The Brinnell hardness of
the rock is related to the compressive strength but is not as
convenient to use because the units of hardness are dimensionless
and cannot be related to drawdown as easily as compressive
strength.
Sonic log
The sonic log can be used as a way of addressing the sand
production potential of wells. The sonic log records the time
required for sound waves to travel through the formation, usually in
microseconds. The porosity is related to formation strength and the
sonic travel time. Short travel times, less than 50 microseconds,
indicate low porosity and hard, dense rock; long travel times, 95
microseconds or greater, are associated with soft, low-density,
high-porosity rock. A common technique used for determining
whether sand control is required in a given geologic area is to
correlate incidences of sand production with the sonic log readings
above and below the sand production that has been observed. This
establishes a quick screening method for the need for sand control.
3
The use of this method requires calibration against particular

geologic formations to be reliable.
Formation properties log

Certain well logs, such as the sonic log and density and neutron
devices, are indicators of porosity and formation hardness. For a
particular formation, a low-density reading indicates high porosity.
The neutron logs are primarily an indicator of porosity. Several
logging companies offer a formation properties log that uses the
results of the sonic, density, and neutron logs to determine if a
formation will produce formation material at certain levels of
drawdown. This calculation identifies weak and strong intervals;
the weaker ones are more prone to produce sand. While the
formation properties log has been used for over 20 years,
experience has shown that this log usually overpredicts the need
for sand control.
Porosity
The porosity of a formation can be used as a guideline as to
whether sand control is needed. If the formation porosity is greater
than 30%, the probability of the need for sand control is high
because of the lack of cementation. Conversely, if the porosity is
less than 20%, the need for sand control will probably be minimal
because the sand has some consolidation. The porosity range
between 20 to 30% is where uncertainty usually exists. In natural
media, porosity is related to the degree of cementation present in a
formation; thus, the basis for this technique is understandable.
4
Porosity information can be derived from well logs or laboratory

core analysis.
Drawdown
The pressure drawdown associated with production may be an
indicator of potential formation sand production. No sand
production may occur with small pressure drawdown around the
well, whereas excessive drawdown can cause the formation to fail
and produce sand at unacceptable levels. The amount of pressure
drawdown is normally associated with the formation permeability
and the viscosity of the produced fluids. Low viscosity fluids, such
as gas, experience smaller drawdowns, as opposed to the
drawdown that would be associated with a 1,000-cp fluid produced
from the same interval. Hence, higher sand production is usually
associated with viscous fluids.
Finite element analysis

The most sophisticated approach to predicting sand production is
the use of geomechanical numerical models developed to analyze
fluid flow through the reservoir in relation to the formation strength.
The effect of formation stress, associated with fluid flow in the
immediate region around the wellbore, is simultaneously computed
with finite element analysis. While this approach is by far the most
rigorous, it requires an accurate knowledge of the formation’s
strength around the well in both the elastic and plastic regions
where the formation begins to fail. Input data on both regions are
5
difficult to acquire with a high degree of accuracy under actual

downhole conditions. This is the major difficulty with this approach.
The finite element analysis method is good from the viewpoint of
comparing one interval with another; however, the absolute values
calculated may not represent actual formation behavior.
Time dependance
The effect of time on the production of formation sand is sometimes
considered to be an issue; however, there are no data that suggest
that time alone is a factor. There have been undocumented claims
that produced fluids could possibly dissolve the formation’s natural
cementing materials, but the data are not substantiated.
Multiphase flow
Predicting when multiphase fluid flow will begin can also be an aid.
Many cases can be cited where wells produced sand free until
water production began, but produced unacceptable amounts
afterwards. The reason for the increased sand production is caused
by two primary phenomena: the movement of water-wet fines and
relative permeability effects. Most formation fines are water wet
and, as a consequence, immobile when a hydrocarbon phase is the
sole produced fluid because hydrocarbons occupy the majority of
the pore space. However, when the water saturation is increased to
the point that water becomes mobile, the formation fines begin the
move with the wetting phase (water), which creates localized
plugging in the pore throats of the porous media. Additionally,
when two-phase flow occurs, increased drawdown is experienced
because two phases flowing together have more resistance to flow
6
than either fluid alone. These relative permeability effects can

increase the drawdown around the well by as much as a factor of 5
per unit of production. The result of fines migration, plugging, and
reduced relative permeability around the well increases the
drawdown to the point that it may exceed the strength of the
formation. The consequences can be excessive sand production.
The severity of fines migration varies from formation to formation
and whether gas or liquid is being produced.
Gravel Pack
A gravel pack is simply a downhole filter
designed to prevent the production of
unwanted formation sand. The formation
sand is held in place by properly sized
gravel pack sand that, in turn, is held in
7
place with a properly-sized screen. To determine what size gravel-

pack sand is required, samples of the formation sand must be
evaluated to determine the median grain size diameter and grain
size distribution. The quality of the sand used is as important as the
proper sizing. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has set forth
the minimum specifications desirable for gravel-pack sand in API
RP 58, Testing Sand Used in Gravel-Packing Operations.
Operational and economic influences:

The difficulty of determining whether sand control is required in a
given well is compounded when the well is drilled in a remote area
where there is no producing experience and where the various
reservoir factors are slightly different from previously exploited
regions. Even if the reservoir and formation properties are almost
identical to other developments, the operating conditions and risks
may be such that different strategies apply. One example might be
a subsea project, as opposed to a land development project. Here,
the consequences and risks associated with sand production are
significantly different because of differing costs and risks
associated with remedial well operations; hence, the decision to
use a sand-control technique is both an economic and operational
decision that must be made with limited data.
The decision is complicated by the fact that sand-control
techniques, such as gravel packing, are expensive and can restrict
well productivity if not performed properly. Therefore, gravel
packing cannot be applied indiscriminately when the possibility for
sand production from a well is unknown. Making the decision
8
whether to gravel pack is fairly easy if the formation material is

either hard (no sand production) or weak (sand production). The
difficulty arises when the strength of the formation material is
marginal. At that point, the decision normally ceases to be
primarily a technical issue but more of an economic and risk
management exercise. If there is uncertainty, the conservative
approach is to always apply sand-control completions. This
obviously will solve the sand production problem but will also
increase costs and may reduce well productivity. If sand control
was actually unnecessary, the implementation of sand-control
completions was a bad economic decision.
Production Log tool(PLT)

Production Logging is one of a number of cased hole services that
includes cement monitoring, corrosion monitoring, monitoring of
formation fluid contacts (and saturations), perforating and plug and
packer setting. Services performed in dead, overbalanced,
conditions can use relatively simple surface pressure control
equipment and are often performed using large open hole style
logging cables.
Application of production logs

Production logs are used to allocate production on a zone by zone
basis and also to diagnose production problems such as leaks or
cross flow. These various tasks can be split between those where
the target production is into or out of the well and those where the
flow never enters the well, typically flow behind pipe. The former
9
is usually easier and more quantitative while the latter is more

qualitative.
Production-logging tools find many applications from the time a
well is drilled until abandonment and, occasionally, beyond. An
appropriate categorization of production logs is by usage. This
approach leads to the five distinct categories listed below that also
represent a rough chronological order of tool evolution.
1. Diagnose production problems and allocate production.

2. Monitor cement placement.
3. Monitor corrosion.
4. Monitor reservoir fluid contacts.
5. Select zones for recompletion.
Near Wellbore Damage Characterization

It can be defined as a reduction of the production zone permeability
as a result of invasion of the drilling mud to the production zone.
The drilling mud enters the porous so the permeability will
reduced, also any process that lead a reduction of the production
zone permeability called as skin damage.
The evaluation the skin damage effect is done by DST test, and to
determine the formation damage skin factor must be calculated.
Permeability reduction and formation damage

When mud filtrate invades the formation surrounding a borehole, it
will generally remain in the formation even after the well is cased
and perforated. This mud filtrate in the formation reduces the
10
effective permeability to hydrocarbons near the wellbore. It may

also cause clays in the formation to swell, reducing the absolute
permeability of the formation. In addition, solid particles from the
mud may enter the formation and reduce permeability at the
formation face.
The production process may also reduce permeability and
introduce a positive skin factor. For example, in an otherwise under
saturated oil reservoir, pressure near the well may be below the
bubble point pressure, causing a free-gas saturation and reducing
the effective permeability to oil. In a retrograde gas reservoir, the
pressure near the wellbore may drop below the dewpoint and an
immobile liquid phase may form and reduce the effective
permeability to gas near the wellbore.
Injection can also cause damage. The water injected may be dirty;
that is, it may contain fines that may plug the formation and reduce
permeability.
In other cases, the injected water may be incompatible with the
formation water, causing solids to precipitate and plug the
formation. In still other cases, the injected water may be
incompatible with clays in the formation (e.g., fresh water can
destabilize some clays, causing fines to migrate and plug the
formation).
The Wellbore Damage During The Production Process Occur When:

1. Fluids carry their movement from the layer to the well if their
speed is greater than the critical speed of carrying these
grains.
11
These particles are placed in the vicinity of the well reducing the
permeability of this layer and thus the productivity.
2. When the producing layer is a container of high viscosity oil
and a large proportion of paraffins.
Some of these paraffins are located next to or inside the well on
the walls of the producing layer due to the decrease in
temperature, thus reducing the area of the channels in which the
fluid flows to the well.
3. The layer adjacent to the well is flooded with gases or water
during perforation near the transition zone, where the layer is
not permeable to the oil.
In order to avoid these problems:

1. the rate of production should be reduced, so that the flow rate
of fluids is less than the critical speed of carrying sand grains
on the move.
2. heating the walls of the well to prevent the formation of
paraffins.
3. perforation against the producing layer and far enough from
water and gas.
12
Questions

(Choose only five).
1. Formation strength.
2. Sonic log.
3. Density log.
4. Neutron log.
5. Formation properties log.
6. Porosity.
7. Drawdown.
8. Finite element analysis.
9. Time dependence.
10. Multiphase flow.
Define Gravel Pack.

A gravel pack is simply a downhole filter designed to prevent the
production of unwanted formation sand.
Can e always use Gravel Pack while sand producing?

If the formation material is either hard (no sand production) or weak
(sand production).
13
The difficulty arises when the strength of the formation material is

marginal.
What is the applications of Production Log tool(PLT)?
(List only three).
What does Near Wellbore Damage Characterization mean?

It any reduction of the production zone permeability as result of
invasion of mud to the production zone.
What would reduce the permeability in Near Wellbore?

(List only two).
1. Fluids carry their movement from the layer to the well if their
speed is greater than the critical speed of carrying these
grains.
2. When the producing layer is a container of high viscosity oil
and a large proportion of paraffins.
3. The layer adjacent to the well is flooded with gases or water
during perforation near the transition zone, where the layer is
not permeable to the oil.
Fill the blanks:

• The evaluation the skin damage effect is done by DST test.
• Any process that lead a reduction of the production zone
permeability called as skin damage.
14
How can we avoid Permeability reduction in Near Wellbore?

(List only two).
1. The rate of production should be reduced, so that the flow rate
of fluids is less than the critical speed of carrying sand grains
on the move.
2. Heating the walls of the well to prevent the formation of
paraffins.
3. Perforation against the producing layer and far enough from
water and gas.
Put True or False:

• The quality of the sand used is as important as the proper
sizing. True
• Sand content can be determined by several techniques
including Density log and Neutron log. True
• No sand production may occur with high pressure drawdown
around the well. False

• This mud filtrate in the formation reduces the (effective,
absolute, relative) permeability to hydrocarbons near the
wellbore.
• Higher sand production is usually associated with (viscosity,
density, formation volume factor).
15
How can the injections cause damage to the wellbore?

Ø The water injected may be dirty; it may contain fines that may
plug the formation and reduce permeability.
Ø The injected water may be incompatible with the formation
water; causing solids to precipitate and plug the formation.
How can the production processes cause damage to the

wellbore? (Choose one example)
introduce a positive skin factor.
Ø For example, in an otherwise under saturated oil reservoir,
pressure near the well may be below the bubble point
pressure, causing a free-gas saturation and reducing the
effective permeability to oil.
Ø In a retrograde gas reservoir, the pressure near the wellbore
may drop below the dewpoint and an immobile liquid phase
may form and reduce the effective permeability to gas near
the wellbore.
16
Production Test& Well testing
YN Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. okab
Group 3. | Mohaymen Alutbi,
Hussenien Abdulsattar.
OBJECTS WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS

CLASS…
• Well Testing
• Testing Objective
• Testing Types • Well testing is important in many disciplines:
petroleum engineering, groundwater hydrology,
• Pressure Index geology and waste water disposal. The theory is
the same, but different nomenclature and units
are used.
• Well testing may be regarded as part of
SKILLS formation evaluation.
• The objective of formation evaluation is to
Get a knowledge about well provide input to a geologic model, which in turn
testing and its purposes and may provide important input data for an
economic model.
types.
• Decisions, whether to start possible engineering
projects or not, are based on economic analysis.
REFERENCES
VOLENTEER EXPERIENCE OR
• Petroleum Production
System Economides. LEADERSHIP
• Oil Well Testing Handbook,
Amanat U. Chaudhry. A class presentation in Production Engineering at
• Per Arne Slotte, and Carl
University of Thi-Qar/ Petroleum and Gas department.
Fredrik Berg, Department of
Geoscience and Petroleum
NTNU, Lecture notes in
well-testing.
PRODUCTION TEST& WELL TESTING
BACKGROUND
The well testing that is the Well testing is important in many disciplines in
subject matter of the current addition to petroleum engineering. Examples are
lectures are a number of groundwater hydrology, geology, waste disposal,
methods wherein rates and and pollution control. The theory and methods are
pressures are manipulated in principle the same in all disciplines, although
and measured in one or more nomenclature may vary somewhat. In this course
wells in order to obtain we will concentrate on petroleum engineering
information about the sub applications.
surface reservoir. Thus, it is
in spite of the name, not the In production engineering well testing also
well or well production that is contribute by providing data on the state of the
tested, but the reservoir. near-well reservoir volume. These data are used to
answer questions about near-well formation
Note, however, that the term damage, and the need for and the effect of well
well test is also used in stimulation treatments.
production technology for
tests that actually test the
well and the well production,
but these tests are not of
interest here. Well testing is
also known as pressure
transient tests, which
arguably gives a better
description of the test.
2
Well Testing
Oil well test analysis is a branch of reservoir engineering. Information
obtained from flow and pressure transient tests about in situ reservoir
conditions are important to determining the productive capacity of a
reservoir. Pressure transient analysis also yields estimates of the average
reservoir pressure.
The reservoir engineer must have sufficient information about the
condition and characteristics of reservoir/well to adequately analyze
reservoir performance and to forecast future production under various
modes of operation.
The production engineer must know the condition of production and
injection wells to persuade the best possible performance from the
reservoir.
Pressures are the most valuable and useful data in reservoir engineering.
Directly or indirectly, they enter into all phases of reservoir engineering
calculations. Therefore, accurate determination of reservoir parameters is
very important. In general, oil well test analysis is conducted to meet the
following objectives:
• To evaluate well condition and reservoir characterization.
• To obtain reservoir parameters for reservoir description.
• To determine whether all the drilled length of oil well is also a
producing zone.
• To estimate skin factor or drilling- and completion-related damage to
an oil well. Based upon the magnitude of the damage, a decision
regarding well stimulation can be made.
3
Exploration wells Producing wells

1. Fluid sampling (Primary 1. Identifying fluid behavior.
reason).
2. Measuring the initial pressure. 2. Estimating the average
reservoir pressure.
3. Evaluating the well 3. Verifying permeability and
permeability and skin effect. skin effect.
4. Identifying heterogeneities and 4. Confirming heterogeneities
boundaries. and boundaries.
Well test is a test applied on the flow of the reservoir fluid, done through
changes the flow rate of the well and records the response of pressure as
function of time.
The purpose of reservoir characterization in general is to provide data for

describing and modelling the reservoir in order to estimate reserves,
forecast future performance, and optimize production. The testing of wells
is especially important in exploration when reservoir data is scarce. The
data from well test contribute to reserve estimation and are used to
determine if reservoirs and reservoir zones are economic.
Well testing is also used in reservoir monitoring, by providing average

and local reservoir pressure. These pressure data are important input to
production optimization, but also contribute indirectly to the reservoir
characterization as input to model conditioning (history matching).
4
Measuring pressure and rates

For well testing it is the pressure and the production rate (equivalently,
injection rate) that are the most important measured quantities.
The pressure measured at the bottom of the well is referred to as the
bottom-hole pressure (BHP). This is the preferred pressure measurement,
as it is closest to the formation.
Using the wellhead pressure involves back-calculating the BHP based on a
well flow model, and this typically introduces too much uncertainty to be
reliable for well test analysis.
When several reservoir zones are produced at different bottom hole
pressures, it is common to have a pressure transducer in each zone. It is
also common with pressure sensors both inside the tubing and in the
annulus.
The pressure sensor is normally placed at the top of the perforated zone,
thus a hydrostatic correction is required to obtain the reservoir pressure at
different heights in the reservoir (e.g. the depth at the middle of the
perforation).
The temperature is measured by the gauge solely exposed to temperature,
and this temperature is used to correct the pressure reading from the
gauge exposed to pressure.
The flow rate is controlled either at surface or down-hole. For surface
control it is important to distinguish the flow rates observed at the surface
from the flow rates experienced by the reservoir downhole.
5
Well tests, if properly designed, can be used to estimate the following

parameters:
• Flow conductance.
• Skin factor.
• Non-Darcy coefficient (Multi rate tests).
• Storativity.
• Fractured reservoir parameters.
• Fractured well parameters.
• Drainage area.
• Distance to faults.
• Drainage shape.
Type of tests
The main classes of well tests are drawdown test, buildup test, and
interference test. In addition, we have injection tests and falloff tests, which
are the equivalents of drawdown and buildup tests for injectors. The Drill
Stem Test (DST), is a special drawdown test that is often performed in
exploration wells and newly drilled wells.
Drawdown test
In a drawdown test, a static, stable and shut-in well is opened to flow. For
traditional analysis, the flow rate should be constant. Typical objectives for
a drawdown test are to obtain an average permeability (𝑘) of the drainage
area, to estimate the skin (𝑆), to obtain pore volume of the reservoir, and to
detect reservoir heterogeneity.
6
Buildup test
During a buildup test, a well which is already flowing (ideally constant
rate) is shut in, and the downhole pressure is measured as the pressure
builds up. The objectives include obtaining average permeability 𝑘 and
skin 𝑆, as with the drawdown test. In addition, the buildup test is conducted
to obtain initial reservoir pressure during the transient state (𝑝𝑖), and to
obtain the average reservoir pressure (𝑝) over the drainage area during
pseudo-steady state.
Injection test
In an injection test, a static, stable and shut-in well is opened to water
injection. Thus, an injection test is conceptually similar to a drawdown test,
except flow is into the well rather than out of it. In most cases the objectives
of the injection test is the same as those of a production test (e.g. 𝑘,𝑆), but
the test can also be used to map the injected water.
Falloff test
For a pressure falloff test, a well already injection (ideally at a constant rate)
is shut in, and the pressure drop during the falloff period is measured as the
pressure declines. Thus, the pressure falloff test is similar to the pressure
buildup test. A pressure falloff test is usually proceeded by an injectivity test
of a long duration.
7
Other tests
RFT, Drill-Stem test, Multi rate tests, Production test, Banker’s Test,
Interference test.
The productivity index is a measure of the quality of a well. It has been

defined as the rate of flow per unit pressure drawdown.
A high productivity index is advantageous. Production characteristic “a” is

obviously best since it gives the highest production rate for a given
drawdown. The same production characteristic also gives the lowest
drawdown for a given production rate.
8
Questions
What does Well Test mean?
Well test is a test applied on the flow of the reservoir fluid, done through
changes the flow rate of the well and records the response of pressure as
function of time.
What is the main objective of well testing?

(Choose three only).
• To determine whether all the drilled length of oil well is also a
producing zone.
• To estimate skin factor or related damage to an oil well.
• To determine the wellbore storage and production capacity.
Define productivity index.

The productivity index is a measure of the quality of a well. It has been
defined as the rate of flow per unit pressure drawdown.
PI = q . ΔP
What is the benefit of measuring temperature in well testing?

This temperature is used to correct the pressure reading from the gauge
exposed to pressure.
9
Numerate the main parameters in well testing.

(Choose four only).
• Skin factor.
• Storativity.
• Drainage area.
• Drainage shape.
How can we measure the pressure at several zones in well testing?

Ø When several reservoir zones are produced at different bottom hole
pressures, it is common to have a pressure transducer in each zone. It
is also common with pressure sensors both inside the tubing and in
the annulus.
Ø The pressure sensor is normally placed at the top of the perforated
zone, thus a hydrostatic correction is required to obtain the reservoir
pressure at different heights in the reservoir.
10
List the most common test type in well testing.

(Choose five only).
• Drawdown test.
• Buildup test.
• Injection test.
• Falloff test.
• RFT.
• Drill-Stem test.
• Multi rate tests.
• Production test.
• Banker’s test.
• Interference test.
Fill the blanks:

• The data from well test contribute to reserve estimation and are
used to determine if reservoirs are economic.
• For well testing it is the pressure and the production rate that are
the most important measured quantities.
11

• (Drawdown test, Buildup test, Injection test) is conceptually similar
to a drawdown test, except flow is into the well rather than out of it.
• (Drawdown test, Buildup test, Injection test) is conducted to obtain
initial reservoir pressure, and the average reservoir pressure.
From the figure, which is the

best productivity index a, b or c?
Production characteristic “a” is
obviously best since it gives the
highest production rate for a given
drawdown. The same production
characteristic also gives the lowest
drawdown for a given production
rate.
Put (True) or (False):

• A pressure falloff test is usually proceeded by an injectivity test of a
long duration. True
• Typical objectives for a buildup test are to obtain average
permeability (𝑘), the skin factor (𝑆), pore volume and reservoir
heterogeneity. False
12
Match each object with its correct field.

1. Evaluating permeability and skin a. Producing well testing
effect.
2. Confirming heterogeneities and b. Exploration well testing
boundaries.
3. Fluid sampling.
4. Verifying permeability and skin
effect.
5. Identifying heterogeneities and
boundaries.
6. Estimating the average reservoir
pressure.
7. Measuring the initial pressure.
8. Identifying fluid behavior.
13
Production Ratio
YN Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Group 11| Mohaymen Alutbi, Ali Mejbel.

• Productivity Index.
CLASS…
• Productivity drawdown.
• In this lesson we will learn all about productivity
index its application, calculations and uses.
• Drawdown pressure. What is it and how we can
SKILLS measure it and why?
• The relationship between Pressure index and
IPR curves.
• PI equation and its calculations.
Productivity index and
Productivity drawdown and its
calculations.
REFERENCES
• Petroleum Production System LEADERSHIP
Economides.
• Petroleum Production A class presentation in Production Engineering at
Engineering, Elsevier (2007).
University of Thi-Qar/ Petroleum and Gas department.
• Petroleum Well Diagnostics
Definition.
Productivity Ratio
Productivity Index (J)

Productivity Index is the measure of the ability of a well to produce
hydrocarbons at a commercial rate. Estimating Productivity Index is one of
the necessary and very important steps once the production from an oil or
gas well starts. Productivity index tells the operator about the performance
of an oil well. It is commonly denoted by “Pi or J”.
Productivity Index is one of the important parameters tested once the well
is complete and ready for production. It is the ratio of total flow rate of the
liquid to the drawdown pressure and can be written in the form of equation
as:
J = Qo / Pe – Pwf = Qo / DP
J = Productivity Index, STB/day/psi
Qo = Surface flowrate at standard conditions, STB/D
Pe = External boundary radius pressure, psi
Pwf = The bottom hole flow pressure, psi
Where the productivity index assumes constant values, the above equation
shows up as a straight line in a q vs. ΔP coordinate system with slope PI.
The productivity index may be computed from the flow equations.
Both steady state- and pseudo steady flow are ideal cases. A real case will
fall somewhere in between.
2
Productivity Ratio
A high production rate means more income. An increase in drawdown

may be achieved by a change of choke. If the well is producing at full
capacity, this possibility does not exist. In addition, too high drawdown
may cause problems like sand-, water- and gas production, etc. Hence, the
drawdown has an upper limit.
Pressure Drawdown
Pressure Drawdown is the differential pressure which helps in moving

hydrocarbons from a reservoir into the wellbore, which it is the pressure
difference between the reservoir average pressure and the bottom hole
flowing pressure.
Pressure Drawdown test

To perform Pressure Drawdown, certain tests known as Pressure
Drawdown tests are carried out. The purpose of performing such tests is to
determine skin factor, permeability and reservoir boundary distances.
When the drawdown tests are performed, the well needs to be closed for
sufficient period of time in order to allow the stabilization of pressure
throughout the formation.
3
Productivity Ratio
The advantages
1. Uninterrupted flow once oil or gas well is online.
2. Reservoir boundaries are easy to locate.
Disadvantages
1. The main disadvantage of performing drawdown test is that surface
chokes need to be changed periodically in order to maintain a
constant flow rate.
Example:
A well is producing at a constant flow rate 500 STB/Day , and the average
reservoir pressure 3000 psi and bottom hole flowing pressure 250 psi
calculate the productivity index.
SOL
J = 500 STB/D / ( 3000 psi – 250 psi) = 0.18 STB/D/psi
4
Productivity Ratio
Questions
Fill the blanks:

• Productivity Index is the measure of the ability of a well to produce
hydrocarbons at a commercial rate.
• Productivity index is commonly denoted by “Pi or J”.
Put true or false:

• Productivity index tells the operator about the performance of an oil
well. True
• Pressure Drawdown is the differential pressure which helps in
moving hydrocarbons from a reservoir into the wellbore. True
A well is producing at a constant flow rate 500 STB/Day, and the

average reservoir pressure 3000 psi and bottom hole flowing
pressure 250 psi calculate the productivity index.
J = 500 STB/D / ( 3000 psi – 250 psi) = 0.18 STB/D/psi.
5
Productivity Ratio

pressure difference between the reservoir average pressure and the
bottom hole (hydraulic pressure, flowing pressure, static pressure )
What is productivity index?

productivity index is the ratio of total flow rate of the liquid to the
drawdown pressure.
For an oil well calculate the productivity index.

Q= 600 STB/Day
Pe= 2500 psi
Pwf= 210 psi
What are the main advantages of drawdown pressure test?

6
Productivity Ratio
What are the main disadvantages of drawdown pressure test?

1. Surface chokes need to be changed periodically in order to maintain
a constant flow rate.
What the purpose of performing drawdown pressure test?

To determine skin factor, permeability and reservoir boundary distances.
Define drawdown pressure.

flowing pressure.
Give the meaning for the following equation

7
Productivity Ratio
Explain why when the drawdown tests are performed, the well is
closed.
The well needs to be closed for sufficient period of time in order to allow
the stabilization of pressure throughout the formation.
8
YN
Problem Well Analysis& IPR Curves
Done by: Group 5&6 (Mohaymen Alutbi, Dalya Haidar,
Haidar Mahdi, Haidar Abdul-Jaleel, Duaa Abd-Ali)
OBJECTS WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS CLASS…

• Problem well • In this paper the primary concern is with the
analysis problems of the wellbore or near wellbore area
• Well Performance and/or the mechanical condition of the well.
Prediction • Symptom recognition and definition of the cause
• Decline curve of a problem can best be accomplished through
analysis regular collection and analysis of individual well
• Well sick analysis production data.
• practical methods of recognizing and analyzing
problem well symptoms.
• It also discusses the required data and its use, as
SKILLS well as presents a "well checklist" that assists the
engineer in analyzing well performance.
problems well analysis
EDUCATION
The role of a production engineer is to maximize
REFERENCES petroleum and gas production in a cost-effective
manner, maximize producing rates and recovery within
• Petroleum Production allowable, economic and/or reservoir restraints.
System Economides.
Engineering, Elsevier
(2007). VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE OR LEADERSHIP
• Petroleum Well
Diagnostics A class presentation in Production Engineering at
Definition. University of Thi-Qar/Petroleum& Gas department.
Done by: Group 5&6 (Mohaymen Alutbi, Dalya Haider, Haider
Mahdi, Haider Abdul-Jaleel, Duaa Abd-Ali)
Problem Well Analysis

Problems may usually be categorized as limited producing rate,
excessive water production, excessive gas production for oil wells,
and mechanical failures.
The most Problem of well Analysis are:
1. Low Reservoir Permeability

2. Limited Producing Rate
3. Low Reservoir Pressure
4. Low Reservoir Pressure
5. Formation Damage
And many problem that cause decline curve analysis (The

important decline curve analysis In Flow
Performance Relationship - IPR Curves) we discuss that in this

Lecture
Analysis of Problems in Rod-Pumped Wells
There are several of method to Analysis of Problems the tow

important method are :
1. Analysis of Problems in Gas Lift Wells.

2. Analysis of problems in hydraulic bottom-hotle pumps.
2
The performance analysis method aims at achieving the best

reservoir performance prediction and works on the following:
1- Analysis based on Material Balance Equation:

The method is based on the data obtained from previous reservoir
performance and PVT (pressure-volume-temperature) analysis and
involves some assumptions for the reservoir driving mechanism to
minimize the range of possible predictions from the dataset.
2- Reservoir Simulation Models:

The method involves numerical simulation technique and matching
between the simulated production and the previous performance
history of the reservoir, and taking into account the most likely
reservoir drive mechanism.
3- Decline Curve Analysis:

The method predicts future performance of the reservoir by
matching the observed trend of the production decline with one or
several standard mathematical methods of the production decline
curves include production rate vs time, production rate vs
cumulative oil production, and water cut vs cumulative oil
production.
3
Flow performance relationship -IPR curves

The inflow performance
relationship IPR for a well is the
relationship between the flow
rate of the well Q and the flowing
pressuere of the well Pwf. In
single phase flow this is a straight
line but when gas is moving in
the reservoir, at a pressure
below the bubble point, this is
not linear relationship.
Factors influencing the shape of the IPR are the pressure drop and
relative k across the reservoir.
4
§ It can be seen that the majority of the pressure drop caused by

production is near the wellbore. This is confirmed by the
radial flow equation.
§ In this situation even if the average reservoir pressure is
above the bubble point, the area around the wellbore is not,
which causes the gas to come out of solution in this area
causing the relative permeability (which is based on fluid
saturation) of the liquids to change. As the Pwf is lower for a
greater flow rate the greater this effect has on the well which
causes the IPR Curve to bend down.
§ Two Stratified Formation or ZonesWhen zones of varying Kh
are opened in a well, the one with the highest Kh well
contribute more to the
production of the well, then the
lower Kh zones will contribute,
thus the average reservoir
pressure of the high Kh zones
drops faster than the other
zones in the well.
§ This causes the zones to start
flowing at different flowing
bottom hole pressures. At the
lower rates or higher flowing
pressures it is the zone with the
lowest Kh that have the highest
average pressure so that it
produces first and then as the
flowing pressure drops below
the average pressure of the
5
other zones that start to contribute to the flow.

§ The Pi of the well improves as more of the zones contribute, so
the Pi improves with the lowering of the flowing pressure.
Vogel’s Method
Vogel developed an empirical equation for the shape of IPR curve,
where q’ is the potential of the well or maximum production. Using
the productivity index J we get
q/q’ = 1 - 0.2(Pwf/P’) - 0.8(Pwf/P’)2
assuming Ps and average reservoir pressure approximately the
same.
Hence the difference between the value of q derived from the
Vogel equation and the straight line method is
qmax – qsl = 0.8 q’ (Pwf/P’ )(1 - Pwf/P’ )
6
Questions
What is the Problem Well Analysis?

excessive water production, excessive gas production for oil wells,
and mechanical failures.
What is the method to Analysis of Problems in Rod-Pumped Wells?

2. Analysis of problems in hydraulic bottom-hotle pumps.
What is the performance analysis method which aims to achieving

the best reservoir performance prediction and works on?
1. Analysis based on Material Balance Equation.
2. Reservoir Simulation Models.
3. Decline Curve Analysis.
What does the performance analysis method aims to?

It is aiming to achieving the best reservoir performance prediction
and works on.
Fill the blanks:

• Factors influencing the shape of the IPR are the pressure drop
and relative k across the reservoir.
• The inflow performance relationship IPR for a well is the
relationship between the flow rate of the well Q and the flowing
pressuere of the well Pwf.
7
Put True or False:
• In single phase flow this is a straight line but at two phase flow
this is not linear relationship. True
• The Pi of the well improves as more of the zones contribute, so
it improves with the lowering of the flowing pressure. True
Chose the correct answer:

• (Analysis based on Material Balance Equation, Reservoir
Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) is a method based
on the data obtained from previous reservoir performance and
PVT.
Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) is a method
involves numerical simulation technique and matching
between the simulated production and the previous
performance history.
Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) matching the
observed trend of the production decline with one or several
standard mathematical methods of the production decline
curves.
What is the production decline curves whish is used in Decline

Curve Analysis?
The production decline curves include:
1. production rate vs time.
2. production rate vs cumulative oil production.
3. water cut vs cumulative oil production.
8
What is the Vogel’s Method?

Vogel developed an empirical equation for the shape of IPR curve,
where q’ is the potential of the well or maximum production. Using
the productivity index J and assuming Ps and average reservoir
pressure approximately the same.
When the IPR Curve bends down?

If the average reservoir pressure is above the bubble point, the
area around the wellbore is not, which causes the gas to come out
of solution in this area causing the relative permeability of the
liquids to change (which is based on fluid saturation), as the Pwf is
lower for a greater flow.
Talk about the two stratified formation zones of varying Kh when

are opened in a well.
Ø The one with the highest Kh well contribute more to the

production of the well, then the lower Kh zones will contribute.
Ø Thus, the average reservoir pressure of the high Kh zones
drops faster than the other zones in the well.
Ø This causes the zones to start flowing at different flowing
bottom hole pressures.
Ø At the lower rates or higher flowing pressures it is the zone
with the lowest Kh that have the highest average pressure.
Ø So that it produces first and then as the flowing pressure drops
below the average pressure of the other zones that start to
contribute to the flow.
9
Draw an IPR-Curve.
10
YN
Material Balance & Reservoir Simulation
Done by: (Mohaymen Alutbi)

OBJECTS
• We will study reserve estimation methods, their
• Reserve Estimation types, the difference between them and when
Methods. we will use each one.
• Material Balance • We will get a knowledge about Material Balance and
Equation. its euation in each type of reservoir.
• Reservoir • Get a sudy of some curves to determine the drive
Simulation. mechanisim of reservoirs.
• Get a background abou reservoir simulation and its
advantages.
• We also will get a knowledge how simulation is easy
SKILLS and important to get the work easier for petroleum
engineers.
the types of reserve
estimation methods and
material balance EDUCATION
equation and its relative
with drive mechanisims. • In this class we will learn the types reserve
estimation methods in each reservoir and how
to relate them with material balance equation
and then we will study the term of reservoir
REFERENCES simulation with its purpose and advantages.
System Economides.
• S. M. Willson, Z. A. VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE OR LEADERSHIP
Moschovidis, J. R.
Cameron “New A class presentation in Production Engineering at
model for predicting University of Thi-Qar/Petroleum& Gas department.
the rate of sand
production.
Material Balance and Reservoir Simulation
Reserve Estimation Methods

More than one available.
Different methods applicable at different stages of development.
Data requirement different for each method, with some common
predominant methods:
1. Volumetric Method
• Early stage of reservoir development.
• Geology, Geophysics, Rock and Fluid properties.
• Recovery Factor (RF) assigned arbitrarily.
• No time dependency, No Production data.
2. Material Balance
• Later stage of development (after 20% of initial oil/gas is
produced, or 10% of initial reservoir pressure has
declined).
• Geological data, Rock and Fluid properties, Production
data.
• RF is calculated.
• Time dependant Introduction (contd.) .
3. Decline Curve Analysis

• Later stage of development, when production rate
undergoes natural decline.
• Mostly Production data.
• RF is calculated.
2
• Time dependant.
4. Reservoir Simulation
• Can be applied at any stage but more useful and reliable
for matured reservoirs.
• Geological data, Rock and Fluid properties, Production
data.
• More useful as reservoir management tool.
• Uncertainties associated with each method.
• More than one method should be used when applicable.
3
Material Balance
The material balance equation (MBE) has long been recognized as
one of the basic tools of reservoir engineers for interpreting and
predicting reservoir performance. The MBE, when properly
applied, can be used to:
• Estimate initial hydrocarbon volumes in place.
• Predict future reservoir performance.
• Predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of
primary driving mechanisms.
4
The MBE can be written in a generalized form as follows:
Pore volume occupied by the oil initially in place at pi

+
Pore volume occupied by the gas in the gas cap at pi
=
Pore volume occupied by the remaining oil at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the gas in the gas cap at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the evolved solution gas at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the net water influx at p
+
Change in pore volume due to connate water expansion and pore
volume reduction due to rock expansion
+
Pore volume occupied by the injected gas at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the injected water at p
• The above nine terms composing the MBE can be separately

determined from the hydrocarbon PVT and rock properties.
5
DDI + SDI + WDI + EDI = 1.0

Where:
DDI = depletion-drive index
SDI = segregation (gas-cap)-drive index
WDI = water-drive index
EDI = expansion (rock and liquid)-depletion index
Depletion Drive.
Depletion drive is the oil recovery mechanism wherein the
production of the oil from its reservoir rock is achieved by the
expansion of the original oil volume with all its original dissolved
gas.
Segregation Drive.
Segregation drive (gas-cap drive) is the nism wherein the
displacement of oil from the formation is plished by the expansion
of the original free gas cap.
Water Drive.
Water drive is the mechanism wherein the displacement of the oil is
accomplished by the net encroachment of water into the oil zone.
Expansion Drive.
For undersaturated oil reservoirs with no water influx, the principle
source of energy is a result of the rock and fluid expansion. Where
all the other three driving mechanisms are con- tributing to the
production of oil and gas from the reservoir, the contri- bution of
the rock and fluid expansion to the oil recovery is too small and
essentially negligible and can be ignored.
6
Figure 11-15 shows a set of plots that represents various driving

indexes for a combination-drive reservoir.
• At point A, some of the structurally low wells are reworked to

reduce water production. This resulted in an effective
increase in the water-drive index.
• At point B, workover operations are complete; water-, gas-,
and oil-producing rates are relatively stable; and the driving
indexes show no change.
• At point C, some of the wells which have been producing
relatively large, but constant, volumes of water are shut in,
which results in an increase in the water-drive index. At the
same time, some of the upstructure, high gas-oil ratio wells
have been shut in and their allowables transferred to wells
lower on the structure producing with normal gas-oil ratios.
7
• At point D, gas is being returned to the reservoir, and the gas-

cap- drive index is exhibiting a decided increase.
The water-drive index is relatively constant, although it is
decreasing somewhat, and the depletion-drive index is showing a
marked decline. This is indicative of a more efficient reservoir
operation, and, if the depletion-drive index can be reduced to
zero, relatively good recovery can be expected from the reservoir.
Of course, to achieve a zero-depletion-drive index would require
the complete maintenance of reservoir pressure, which is often
difficult to accomplish. It can be noted from Figure 11-15 that the
sum of the various indexes of drive is always equal to one.
As shown in Figure 4.16. Dake (1994) suggested that such a plot can
assume two various shapes:
• If all the calculated points of F/(Eo + Ef,w) lie on a horizontal
straight line (see line A in Figure 4.16; it implies that the
reservoir can be classified as a volumetric reservoir.
This defines a purely depletion drive reservoir whose energy
derives solely from the expansion of the rock, the connate
water, and the oil.
• Furthermore, the ordinate value of the plateau determines the
initial oil-in- place N.
• Alternately, if the calculated values of the term F/(Eo + Ef,w)
rise, as illustrated by the curves B and C, it indicates that the
reservoir has been energized by water influx, abnormal pore
compaction, or a combination of these two.
8
Curve B in Figure 4.16 might be for a strong water drive field

in which the aquifer is displaying an infinite- acting behavior,
whereas curve C represents an aquifer whose outer boundary
had been felt, and the aquifer is depleting in unison with the
reservoir itself.
• The downward trend in points on curve C as time progresses
denotes the diminishing degree of energizing by the aquifer.
• Dake (1994) pointed out that in water drive reservoirs, the
shape of the curve, i.e., F/(Eo + Ef,w) vs. time, is highly rate
dependent.
For instance, if the reservoir is producing at a higher rate than
the water influx rate, the calculated values of F/(Eo + Ef,w) will
dip downward, revealing a lack of energizing by the aquifer,
whereas if the rate is decreased the reverse happens and the
points are elevated.
9
10
Reservoir simulation
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines simulate as assuming the
appearance of without the reality. Simulation of petroleum reservoir
performance refers to the construction and operation of a model
whose behavior assumes the appearance of actual reservoir
behavior. A model itself is either physical (for example, a
laboratory sandpack) or mathematical. A mathematical model is a
set of equations that, subject to certain assumptions, describes the
physical processes active in the reservoir. Although the model
itself obviously lacks the reality of the reservoir, the behavior of a
valid model simulates assumes the appearance of the actual
reservoir.
The purpose of simulation is estimation of field performance (e.g.,
oil recovery) under one or more producing schemes. Whereas the
field can be produced only once, at considerable expense, a model
can be produced or run many times at low expense over a short
period of time. Observation of model results that represent different
producing conditions aids selection of an optimal set of producing
conditions for the reservoir.
Recent Advances in Reservoir Simulation

The recent advances in reservoir simulation may be viewed as:
• Speed and accuracy
• New fluid flow equations
• Coupled fluid flow and geo-mechanical stress model
• Fluid flow modeling under thermal stress.
11
Speed and Accuracy

• The need for new equations in oil reservoirs arises mainly for
fractured reservoirs as they constitute the largest departure
from Darcy's flow behavior. Advances have been made in
many fronts. As the speed of computers increased following
Moore's law (doubling every 12 to 18 months), the memory
also increased. For reservoir simulation studies.
• The greatest difficulty in this advancement is that the quality of
input data did not improve at par with the speed and memory
of the computers, the data gap remains possibly the biggest
challenge in describing a reservoir.
• Note that the inclusion of large number of grid blocks makes
the prediction more arbitrary than that predicted by fewer
blocks, if the number of input data points is not increased
proportionately.
• The problem is particularly acute when fractured formation is
being modeled.
• The problem of reservoir cores being smaller than the
representative elemental volume (REV) is a difficult one,
which is more accentuated for fractured formations that have a
higher REV.
• For fractured formations, one is left with a narrow band of grid
blocks, beyond which solutions are either meaningless (large
grid blocks) or unstable (too small grid blocks), the difficulty
associated with modeling with both too small or too large grid
blocks.
12
New Fluid Flow Equations

• A porous medium can be defined as a multiphase material
body (solid phase represented by solid grains of rock and
void space represented by the pores between solid grains)
characterized by two main features: that a Representative
Elementary Volume (REV) can be determined for it.
• Such that no matter where it is placed within a domain
occupied by the porous medium.
• It will always contain both a persistent solid phase and a void
space.
• The size of the REV is such that parameters that represent the
distributions of the void space and the solid matrix within it are
statistically meaningful.
Coupled Fluid Flow and Geo-mechanical Stress Model

• Coupling flow equations in order to describe fluid flow in a
setting, for which both pipe flow and porous media flow
prevail continues to be a challenge (Mustafiz et al, 2005).
• Geomechanical stresses are very important in production
schemes.
• However, due to strong seepage flow, disintegration of
formation occurs and sand is carried towards the well
opening.
13
• The most common practice to prevent accumulation as

followed by the industry is to take filter measures, such as
liners and gravel packs.
• Generally, such measures are very expensive to use and
often, due to plugging of the liners, the cost increases to
maintain the same level of production.
• In recent years, Vaziri et al (2002) used a finite element
analysis developing a modified form of the Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope to simulate both tensile and shear-induced
failure around deep wellbores in oil and gas reservoirs.
• The coupled model was useful in predicting the onset and
quantity of sanding.
• Nouri et al (2006) highlighted the experimental part of it in
addition to a numerical analysis and measured the severity of
sanding in terms of rate and duration.
• It should be noted that these studies (Nouri et al, 2002; Vaziri
et al, 2002 and Nouri et al, 2006) took into account the elasto-
plastic stress-strain relationship with strain softening to
capture sand production in a more realistic manner.
• Although, at present these studies lack validation with field
data, they offer significant insight into the mechanism of
sanding and have potential in smart-designing of well-
completions and operational conditions.
Fluid Flow Modeling Under Thermal Stress
14
• The temperature changes in the rock can induce thermo-

elastic stresses, which can either create new fractures or can
alter the shapes of existing fractures, changing the nature of
the primary mode of production.
• It can be noted that the thermal stress occurs as a result of the
difference in temperature between injected fluids and
reservoir fluids or due to the Joule Thompson effect.
• However, in the study with unconsolidated sand, the thermal
stresses are reported to be negligible in comparison to the
mechanical stresses.
• A similar trend is noticeable in the work by, which also
ignored the effect of thermal stresses, even though a
simultaneous modeling of fluid flow and geomechanics is
proposed.
Future Challenges in Reservoir Simulation:

The future development in reservoir modeling may be looked at
different aspects. These are may be classified as:
• Experimental challenges.
• Numerical Challenges.
• Remote sensing and real-time monitoring.
15
Questions
What is the common Reserve Estimation Methods?
2. Material Balance
Compare between Volumetric Method and Material Balance

Volumetric Method Material Balance
1. Early stage of reservoir 1. Later stage of
development. development
2. No time dependency, No 2. Time dependant
Production data. Introduction, Production
data exist.
Define Material Balance equation.
One of the basic tools of reservoir engineers for interpreting and
predicting reservoir performance.
What is the uses of MBE?

It can be used to:
• Predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of
primary driving mechanisms.
16
Give meaning of each symbols in the equation:

DDI = depletion-drive index.
SDI = segregation (gas-cap)-drive index.
WDI = water-drive index.
EDI = expansion (rock and liquid)-depletion index.
List the types of natural drive mechanisims.

1. Depletion Drive.
2. Segregation Drive (Gas-Cap Drive).
3. Water Drive.
4. Expansion Drive.
Define Reservoir Simulation.

The construction and operation of a model whose behavior assumes
the appearance of actual reservoir behavior.
What is the purpose of reservoir simulation?

The purpose of simulation is:
Ø Estimation of field under one or more producing schemes.
Ø Observation of model results that represent different
producing conditions aids selection of an optimal set of
producing conditions for the reservoir.
17
What is the advances in Reservoir Simulation?

(Choose 3 only)
1. Speed and accuracy.
2. New fluid flow equations.
3. Coupled fluid flow and geo-mechanical stress model.
4. Fluid flow modeling under thermal stress.
What is the future challenges in Reservoir Simulation?

1. Experimental challenges.
2. Numerical Challenges.
3. Remote sensing and real-time monitoring.
Fill the blanks:

• The terms composing the MBE can be determined from PVT
and rock properties.
• If F/(Eo + Ef,w) lie on a horizontal straight line the reservoir can
be classified as a volumetric reservoir.

• Decline Curve Analysis is the later stage of reserve estimation
methods. True
• If the values of F/(Eo + Ef,w) rise, the reservoir has been
energized by water influx. True
18
YN
Well Services and Workover
Done by: Group 7 (Mohaymen Alutbi, Zainab Ali, Zina
Mohammed, Sara Mohammed)
OBJECTS • Problems like parted rods and leaking tubing,

while they may require a servicing unit and
crew, are part of standard maintenance
• Well srvices.
operations for a well. There are larger problems
• Workover. that may require a full workover.
• Squeeze cementing. • Workovers can be expensive, as they not only
require heavy equipment and a crew, but also
may require that a well be killed and production
totally stopped for a period of time.
SKILLS • Cement Squeeze Jobs refer to operations that
close gaps and leak paths in borehole tubing,
Get a knowledge about and shut off separate reservoirs and watered
the well services term, intervals. As a result, the water inflow in oil &
workover and its types gas deposits is controlled .
and what do squeezing
jobs mean.
EDUCATION
REFERENCES In this class we will learn the different between the two
terms “well services” and “workover” and Cement
• Petroleum Production squeezing processes.
System Economides. We will learn more about Coiled tubing, Wirelines and
Snubbings.
• S. M. Willson, Z. A.
Moschovidis, J. R.
Cameron, and I. D.
Palmer, “New model
for predicting the rate
of sand production.
A class presentation in Production Engineering at
University of Thi-Qar/Petroleum& Gas department.
Well services
Well services is a department within petroleum production
company throughwhich matters concerning existing wells are
handled. Having a shared well services department for all (or at
least multiple) assets operated by a company is seen as
advantageous as it allows the pooling of talent, experience and
resources for managing wells.
The term may sometimes be used to incompass the larger section of
the industry responsible for wells including the supplier companies
as well the operating company's wells department.
Workover
Is the process of maintaining, repairing or enhancing production
from a well through various means. Most workovers require the
production tubing string to be pulled from the well by workover rig
in order to repair the defects that may be causing sub-optimal well
production.
Workover consideration
Although the considerations necessary to design a workover .
some require special mention:
1. Safety must receive special attention.
2
The tendency to consider a workover as “routine” sometimes

reduces the level of safety attentiveness.
2. Well pressure may be a primary consideration.
If the open zone has experienced significant depletion, the
circulation of fluids becomes difficult or even impossible.If the
wellbore is now open to high pressure, safety is of paramount
importance.
3. In thermal projects, the elevated temperatures create special
needs for doing a workover safely.
4. The condition of the well equipment may be a major factor in
what and how much is done in a particular workover.
The following are common workover tasks that we perform:

1. Subsurface pumping.
Subsurface pumps are required in the vast majority of the
onshore oil producing wells.
2. Remedial cementing.
Frequently, cementing operations are carried out on existing
wells to shut off water or unwanted gas production.
3. Tubing replacement.
Most workovers require the production tubing string to be
pulled from the well. As a result, production tubing needs to
be replaced as part of the workover process.
4. Well cleanout.
This entails the removal of debris, sand, scale and organic
materials from a well to improve the flow of hydrocarbons to
the surface.Many reservoirs produce sand that is not carried
to surface by the flow of hydrocarbons during production. The
3
resulting accumulations can decrease production and are

cleaned out periodically.
5. Re-completion.
Downhole completion hardware is exposed to materials such
as corrosive water, sand, scale, tar and wax which can clog
and damage equipment. Re-completing a well may mean
extracting the hardware and repairing or replacing it, in part
or in its entirety. Alternatively, as downhole well conditions
change over time or as technology improves, different tools
may be used or artificial lift hardware may be employed.
Wells are often re-completed in different zones to enhance
production.
6. Additional perforations or re-perforation.
In certain oilfields it is possible to perforate additional
intervals in hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs to increase
production rates. In other reservoirs it may be possible to re-
perforate an existing perforated interval that has become
closed.
Wireline (cabling)
In the oil and gas industry, the term
wireline usually refers to a cabling
technology used by operators of oil and
gas wells to lower equipment or
measurement devices into the well for
the purposes of well intervention,
reservoir evaluation, and pipe recovery.
On the other hand, wirelines are electric
cables that transmit data about the well.
4
Consisting of single strands or multi-strands, the wireline is used

for both well intervention and formation evaluation operations.
Slicklines
Used to place and recover wellbore equipment, such as plugs,
gauges and valves, slicklines are single-strand non-electric cables
lowered into oil and gas wells from the surface. Slicklines can also
be used to adjust valves and sleeves located downhole, as well as
repair tubing within the wellbore.
Coiled tubing
Refers to a very long metal pipe, normally 1 to 3.25 in (25 to 83 mm)
in diameter which is supplied spooled on a large reel.
• It is used for interventions in oil and gas wells and sometimes

as production tubing in depleted gas wells.
• Coiled tubing is often used as a production string in shallow
gas wells that produce some water.
5
• Coiled tubing is often used to carry out operations similar to

wirelining.
• The main benefits over wireline are the
ability to pump chemicals through the
coil and the ability to push it into the
hole rather than relying on gravity.
• Coil tubing has also been used as a
cheaper version of work-over
operations.
Snubbing
Is a type of heavy well intervention
performed on oil and gas wells. It involves
running the BHA on a pipe string using a
hydraulic workover rig. Unlike wireline or
coiled tubing, the pipe is not spooled off a
drum but made up and broken up while
running in and pulling out, much like
conventional drill pipe.
Squeeze job
• Squeeze job or squeeze cementing describe the process of
injecting cement slurry into a zone.
• Usually the zone to be squeezed is isolated from above with a
packer (and possibly from below with a bridge plug), but
sometimes the squeezing pressure is applied to the entire
6
casing string in what is known as a braedenhead squeezee,

Named for an old manufacturer of a casing head.
• Even if a drilling rig is on location, pumping operations
usually are done by a service company's cementing unit that
can easily mix small batches of cement slurry, measure
displacement volume accurately to spot the slurry on bottom,
then pump at very low rates and high pressures during the
squeeze itself, and finally measure volumes accurately again
when reversing out any excess slurry.
• A squeeze manifold is a compact arrangement of valves and
pressure gauges that allows monitoring of the drill pipe and
casing pressures throughout the job, and facilitates quick
switching of the pumping pressure to either side while the
fluid returning from the other side of well is directed to the
mud pit or a disposal pit or tank.
7
• The generic term "squeeze" also can apply to injection of

generally small volumes of other liquids (e.g., treating fluids)
into a zone under pressure.
Questions
What do Well Services mean?

Well services is a department within petroleum production
company throughwhich matters concerning existing wells are
handled. Having a shared well services department for assets
operated, it allows the pooling of talent, experience and resources
for managing wells.
What does Workover mean?
8
Workover is the process of maintaining, repairing or enhancing

production from a well through various means. Most workovers
require the production tubing string to be pulled from the well by
workover rig in order to repair the defects that may be causing
sub-optimal well production.
Mention the required workover consideration.

(List only three)
3. In thermal projects, the elevated temperatures create special
needs for doing a workover safely.
4. The condition of the well equipment may be a major factor in
what and how much is done in a particular workover.
What is the common workover tasks that we have to

perform?
(List only four)
4. Well cleanout.
5. Re-completion.
What does Wireline refers to?
9
wirelines are electric cables that transmit data about the well by
lower equipment or measurement devices into the well for well
intervention, formation evaluation operations, and pipe recovery.
What is the Slickline?

Slicklines are non-electric cables lowered into oil and gas wells
from the surface, which can also be used to adjust valves and
sleeves located downhole, as well as repair tubing within the
wellbore.
Define the term Squeeze cementing.

Is the process of using pump pressure to inject or squeeze cement
into a problematic void space at a desired location in the well, it
may be performed at any time during the life of the well (drilling,
completions or producing).
What does Coiled tubing refers to?

Coiled tubing refers to a very long metal pipe and used for
interventions in oil and gas wells and sometimes as production
tubing.
What does Snubbing refers to?

Snubbing is a type of heavy well intervention performed on oil and
gas wells. It involves running the BHA on a pipe string using a
hydraulic workover rig.
Fill the blanks:
10
• Snubbing involves running the BHA on a pipe string using a

hydraulic workover rig.
• In squeezing cement the zone to be squeezed is isolated from
above with a packer.
Put (True) or (False).

• The pump is done at very low rates and high pressures during
the squeeze itself. True
• Squeeze job also can not be applied for injection of small
volumes of liquids like treating fluids. False

• (Wireline, Coiled tubing, Snubbing) has also been used as a
cheaper version of work-over operations.
• (Wireline, Coiled tubing, Snubbing) is often used as a
production tube.
11
Wellbore Flow Performance
YN Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Group 15| Mohaymen Alutbi, Muayyad Khalaf,
Hisham Firas, Yassir Ammar, Wisam Salem.
OBJECTS
WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS
• Single-Phase Liquid CLASS…
Flow.
• Multiphase Flow in Oil • This chapter presented and illustrated different
Wells. mathematical models for describing
• Single-Phase Gas Flow. wellbore/tubing performance.
• The industry practice is to conduct a flow
• Mist Flow in Gas Wells.
gradient (FG) survey to measure the flowing
pressures along the tubing string.
• We will get a knowledge about each phase of
flow and its performance due to wellbore.
SKILLS • Talk about Single-phase flow in compressible
and incompressible fluids.
Get a knowledge about • Describe all characterization in Multiphase flow.
wellbore flow performance • Talk about Mist flow in gas wells briefly.
with its types and conditions. • Use all needed calculation in our lesson which
give us a complete understanding of the lesson
with some figures.
REFERENCES
System Economides. LEADERSHIP
Engineering, Elsevier A class presentation in Production Engineering at
(2007). University of Thi-Qar/ Petroleum and Gas department.
• Petroleum Well Diagnostics
Definition.
Group 15| Mohaymen Alutbi, Muayyad Khalaf, Hisham
Firas, Yassir Ammar, Wisam Salem.

• The achievable oil production rate from a well is determined by
wellhead pressure and the flow performance of production string,
that is, tubing, casing, or both. The flow performance of production
string depends on geometries of the production string and properties
of fluids being produced. The fluids in oil wells include oil, water,
gas, and sand.
• Wellbore performance analysis involves establishing a relationship
between tubular size, wellhead and bottom-hole pressure, fluid
properties, and fluid production rate.
• Understanding wellbore flow performance is vitally important to
production engineers for designing oil well equipment and
optimizing well production conditions.
• The pressure drop experienced in lifting reservoir fluids to the
surface is one of the main factors affecting well deliverability. As
much as 80% of the total pressure loss in a flowing well may occur in
lifting the reservoir fluid to the surface.
• Wellbore flow performance relates to estimating the pressure-rate
relationship in the wellbore as the reservoir fluids move to the surface
through the tubular.
• We can say that the purpose of study wellbore performance:
1. To optimize selecting tubing size, casing size others.
2. To choose the best sizes of the tubular system suitable to the
reservoir ability to production.
3. to choose the artificial lift method.
2
• Oil can be produced through tubing, casing, or both in an oil well

depending on which flow path has better performance. Producing oil
through tubing is a better option in most cases to take the advantage of
gas-lift effect.
• The traditional term tubing performance relationship (TPR) is used in
this lesson (other terms such as vertical lift performance has been
used in the literature). However, the mathematical models are also
valid for casing flow and casing- tubing annular flow as long as
hydraulic diameter is used.
• Wellbore flow can be divided into several broad categories,
depending on the flow geometry, the fluid properties and the flow
rate. The flow in a wellbore is either single phase or multiphase, in
most production wells the flow is multiphase, with at least two phases
(e.g., gas and liquid) present. Some production wells and most
injection wells are single-phase flow.
• This chapter focuses on determination of TPR and pressure traverse
along the well string. Both single-phase and multiphase fluids are
considered. Calculation examples are illustrated with hand
calculations and computer spread- sheets that are provided with this
book.
• With the properties of the fluids (both PVT behavior and their
rheological characteristics), the flow in a wellbore may be either
laminar or turbulent, and this will strongly influence the flow
behavior.
3
Single-Phase Flow
Single-Phase Flow of an Incompressible Fluids
Single-phase liquid flow exists in an oil well only when the wellhead
pressure is above the bubble-point pressure of the oil, which is usually not
a reality. However, it is convenient to start from single-phase liquid for
establishing the concept of fluid flow in oil wells where multiphase flow
usually dominates.
DP = P1 - P2 = (g ⁄ gc) r Dz + (r /2gc) Du2 + (2 fF r u2 L) / (gc D)

Where:
DP = pressure drop, lbf = ft2.

P1 = pressure at point 1, lbf = ft2.
P2 = pressure at point 2, lbf = ft2.
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.17 ft =s2.
gc = unit conversion factor, 32.17 lbm - ft = lbf - s2.
r = fluid density lbm= ft3. fF = fanning friction factor.

L = tubing length, ft. D = tubing inner diameter, ft.
Dz = elevation increase, ft. Du = fluid velocity, ft/s.
4
For laminar flow where NRe < 2,000, the Fanning friction factor is inversely
proportional to the Reynolds number, or
fF = 16 / NRe
For turbulent flow where NRe > 2,100, the Fanning friction factor can be
estimated using empirical correlations.
Single-Phase Flow of a Compressible Fluids

To calculate pressure drop in a gas well, the compressibility of the fluid
must be considered. When the fluid is compressible, the fluid density and
fluid velocity vary along the pipe, and these variations must be included
when integrating the mechanical energy balance equation.
(¶P / r) + (g ⁄ gc) Dz + (2 fF r u2 ¶L) / (gc D) = 0
Multiphase Flow in Oil Wells

In addition to oil, almost all oil wells produce a certain amount of water,
gas, and sometimes sand. These wells are called multiphase-oil wells. The
TPR equation for single- phase flow is not valid for multiphase oil wells. To
analyze TPR of multiphase oil wells rigorously, a multiphase flow model is
required.
5
Multiphase flow is much more complicated than single- phase flow

because of the variation of flow regime (or flow pattern). Fluid distribution
changes greatly in different flow regimes, which significantly affects
pressure gradient in the tubing.
Flow Regimes
As shown in Fig., at least four flow regimes have been identified in gas-
liquid two-phase flow. They are bubble, slug, churn, and annular flow.
These flow regimes occur as a progression with increasing gas flow rate
for a given liquid flow rate.
In bubble flow, gas phase is dispersed in the form of small bubbles in a
continuous liquid phase.
In slug flow, gas bubbles coalesce into larger bubbles (called Taylor
bubbles) that eventually fill the entire pipe cross-section. Between the
large bubbles are slugs of liquid that contain smaller bubbles of entrained
gas.
In churn flow, the larger gas bubbles become unstable and collapse,
resulting in a highly turbulent flow pattern with both phases dispersed.
In annular flow, gas becomes the continuous phase, with liquid flowing in
an annulus, coating the surface of the pipe and with droplets entrained in
the gas phase.
6
7
Liquid Holdup
In multiphase flow, the amount of the pipe occupied by a phase is often
different from its proportion of the total volumetric flow rate. This is due to
density difference between phases. The density difference causes dense
phase to slip down in an upward flow (i.e., the lighter phase moves faster
than the denser phase). Because of this, the in-situ volume fraction of the
denser phase will be greater than the input volume fraction of the denser
phase (i.e., the denser phase is ‘‘held up’’ in the pipe relative to the lighter
phase). Thus, liquid ‘‘holdup’’ is defined as
yL = VL / V
where:
yL = liquid holdup fraction.
VL = volume of liquid phase in the

pipe segment, ft3.
V = volume of the pipe segment, ft3.
8
Liquid holdup depends on flow regime, fluid properties, and pipe size and
configuration. Its value can be quantitatively determined only through
experimental measurements.
TPR Models
Numerous TPR models have been developed for analyzing multiphase
flow in vertical pipes. Brown (1977) presents a thorough review of these
models. TPR models for multiphase flow wells fall into two categories:
1. homogeneous- flow models
2. separated-flow models.
Ø Homogeneous models treat multiphase as a homogeneous mixture

and do not consider the effects of liquid holdup (no-slip assumption).
Therefore, these models are less accurate and are usually calibrated
with local operating conditions in field applications. The major
advantage of these models comes from their mechanistic nature.
They can handle gas-oil- water three-phase and gas-oil-water-sand
four-phase systems. It is easy to code these mechanistic models in
computer programs.
Ø Separated-flow models are more realistic than the homogeneous-flow

models. They are usually given in the form of empirical correlations.
The effects of liquid holdup (slip) and flow regime are considered.
9
The major disadvantage of the separated flow models is that it is

difficult to code them in computer programs because most
correlations are presented in graphic form.
Single-Phase Gas Flow

The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
governs gas flow in tubing. The effect of kinetic energy change is
negligible because the variation in tubing diameter is
insignificant in most gas wells. With no shaft work device
installed along the tubing string, the first law of thermodynamics
yields the following mechanical balance equation:
(¶P / r) + (g ⁄ gc) Dz + (fM v2 ¶L) / (2gc D) = 0
which is an ordinary differential equation governing gas flow in

tubing. Although the temperature T can be approximately
expressed as a linear function of length L through geothermal
gradient, the compressibility factor z is a function of pressure P
and temperature T. This makes it difficult to solve the equation
analytically.
10
Mist Flow in Gas Wells

In addition to gas, almost all gas wells produce certain amount of
liquids. These liquids are formation water and/ or gas condensate
(light oil). Depending on pressure and temperature, in some
wells, gas condensate is not seen at surface, but it exists in the
wellbore. Some gas wells produce sand and coal particles. These
wells are called multiphase-gas wells. The four-phase flow model
in Homogeneous-Flow Models can be applied to mist flow in gas
wells.
11
Questions
What are the purposes of study wellbore performance?
1. optimize selecting tubing size, casing size
2. selecting the artificial lift method.
3. choose the artificial lift method.
Define of Reynolds number?

The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to
the viscous forces in a flowing fluid.
How do we determine the type of flow(Laminar or Turbulent) in a

Wellbore?
By Reynolds number:
Ø For laminar flow where NRe < 2,000

Ø For turbulent flow where NRe > 2,100
Why the separated flow models are difficult to be coded in

computer programs?
Because most correlations are presented in graphic form.
12
Match each phase with its right definition.

In bubble flow The larger gas bubbles become
unstable and collapse, resulting in
a highly turbulent flow pattern with
both phases dispersed.
In slug flow Gas becomes the continuous

phase, with liquid flowing in an
annulus, coating the surface of the
pipe and with droplets entrained in
the gas phase.
In churn flow Gas phase is dispersed in the form

of small bubbles in a continuous
liquid phase.
In annular flow Gas bubbles coalesce into larger

bubbles (called Taylor bubbles)
that eventually fill the entire pipe
cross-section.
13
How liquid holdup will we occurred, explain with figure.

The density difference causes the lighter phase moves faster than the
denser phase. Because of this, the denser phase is ‘‘held up’’ in the pipe
relative to the lighter phase.
Talk briefly about Multiphase Gas Wells.

In some wells, gas condensate is not seen at surface, but it exists in the
wellbore. Some gas wells produce sand and coal particles, these wells are
called multiphase-gas wells.
14
How will single-phase or multi-phase flow exist in oil wells?

Single-Phase flow: when wellhead pressure is above bubble-point of oil.
Multi-Phase Flow: when wellhead pressure is below bubble-point of oil.
List the main categories of TPR models for multi-phase flow wells.
1. Homogeneous- Flow Models
2. Separated-Flow Models.

• Homogeneous models are easy to code in computer programs. True
• Producing oil through tubing is a worst option in most cases. False
Fill the blanks:

• Wellbore performance analysis involves establishing a relationship
between tubular size, wellhead and bottom-hole pressure, fluid
properties, and fluid production rate.
• The four-phase flow model in Homogeneous-Flow Models can be
applied to mist flow in gas wells.
15

• In most production wells the flow is (single-phase, multi-phase,
four-phase) flow.
• Some production wells and most injection wells are (single-phase,
multi-phase, four-phase) flow.
16
YN Hydraulic Fracture & Fracture Design
Done by: Group 9&10 (Mohaymen Alutbi, Fahad Ahmed &
Mohammed Abdzaid, Ekhlas, Um Albaneen, Abdulredha)
OBJECTS WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS CLASS…

• Formation fracturing
pressure. • This chapter presents a brief description of hydraulic
• Fracture geometry. fracturing treatments covering formation fracturing pressure,
• Productivity of fracture geometry, productivity of fractured wells, hydraulic
fractured wells. fracturing design, and post-frac evaluation. More in-depth
• Hydraulic fracturing discussions can be found from Economides et al. (1994) and
design. Economides and Nolte (2000).
• Post-Frac evaluation. • We will learn from this chapter one of the ways to stimulate
the oil wells is the method of hydraulic fracturing.
• This chapter concisely describes hydraulic fracturing
treatments.
SKILLS
Hydraulic fracturing, its EDUCATION
geometry and design
with calculations. The role of a production engineer is to maximize petroleum and
gas production in a cost-effective manner. Familiarization and
understanding of oil and gas production systems are essential to
the engineers. This class provides graduating production
REFERENCES engineers with some basic knowledge about production
systems. More engineering principles are discussed in the later
• Petroleum Production chapters.
System Economides.
Engineering, Elsevier
(2007).
• Petroleum Well
Diagnostics Definition.
Hydraulic Fracture & Fracture Design H
Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. Okab L

A class presentation in Production Engineering at University of
Thi-Qar/ Petroleum and Gas department.
2
Stimulation Techniques
This chapter concisely describes hydraulic fracturing treatments.
For detailed information on this subject.
This chapter focuses on the following topics:
• Formation fracturing pressure.

• Fracture geometry.
• Productivity of fractured wells.
• Hydraulic fracturing design.
• Post-Frac evaluation.
Formation Fracturing Pressure

Formation fracturing pressure is
also called breakdown pressure. It
is one of the key parameters used
in hydraulic fracturing design.
Fracture Geometry
There are a lot of techniques used
to measure the fracture geometry,
some of them which are commonly
used:
• Radial Fracture Model.
• The KGD Model.
• The PKN model.
• 3D and Pseudo-3D Models.
3
Productivity of Fractured Wells

• Hydraulically created fractures gather fluids from reservoir
matrix and provide channels for the fluid to flow into
wellbores. Apparently, the productivity of fractured wells
depends on two steps:
1. Receiving fluids from formation.
2. Transporting the received fluid to the wellbore.
• Usually one of the steps is a limiting step that controls the well-
production rate.
• The efficiency of the first step depends on fracture dimension
(length and height), and the efficiency of the second step
depends on fracture permeability.
• The relative importance of each of the steps can be analyzed
using the concept of fracture conductivity.
FCD = Kf W / K Xf
Where:
FCD fracture conductivity, dimensionless.
Kf fracture permeability, md,
W fracture width, ft.
Xf fracture half-length, ft.
4
Hydraulic fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is a well-stimulation technique that is most
suitable to wells in low- and moderate-permeability reservoirs that
do not provide commercial production rates even though formation
damages are removed by acidizing treatments.
• The process of hydraulic fracturing increases the exposed
area of the producing formation, creating a high conductivity
path that extends from the wellbore through a targeted
hydrocarbon bearing formation for a significant distance, so
that hydrocarbons and other fluids can flow more easily from
the formation rock, into the fracture, and ultimately to the
wellbore.
• Hydraulic fracturing is the process of pumping fluid into a
wellbore at an injection rate that is too high for the formation to
accept without breaking.
• During injection the resistance to flow in the formation
increases, the pressure in the wellbore increases to a value
called the break-down pressure, that is the sum of the in-situ
compressive stress and the strength of the formation.
• Once the formation “breaks down” a fracture is formed, and
the injected fluid flows through it.
• In general, hydraulic fracture treatments are used to increase
the productivity index of a producing well.
5
Hydraulic Fracturing Design

Hydraulic fracturing designs are performed on the basis of
parametric studies to maximize net present values (NPVs) of the
fractured wells.
A hydraulic fracturing design should follow the following
procedure:
1. Select a fracturing fluid.
2. Select a proppant.
3. Determine the maximum allowable treatment pressure
4. Select a fracture propagation model.
5. Select treatment size (fracture length and proppant
concentration).
6. Perform production forecast analysis.
7. Perform NPV analysis.
6
A complete design must include the following components to

direct field operations:
• Specifications of fracturing fluid and proppant.
• Fluid volume and proppant weight requirements.
• Fluid injection schedule and proppant mixing schedule.
• Predicted injection pressure profile.
Selection of Fracturing Fluid

• Fracturing fluid plays a vital role in hydraulic fracture
treatment because it controls the efficiencies of carrying
proppant and filling in the fracture pad.
• Fluid loss is a major fracture design variable characterized by
a fluid-loss coefficient CL and a spurt-loss coefficient Sp.
• Spurt loss occurs only for wall-building fluids and only until
the filter cake is established.
• Fluid loss into the formation is a steadier process than spurt
loss, it occurs after the filter cake is developed.
• Excessive fluid loss prevents fracture propagation because of
insufficient fluid volume accumulation in the fracture,
therefore, a fracture fluid with the lowest possible value of
fluid-loss (leak-off) coefficient CL should be selected.
• The second major variable is fluid viscosity, it affects
transporting, suspending, and deposition of proppants, as well
as back-flowing after treatment.
• The viscosity should be controlled in a range suitable for the
treatment.
7
• A fluid viscosity being too high can result in excessive

injection pressure during the treatment.
Selection of Proppant
• Proppant must be selected on the basis of in-situ stress
conditions.
• Major concerns are compressive strength and the effect of
stress on proppant permeability.
• For a vertical fracture, the compressive strength of the
proppant should be greater than the effective horizontal
stress.
• In general, bigger proppant yields better permeability, but
proppant size must be checked against proppant admittance
criteria through the perforations and inside the fracture.
The maximum Treatment Pressure

• The maximum treatment pressure is expected to occur when
the formation is broken down.
• The bottom-hole pressure is equal to the formation breakdown
pressure Pbd and the expected surface pressure can be
calculated by:
Psi = Pbd - ∆Ph - ∆Pf
Where:
Psi surface injection pressure, psia.
Pbd formation breakdown pressure, psia.
∆Ph hydrostatic pressure drop, psia.
∆Pf frictional pressure drop, psia.
8
Selection of Treatment Size

• Treatment size is primarily defined by the fracture length.
• Fluid and proppant volumes are controlled by fracture length,
injection rate, and leak-off properties.
• A general statement can be made that the greater the propped
fracture length and greater the proppant volume, the greater
the production rate of the fractured well.
• Limiting effects are imposed by technical and economic
factors such as available pumping rate and costs of fluid and
proppant.
• Within these constraints, the optimum scale of treatment
should be ideally determined based on the maximum NPV.
Selection of Fracture Model

• An appropriate fracture propagation model is selected for the
formation characteristics and pressure behavior on the basis
of in situ stresses and laboratory tests.
• Generally, the model should be selected to match the level of
complexity required for the specific application, quality and
quantity of data, allocated time to perform a design, and
desired level of output.
• Modeling with a planar 3D model can be time consuming,
whereas the results from a 2D model can be simplistic.
9
• Pseudo-3D models provide a compromise and are most often

used in the industry.
• However, 2D models are still attractive in situations in which
the reservoir conditions are simple and well understood.
• For instance, to simulate a short fracture to be created in a
thick sandstone, the KGD model may be beneficial.
• To simulate a long fracture to be created in a sandstone tightly
bonded by strong overlaying and underlaying shales, the PKN
model is more appropriate.
• To simulate frac-packing in a thick sandstone, the radial
fracture model may be adequate.
• It is always important to consider the availability and quality of
input data in model selection: garbage-in garbage-out
(GIGO).
Production forecast and NPV Analyses

• The hydraulic fracturing design is finalized on the basis of
production forecast and NPV analyses.
• The information of the selected fracture half-length Xf and the
calculated fracture width W, together with formation
permeability (K) and fracture permeability (Kf ), can be used
to predict the dimensionless fracture conductivity FCD.
• The equivalent skin factor Sf can be estimated, then the
productivity index of the fractured well can be calculated
using, production forecast can be performed.
10
• Comparison of the production forecast for the fractured well

and the predicted production decline for the unstimulated
well allows for calculations of the annual incremental
cumulative production for year n for an oil well:
∆Np, n = Nfp, n - Nnfp, n

Where:
∆Np, n predicted annual incremental cumulative
production for year n.
Nfp, n forecasted annual cumulative production of
fractured well for year n.
Nnfp, n predicted annual cumulative production of
nonfractured well for year n.
Applications for hydraulic fracturing

1. The first application (the most important application) TO
hydraulic fracturing is to increase the permeability of the
reservoir.
2. Increase the flow rate from low-permeability reservoirs such
as shale formation in general.
3. Increase the surface area or the amount of formation contact
with the wellbore.
4. Reduce the number of infill wells with horizontal hydraulic
fracturing stimulation.
5. Connect hydraulic fractures with existing natural fractures.
11
6. Increase the flow rates from wells that have been damaged
(near wellbore skin damage) because of drilling.
7. Decrease the pressure drop around the well, which will cause
reduction in sand production.
The data that must be measured or estimated are:

- Formation depth.
- Formation permeability.
- In-situ stresses in the pay zone.
- In-situ stresses in the surrounding layers.
- Formation modulus.
- Reservoir pressure.
- Formation porosity.
- Formation compressibility.
- Reservoir thickness.
- Skin factor.
Post-Frac Evaluation
Post-frac evaluation can be performed by pressure matching,
pressure transient data analysis, and other techniques including
pumping radioactive materials stages and running tracer logs,
running production logging tools, and conducting back-pressure
and performing Nodal analysis.
12
Questions
What are the most commonly models used to measure

fracture geometry?
• The KGD Model.
• The PKN model.
The productivity of fractured wells depends on two steps,

what are they?
What is Hydraulic fracture?

suitable to wells in low -permeability, used to increase the
productivity of a producing well.
13
What is the main procedure of hydraulic fracturing?

1. Pumping fluid into a wellbore at an injection rate that is too
high.
2. The wellbore increases to a value called the break-down
pressure.
3. A fracture is formed, and the injected fluid flows through it.
A complete design must include the following components

to direct field operations, List two of them. (Only two)
1. Specifications of fracturing fluid and proppant.
2. Fluid volume and proppant weight requirements.
3. Fluid injection schedule and proppant mixing schedule.
4. Predicted injection pressure profile.
What are the major variables effect on the selection of

fracturing fluid?
1. Fluid loss.
2. Fluid viscosity.
Define Post-Frac Evaluation.

Post-frac evaluation can be performed by pressure matching, PTD
analysis, and other techniques including pumping radioactive
materials and running production logging tools, etc.

• The hydraulic fracturing process reduces permeability. False
14
• The maximum treatment pressure occurs when the formation

is broken down. True
Fill the blanks:

• In hydraulic fracture the efficiency of the first step depends on
fracture dimension (length and height), and the efficiency of
the second step depends on fracture permeability.
• Treatment size is primarily defined by the fracture length.

• During injection, the pressure in the wellbore increases to a
value called the (break-down pressure, abnormal pressure,
pore pressure).
• In fracturing, the optimum scale of treatment based on (PLT,
NPV, PVT).
List the applications for hydraulic fracturing (Only three).

1. Increase the permeability of the reservoir.
2. Increase the flow rate from low-permeability reserves.
3. Decrease the pressure drop around the well.
4. Increase the surface area of formation which contact with the
wellbore.
5. Reduce the number of infill wells with hydraulic
6. Connect hydraulic fractures with existing fractures.
7. Increase the flow rates from wells that have been damaged.
15
Numerate data that must be measured in hydraulic

fracturing process. (Five Only)
1. Formation depth.
2. Formation permeability.
3. In-situ stresses in the pay zone.
4. Skin factor.
5. Formation modulus.
6. Reservoir pressure.
7. Formation porosity.
8. Formation compressibility.
9. Reservoir thickness.
16
Acidizing
YN Lecturer: Dr. Abdullah K. okab
Group 14. | Mohaymen Alutbi, Mortatha Makki,
Mariem Ali, Mehdi Salih, Mustafa Shaheed

CLASS…
• Well Stimulation
• Acidizing
• Acidizing types • Oil and gas operators have safely and
successfully used acid to improve productivity of
• Corrosion inhibitors oil and gas wells for nearly 120 years. Today,
• Acidizing Method acidizing is one of the most widely used
• Retardation of acid processes for stimulating oil and gas wells.
• Two types of acids are most commonly used;
hydrochloric acid in all formation types and
hydrofluoric acid in sandstones and certain
SKILLS shales. Other types
of acids, such as organic acids, may also be used
in specialized situations.
Get a knowledge about • Since geologic formations are never
acidizing and production homogeneous, blends (particularly for sandstone
enhancement formations) of HCl and HF are usually pumped
with the blend ratios based on the formation
mineralogy.
• All aspects of the regulatory framework
surrounding the use of acid in oil and gas wells
VOLENTEER are well developed and mature as are the
operational and safety practices employed by
EXPERIENCE OR operators and service providers.
LEADERSHIP • When the acid reacts with formation materials it
is largely consumed and neutralized.
A class presentation in • Spent acid that is recovered when a treated well
is brought on production is treated and safely
Production Engineering at
disposed of in essentially the same way as
University of Thi-Qar/
produced water.
Petroleum and Gas department.
Acidizing
Today, acidizing is one of the most widely used

BACKGROUND and effective means available to oil and gas
operators for improving productivity (stimulation)
Oil and gas operators have of wells. Acidizing is commonly performed on new
used acid treatment wells to maximize their initial productivity and on
(acidizing) to improve well aging wells to restore productivity and maximize
productivity for almost 120 the recovery of the energy resources.
years. Acidizing predates all
other well stimulation Acidizing and production enhancement operations
techniques, including increase or restore production in all types of wells.
hydraulic fracturing which There are many different types of acid and solvent
was not developed until the blends that can be used on a well, and treatments
late 1940s. However, until the can be categorized by injection rate and pumping
early 1930’s, acidizing use pressure. Treatments that are applied below
was limited by the lack of fracture pressure are called matrix acidizing, while
effective acid corrosion those carried out above formation pressure are
inhibitors to protect the steel called fracture acidizing.
tubulars in the wells. With the
When it comes to improving or restoring
development of effective
production in a well, the best solutions come from a
corrosion inhibitors, the use
thorough investigation of the problem. Beginning
and further development of
with your formation, wellbore data and available
acid treatment (acidizing) of
wellbore samples, we gather information and study
oil and gas wells proliferated,
the issue from all angles. Using state-of-the-art
leading to the establishment
equipment, our expert team designs a fit-for-
of the well stimulation
purpose solution to address the problem and
services industry.
maximize resource recovery.
2
Acidizing
Well Stimulation
• Sometime, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow
readily into the well because the formation has very low
permeability.
Natural low permeability formation.
Formation damage around the wellbore.
• Well Stimulation overcomes low permeability by creating new
flow channels or enlarging old ones.
• Wells are stimulated immediately after completion or
whenever production drops during the life of the well.
Formation damage can occur during any well operation

including:
1. Drilling
2. Cementing
3. Perforations
4. Production
5. Workover
3
Acidizing
Three ways for Stimulation

1. The oldest method is to use Explosives.
2. During 1930’s, acid stimulation, became economically
viable.
3. Hydraulic Fracturing, the third stimulation method, was
introduced in 1948.
Acid Stimulation (Acidizing)

• If the formation is composed of rocks that dissolve upon being
contacted by acid then a technique known as acidizing may be
required.
• Reservoir Rocks most commonly acidized are carbonate
reservoirs (Limestone and Dolomite).
• Acids that are strong enough to dissolve rock are often strong
enough to eat away the metal of the pipes and equipment in the
well. Therefore, Acidizing involves a compromise between
acid strength and additives to prevent damage of equipment.
• The acid travels down the tubing, enters the perforations, and
contacts the formation.
• A hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution is generally the most
efficient and economic agent for acidizing carbonate
formations. It will dissolve Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 ),
4
Acidizing
Dolomite (CaMgCO3 ), Siderite (FeCO3 ), and Iron Oxide

(Fe2O3 ). HCl is a strong and hazardous acid, highly corrosive
to iron and steel.
• Other acids that are sometimes used include sulfonic, nitric,
and hydrofluoric acids. The last two are costly and very
dangerous.
• For sandstones, the typical treatments usually consist of a
mixture of 3 wt% HF and 12 wt% HCl and 15 wt% HCl.
• For carbonate matrix acidizing Weak acids are suggested for
perforating fluid and perforation cleanup, and strong acids are
recommended for other treatments.
Acidizing types
• There are three basic acidizing treatments:
1. Acid Fracturing
2. Matrix Acidizing
3. Spotting
• The methods for both acid fracturing and matrix acidizing

are the same, except for the amount of pressure applied.
5
Acidizing
1. Matrix Acidizing
• Matrix acidizing (also called acid matrix treatment) is a
technique to stimulate wells for improving well inflow
performance. In the treatment, acid solution is injected into
the formation to dissolve some of the minerals to recover
permeability of sandstones (removing skin) or increase
permeability of carbonates near the wellbore.
• In Matrix Acidizing the acid injection pressure is below
formation fracture pressure.
• During matrix acidizing the acids dissolve the sediments
and mud solids within the pores that are inhibiting the
permeability of the rock.
• mostly used in sandstone formations.
• Due to the extremely large surface area contacted by acid
in a matrix
treatment,
spending time is
very short.
Therefore, it is
difficult to affect
formation more
than a few feet
from the
wellbore.
6
Acidizing
2. Acid fracturing
• The acid injection pressure is above the formation fracture
pressure.
• The reservoir is hydraulically fractured and then the
fracture faces are etched with acid to provide linear flow
channels to wellbore.
• The application of acid fracturing is confined to carbonate
reservoirs and shouldn’t be used to stimulate sandstone,
shale, or coal-seam reservoirs.
• It is a popular method because even injecting acid at a
moderate pumping rate in low permeability limestone and
dolomite formations usually results in fracturing.
• A major problem in fracture acidizing of carbonate
formations is that acids tend to react too fast with
carbonates and are spent near the wellbore so we must
retard acid reaction rate.
3. Spotting
• Spotting acid means to pump a small amount of acid into a
particular spot in a well.
• Spotting removes deposits on the face of the producing
formation.
7
Acidizing
• A rig operator may also spot a well to free stuck drill pipe
or to dissolve junk in the hole. This works by corroding the
metal.
Corrosion inhibitors
• They are chemical additives that reduce the rate of
corrosion of steel by acid.
• There are two primary reasons for using corrosion
inhibitors:
1. to protect the acid pumping and handling equipment
2. to protect well equipment.
Factors that govern the degree of acid attack on steel are:

1. type of steel including hardness
2. temperature
3. type of acid
4. acid concentration
5. acid contact time
Acidizing Method
8
Acidizing
• After crew members pump in the acid under low, high, or

no pressure, they seal the well to allow the acid to react
with the rock.
• The length of this shut-in time depends on how long it
takes for the acid and rock to react, or the reaction time.
• Reaction time may be zero for HCL in a limestone
formation because the acid is spent by the time it is placed.
Other acids and formations may require a few hours to
acidize.
• Finally, the crew pumps in a fluid to displace the spent
acid and disposes of it.
Factors controlling the reaction rate of acid are:
1. area of contact per unit volume of acid
2. formation temperature
3. pressure
4. acid concentration
5. acid type
6. physical and chemical properties of formation rock
7. flow velocity of acid
Retardation of acid
To achieve deeper penetration in fracture
9
Acidizing
acidizing, it is often desirable to retard Acid

reaction rate. This can be done by
• Gelling
• Emulsifying
• Chemically retarding the acid
1. Gelled Acid
• The use of gelled acid for fracture acidizing, it is now the
most used technique.
• The introduction of more temperature-stable up to
temperatures of about 400°F.
• Two types of gelling systems, polymers and surfactants, are
in common use.
2. Emulsified Acid
• For many years the primary retarded acid for fracture
acidizing was an acid-in-oil emulsion.
• It has limited temperature range and stability, with high
viscosity and high friction loss.
3. Chemically-Retarded acid
10
Acidizing
• Acid-Retardation of HCl is obtained by the addition of unique

surfactants to the acid which form protective films on the
surface of limestone or dolomite.
• These films retard reaction rate in much the same way that
an acid corrosion inhibitor protects metal.
11
Acidizing
REFERENCES
• Halliburton, Effective Sandstone Acidizing, Best Practices

Series
• Halliburton, Carbonate Matrix Acidizing Treatments, Best
Practices Series
• Halliburton, Fracture Acidizing, Best Practices Series
• Kalfayan, L.J. Production Enhancement with Acid Stimulation
(Second Edition). 2008. PennWell.
• Schlumberger, Reservoir Stimulation (Third Edition). 2000.
John Wiley & Sons.
• Schlumberger, Trends in Matrix Acidizing
• McLeod, H.O. 1986. Matrix Acidizing to Improve Well
Performance. Short Course Manual. Richardson, Texas: SPE.
• Williams, B.B., Gidley, J.L., and Schechter, R.S. 1979.
Acidizing Fundamentals, 55. New York: SPE/AIME.
12
Acidizing
Questions
Numerate the ways of stimulation.
1. Using explosives.
2. acid stimulation.
3. Hydraulic Fracturing.
What is the types of acidizing?

1. Acid Fracturing.
2. Matrix Acidizing.
3. Spotting.
What is Matrix acidizing?

Acid solution is injected into the formation to dissolve some of the
minerals to recover permeability of sandstones (removing skin) or
increase permeability of carbonates near the wellbore.
What is Acid fracturing?

The acid injection pressure is above the formation fracture pressure,
the reservoir is hydraulically fractured and provide linear flow
channels to wellbore, used for carbonate reservoirs and shouldn’t be
used to sandstone, shale, or coal-seam reservoirs.
What does spotting means in acidizing?

Spotting acid means to pump a small amount of acid into a particular
spot in a well, spotting removes deposits on the face of the producing
formation.
13
Acidizing
What is the primary reasons for using corrosion inhibitors?

1. Protect the acid pumping and handling equipment
2. Protect well equipment.
What is the factors that govern the degree of acid attack on steel?
(List three only).
1. Type of steel hardness.
2. Temperature.
3. Type of acid.
4. Acid concentration.
5. Acid contact time.
List the factors that controlling the reaction rate of acids?

(List five only).
1. Area of contact per unit volume of acid
2. Formation temperature
3. Pressure
4. Acid concentration
5. Acid type
6. Physical and chemical properties of formation rock
7. Flow velocity of acid
How the acidizing rate could be retarded?

It can be retarded by:
1. Gelling
2. Emulsifying
3. Chemically retarding the acid
14
Acidizing
Fill the blanks:

• Two types of gelling systems polymers and surfactants which
are in common use.
• Reservoir Rocks most commonly acidized are carbonate rocks.

• The oldest method in stimulation is (Acidizing, Using Explosives,
Hydraulic Fracturing).
• Economical method in stimulation is (Acidizing, Using Explosives,
Hydraulic Fracturing).

• In Acid fracturing injection pressure is below the formation fracture
pressure. False
• In Matrix Acidizing the acid injection pressure is above formation
fracture pressure. False
15
Questions of The Examination
YN Lecture 1
What does low productivity mean?

It is a drop-in production of oil wells due to reservoir and
wellbore dominated factors and mechanical failure.
Numerate factors that lead to a decrease in production?

(List five only).
1. Pressure effect.
2. Decrease in permeability.
3. Skin factor.
4. Near wellbore restrictions.
5. Formation Damage.
6. Effect on well pore radius.
7. Formation collapse.
8. Mechanical failure.
Give two reasons for the mechanic's failure?

(List two only).
2. The collection of debris or scale in the wellbore.
3. The production of formation sand or collapse of the
formation.
5. Using equipment that is not designed to withstand the
depth, temperature, or pressure of a well.
Talk about formation damage.

Formation damage is defined as the weakness in reservoir
caused by wellbore fluids used during drilling, completion
and work over operations.
Talk about pressure effect on low productivity.
During production the pressure will partially drop down in
relation with several factors in wellbore or formation, it can
also be happened by incorrect measurements before the
production is started.
During pressure dropping and be below bubble point the
production will be changed from single-phase into two-
phase flow.
Define the skin factor.

Skin Factor is usually defined to account for additional
pressure drop due to damage or stimulation around the
wellbore in an oil / gas formation.
Give Mathematical expression of skin factors:
Give expression to each symbol in the equation

S = Sd + Sc + Sɵ + Sp ?
S = total skin effect of a well.
Sd = skin due to damage.
Sc = skin due to partial penetration.
Sɵ = skin due to deviation.
Fill the blanks

• The main factor of low productivity is pressure.
• The corrosion of downhole equipment is mechanical
failure.
Put true or false:

• The most important factors that cause skin factor are
drilling, completion and perforation. True
• The decrease in the permeability of any damage was
called the negative skin factor. False
• The main factor of wellbore and reservoir lead to low
productivity is (pressure, skin factor, formation damage).
• (pressure, skin factor, formation damage) is a constant
that is used to adjust the flow equation derived from the
ideal condition to suit the applications in non-ideal
conditions.
Draw plot of formation damage.

YN Lecture 2
Transient Test and Near Wellbore
Damage

(Choose only five).
1. Formation strength.
2. Sonic log.
3. Density log.
4. Neutron log.
5. Formation properties log.
6. Porosity.
7. Drawdown.
8. Finite element analysis.
9. Time dependence.
10. Multiphase flow.
Define Gravel Pack.

A gravel pack is simply a downhole filter designed to prevent
the production of unwanted formation sand.
Can we always use Gravel Pack while sand producing?

If the formation material is either hard (no sand production) or
weak (sand production), the difficulty arises when the strength
of the formation material is marginal.
What is the applications of Production Log tool(PLT)?

(List only three).
What does Near Wellbore Damage mean?
It any reduction of the production zone permeability as result of
invasion of mud to the production zone.
What would reduce the permeability in Near Wellbore?

(List only two).
1. Fluids carry their movement from the layer to the well if
their speed is greater than the critical speed of carrying
these grains.
2. When the producing layer is a container of high viscosity
oil and a large proportion of paraffins.
3. The layer adjacent to the well is flooded with gases or
water during perforation near the transition zone, where
the layer is not permeable to the oil.
Fill the blanks:

• The evaluation the skin damage effect is done by DST test.
• Any process that lead a reduction of the production zone
permeability called as skin damage.
How can we avoid Permeability reduction in Near

Wellbore?
(List only two).
1. The rate of production should be reduced, so that the flow
rate of fluids is less than the critical speed of carrying sand
grains on the move.
2. Heating the walls of the well to prevent the formation of
paraffins.
3. Perforation against the producing layer and far enough
from water and gas.
Put True or False:

• The quality of the sand used is as important as the proper
sizing. True
• No sand production may occur with high pressure
drawdown around the well. False
• This mud filtrate in the formation reduces the (effective,
absolute, relative) permeability to hydrocarbons near the
wellbore.
• Higher sand production is usually associated with
(viscosity, density, formation volume factor).
How can the injections cause damage to the wellbore?

Ø The water injected may be dirty; it may contain fines that
may plug the formation and reduce permeability.
Ø The injected water may be incompatible with the formation
water; causing solids to precipitate and plug the formation.
How can the production processes cause damage to the

wellbore? (Choose one example)
introduce a positive skin factor.
Ø For example, in an otherwise under saturated oil reservoir,
pressure near the well may be below the bubble point
pressure, causing a free-gas saturation and reducing the
effective permeability to oil.
Ø In a retrograde gas reservoir, the pressure near the
wellbore may drop below the dewpoint and an immobile
liquid phase may form and reduce the effective
permeability to gas near the wellbore.
YN Lecture 3
Production Test & Well testing
What does Well Test mean?

Well test is a test applied on the flow of the reservoir fluid, done
through changes the flow rate of the well and records the
response of pressure as function of time.
What is the main objective of well testing?

(Choose three only).
• To determine whether all the drilled length of oil well is
also a producing zone.
• To estimate skin factor or related damage to an oil well.
• To determine the wellbore storage and production
capacity.
Define productivity index.

The productivity index is a measure of the quality of a well. It
has been defined as the rate of flow per unit pressure
drawdown.
PI = q . ΔP
What is the benefit of measuring temperature in well

testing?
This temperature is used to correct the pressure reading from
the gauge exposed to pressure.
Numerate the main parameters in well testing.
(Choose four only).
• Skin factor.
• Storativity.
• Drainage area.
• Drainage shape.
How can we measure the pressure at several zones in

well testing?
Ø When several reservoir zones are produced at different
bottom hole pressures, it is common to have a pressure
transducer in each zone. It is also common with pressure
sensors both inside the tubing and in the annulus.
Ø The pressure sensor is normally placed at the top of the
perforated zone, thus a hydrostatic correction is required
to obtain the reservoir pressure at different heights in the
reservoir.
Fill the blanks:

• The data from well test contribute to reserve estimation
and are used to determine if reservoirs are economic.
• For well testing it is the pressure and the production
rate that are the most important measured quantities.
• (Drawdown test, Buildup test, Injection test) is
conceptually similar to a drawdown test, except flow is into
the well rather than out of it.
• (Drawdown test, Buildup test, Injection test) is conducted
to obtain initial reservoir pressure, and the average
reservoir pressure.
List the most common test type in well testing.

(Choose five only).
• Drawdown test.
• Buildup test.
• Injection test.
• Falloff test.
• RFT.
• Drill-Stem test.
• Multi rate tests.
• Production test.
• Banker’s test.
• Interference test.
From the figure,

which is the best
productivity index a,
b or c?
Production
characteristic “a” is
obviously best since it
gives the highest
production rate for a
given drawdown.
The same production characteristic also gives the lowest
drawdown for a given production rate.
• A pressure falloff test is usually proceeded by an injectivity
test of a long duration. True
• Typical objectives for a buildup test are to obtain average
permeability (𝑘), the skin factor (𝑆), pore volume and
reservoir heterogeneity. False
Match each object with its correct field.

1. Evaluating permeability a. Producing well testing
and skin effect.
2. Confirming heterogeneities b. Exploration well testing
and boundaries.
3. Fluid sampling.
4. Verifying permeability and
skin effect.
5. Identifying heterogeneities
and boundaries.
6. Estimating the average
reservoir pressure.
7. Measuring the initial
pressure.
8. Identifying fluid behavior.
YN Lecture 4
Production Ratio
Fill the blanks:

• Productivity Index is the measure of the ability of a well to produce
hydrocarbons at a commercial rate.
• Productivity index is commonly denoted by “Pi or J”.
Put true or false:

• Productivity index tells the operator about the performance of an oil
well. True
• Pressure Drawdown is the differential pressure which helps in moving
hydrocarbons from a reservoir into the wellbore. True
A well is producing at a constant flow rate 500 STB/Day, and the

average reservoir pressure 3000 psi and bottom hole flowing
pressure 250 psi calculate the productivity index.
J = 500 STB/D / (3000 psi – 250 psi) = 0.18 STB/D/psi.

pressure difference between the reservoir average pressure and the bottom
hole (hydraulic pressure, flowing pressure, static pressure)
What is productivity index?

productivity index is the ratio of total flow rate of the liquid to the drawdown
pressure.
What the purpose of performing drawdown pressure test?

To determine skin factor, permeability and reservoir boundary distances.
For an oil well calculate the productivity index.
Q= 600 STB/Day
Pe= 2500 psi
Pwf= 210 psi
What are the main advantages of drawdown pressure test?

What are the main disadvantages of drawdown pressure test?

1. Surface chokes need to be changed periodically in order to maintain a
constant flow rate.
Define drawdown pressure.

flowing pressure.
Give the meaning for the following equation

Explain why when the drawdown tests are performed, the well is
closed.
The well needs to be closed for sufficient period of time in order to allow the
stabilization of pressure throughout the formation.
YN
Lecture 5
Causes of Problem Well Analysis &
IPR Curves
What is the Problem Well Analysis?

excessive water production, excessive gas production for oil
wells, and mechanical failures.
What is the method to Analysis of Problems in Rod-

Pumped Wells?
2. Analysis of problems in hydraulic bottom-hole pumps.
What is the performance analysis methods?

1. Analysis based on Material Balance Equation.
2. Reservoir Simulation Models.
3. Decline Curve Analysis.
What does the performance analysis method aim to?

It is aiming to achieving the best reservoir performance
prediction and works on.
Fill the blanks:

• Factors influencing the shape of the IPR are the pressure
drop and relative permeability across the reservoir.
• The inflow performance relationship IPR for a well is the
relationship between the flow rate of the well Q and the
flowing pressuere of the well Pwf.
Put True or False:
• In single phase flow this is a straight line but at two phase
flow this is not linear relationship. True
• The Pi of the well improves as more of the zones
contribute, so it improves with the lowering of the flowing
pressure. True
Chose the correct answer:

• (Analysis based on Material Balance Equation,
Reservoir Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) is a
method based on the data obtained from previous
reservoir performance and PVT.
Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) is a method
involves numerical simulation technique and matching
between the simulated production and the previous
performance history.
Simulation Models, Decline Curve Analysis) matching
the observed trend of the production decline with one or
several standard mathematical methods of the production
decline curves.
What is the production decline curves which is used in

Decline Curve Analysis?
The production decline curves include:
1. production rate vs time.
2. production rate vs cumulative oil production.
3. water cut vs cumulative oil production.
What is the Vogel’s Method?

Vogel developed an empirical equation for the shape of IPR
curve, where q’ is the potential of the well or maximum
production. Using the productivity index J and assuming Ps and
average reservoir pressure approximately the same.
When the IPR Curve bends down?
If the average reservoir pressure is above the bubble point, the
area around the wellbore is not, which causes the gas to come
out of solution in this area causing the relative permeability of
the liquids to change (which is based on fluid saturation), as the
Pwf is lower for a greater flow.
Talk about the two stratified formation zones of varying

Kh when are opened in a well.
Ø The one with the highest Kh well contribute more to the
production of the well, then the lower Kh zones will
contribute.
Ø Thus, the average reservoir pressure of the high Kh zones
drops faster than the other zones in the well.
Ø This causes the zones to start flowing at different flowing
bottom hole pressures.
Ø At the lower rates or higher flowing pressures it is the zone
with the lowest Kh that have the highest average pressure.
Ø So that it produces first and then as the flowing pressure
drops below the average pressure of the other zones that
start to contribute to the flow.
Draw an IPR-Curve.
YN Lecture 6
Material Balance & Reservoir
Simulation
What is the common Reserve Estimation Methods?

2. Material Balance
Compare between Volumetric Method and Material

Balance
Volumetric Method Material Balance
1. Early stage of reservoir 1. Later stage of
development. development
2. No time dependency, No 2. Time dependant
Production data. Introduction, Production
data exist.
Define Material Balance equation.

One of the basic tools of reservoir engineers for
interpreting and predicting reservoir performance.
What is the uses of MBE?

It can be used to:
• Predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various
types of primary driving mechanisms.
Give meaning of each symbols in the equation:
DDI = depletion-drive index.
SDI = segregation (gas-cap)-drive index.
WDI = water-drive index.
EDI = expansion (rock and liquid)-depletion index.
List the types of natural drive mechanisims.

1. Depletion Drive.
2. Segregation Drive (Gas-Cap Drive).
3. Water Drive.
4. Expansion Drive.
Define Reservoir Simulation.

The construction and operation of a model whose behavior
assumes the appearance of actual reservoir behavior.
What is the purpose of reservoir simulation?

Ø Estimation of field under one or more producing schemes.
Ø Observation of model results that represent different
producing conditions aids selection of an optimal set of
producing conditions for the reservoir.
What is the advances in Reservoir Simulation?

(Choose 3 only)
1. Speed and accuracy.
2. New fluid flow equations.
3. Coupled fluid flow and geo-mechanical stress model.
4. Fluid flow modeling under thermal stress.
What is the future challenges in Reservoir Simulation?

1. Experimental challenges.
2. Numerical Challenges.
3. Remote sensing and real-time monitoring.
Fill the blanks:
• The terms composing the MBE can be determined from
PVT and rock properties.
• If F/(Eo + Ef,w) lie on a horizontal straight line the reservoir
can be classified as a volumetric reservoir.

• Decline Curve Analysis is the later stage of reserve
estimation methods. True
If the values of F/(Eo + Ef,w) rise, the reservoir has been
energized by water influx. True
YN Lecture 7
What do Well Services mean?

Well services are a department within petroleum production
company through which matters concerning existing wells are
handled. Having a shared well services, experience and
resources for managing wells.
What does Workover mean?

Workover is the process of maintaining, repairing or enhancing
production from a well through various means.
Mention the required workover consideration.

(List only three)
3. In thermal projects, the elevated temperatures create
special needs for doing a workover safely.
4. The condition of the well equipment may be a major factor
in what and how much is done in a particular workover.
What is the common workover tasks that we have to

perform? (List only four)
4. Well cleanout.
5. Re-completion.
What does Wireline refer to?
wirelines are electric cables that transmit data about the well by
lower equipment or measurement devices into the well for well
intervention, formation evaluation operations, and pipe
recovery.
What is the Slickline?

Slicklines are non-electric cables lowered into oil and gas wells
from the surface, which can also be used to adjust valves and
sleeves located downhole, as well as repair tubing within the
wellbore.
Define the term Squeeze cementing.

Is the process of using pump pressure to inject or squeeze
cement into a problematic void space at a desired location in the
well, it may be performed at any time during the life of the well
(drilling, completions or producing).
What does Coiled tubing refers to?

Coiled tubing refers to a very long metal pipe and used for
interventions in oil and gas wells and sometimes as production
tubing.
What does Snubbing refers to?

Snubbing is a type of heavy well intervention performed on oil
and gas wells. It involves running the BHA on a pipe string using
a hydraulic workover rig.
Fill the blanks:

• Snubbing involves running the BHA on a pipe string using
a hydraulic workover rig.
• In squeezing cement the zone to be squeezed is isolated
from above with a packer.
Put (True) or (False).
• The pump is done at very low rates and high pressures
during the squeeze itself. True
• Squeeze job also cannot be applied for injection of small
volumes of liquids like treating fluids. False

• (Wireline, Coiled tubing, Snubbing) has also been used
as a cheaper version of work-over operations.
(Wireline, Coiled tubing, Snubbing) is often used as a
production tube.
YN Lecture 8
What are the purposes of study wellbore performance?

1. optimize selecting tubing size, casing size
2. selecting the artificial lift method.
3. choose the artificial lift method.
Define of Reynolds number?

The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to
the viscous forces in a flowing fluid.
How do we determine the type of flow(Laminar or

Turbulent) in a Wellbore?
By Reynolds number:
Ø For laminar flow where NRe < 2,000
Ø For turbulent flow where NRe > 2,100
Why the separated flow models are difficult to be coded

in computer programs?
Because most correlations are presented in graphic form.
Fill the blanks:

• Wellbore performance analysis involves establishing a
relationship between tubular size, wellhead and
bottom-hole pressure, fluid properties, and fluid
production rate.
• The four-phase flow model in Homogeneous-Flow Models
can be applied to mist flow in gas wells
Match each phase with its right definition.
In bubble flow The larger gas bubbles
become unstable and
collapse, resulting in a highly
turbulent flow pattern with
both phases dispersed.
In slug flow Gas becomes the continuous
phase, with liquid flowing in
an annulus, coating the
surface of the pipe and with
droplets entrained in the gas
phase.
In churn flow Gas phase is dispersed in the
form of small bubbles in a
continuous liquid phase.
In annular flow Gas bubbles coalesce into
larger bubbles (called Taylor
bubbles) that eventually fill
the entire pipe cross-section.

• Homogeneous models are easy to code in computer
programs. True
• Producing oil through tubing is a worst option in most
cases. False
Talk briefly about Multiphase Gas Wells.

In some wells, gas condensate is not seen at surface, but it exists
in the wellbore. Some gas wells produce sand and coal
particles, these wells are called multiphase-gas wells.
• In most production wells the flow is (single-phase, multi-
phase, four-phase) flow.
• Some production wells and most injection wells are
(single-phase, multi-phase, four-phase) flow.
How will single-phase or multi-phase flow exist in oil

wells?
Single-Phase flow: when wellhead pressure is above bubble-
point of oil.
Multi-Phase Flow: when wellhead pressure is below bubble-
point of oil.
List the main categories of TPR models for multi-phase

flow wells.
1. Homogeneous- Flow Models
2. Separated-Flow Models.
How liquid holdup will we occurred, explain with figure.

The density difference causes the lighter phase moves faster
than the denser phase. Because of this, the denser phase is
‘‘held up’’ in the pipe relative to the lighter phase.
YN Lecture 9
Hydraulic Fracture & Fracture Design
What are the most commonly models used to measure

fracture geometry?
• The KGD Model.
• The PKN model.
The productivity of fractured wells depends on two steps,

what are they?
What is Hydraulic fracture?

suitable to wells in low -permeability, used to increase the
productivity of a producing well.
What is the main procedure of hydraulic fracturing?

1. Pumping fluid into a wellbore at an injection rate that is too
high.
2. The wellbore increases to a value called the break-down
pressure.
3. A fracture is formed, and the injected fluid flows through it.
A complete design must include the following
components to direct field operations, List two of them.
(Only two)
1. Specifications of fracturing fluid and proppant.
2. Fluid volume and proppant weight requirements.
3. Fluid injection schedule and proppant mixing schedule.
4. Predicted injection pressure profile.
What are the major variables effect on the selection of

fracturing fluid?
1. Fluid loss.
2. Fluid viscosity.
Define Post-Frac Evaluation.

Post-frac evaluation can be performed by pressure matching,
PTD analysis, and other techniques including pumping
radioactive materials and running production logging tools,
etc.

• The hydraulic fracturing process reduces permeability.
False
• The maximum treatment pressure occurs when the
formation is broken down. True
Fill the blanks:

• In hydraulic fracture the efficiency of the first step depends
on fracture dimension (length and height), and the
efficiency of the second step depends on fracture
permeability.
• Treatment size is primarily defined by the fracture
length.
• During injection, the pressure in the wellbore increases to a
value called the (break-down pressure, abnormal
pressure, pore pressure).
• In fracturing, the optimum scale of treatment based on (PLT,
NPV, PVT).
List the applications for hydraulic fracturing.

(Only three).
1. Increase the permeability of the reservoir.
2. Increase the flow rate from low-permeability reserves.
3. Decrease the pressure drop around the well.
4. Increase the surface area of formation which contact with
the wellbore.
5. Reduce the number of infill wells with hydraulic
6. Connect hydraulic fractures with existing fractures.
7. Increase the flow rates from wells that have been
damaged.
Numerate data that must be measured in hydraulic

fracturing process. (Five Only)
1. Formation depth.
2. Formation permeability.
3. In-situ stresses in the pay zone.
4. Skin factor.
5. Formation modulus.
6. Reservoir pressure.
7. Formation porosity.
8. Formation compressibility.
9. Reservoir thickness.
YN Lecture 10
Acid Stimulation
Numerate the ways of stimulation.

1. Using explosives.
2. acid stimulation.
3. Hydraulic Fracturing.
What is the types of acidizing?

1. Acid Fracturing.
2. Matrix Acidizing.
3. Spotting.
What is Matrix acidizing?

Acid solution is injected into the formation to dissolve some
of the minerals to recover permeability of sandstones
(removing skin) or increase permeability of carbonates
near the wellbore.
What is Acid fracturing?

The acid injection pressure is above the formation fracture
pressure, the reservoir is hydraulically fractured and
provide linear flow channels to wellbore, used for
carbonate reservoirs and shouldn’t be used to sandstone,
shale, or coal-seam reservoirs.
What does spotting means in acidizing?

Spotting acid means to pump a small amount of acid into a
particular spot in a well, spotting removes deposits on the
face of the producing formation.
What is the primary reasons for using corrosion
inhibitors?
1. Protect the acid pumping and handling equipment
2. Protect well equipment.
What is the factors that govern the degree of acid attack

on steel? (List three only).
1. Type of steel hardness.
2. Temperature.
3. Type of acid.
4. Acid concentration.
5. Acid contact time.
List the factors that controlling the reaction rate of acids?

(List five only).
1. Area of contact per unit volume of acid
2. Formation temperature
3. Pressure
4. Acid concentration
5. Acid type
6. Physical and chemical properties of formation rock
7. Flow velocity of acid
How the acidizing rate could be retarded?

It can be retarded by:
1. Gelling
2. Emulsifying
3. Chemically retarding the acid
Fill the blanks:

• Two types of gelling systems polymers and
surfactants which are in common use.
• Reservoir Rocks most commonly acidized are
carbonate rocks.
• The oldest method in stimulation is (Acidizing, Using
Explosives, Hydraulic Fracturing).
• Economical method in stimulation is (Acidizing, Using
Explosives, Hydraulic Fracturing).

• In Acid fracturing injection pressure is below the
formation fracture pressure. False
• In Matrix Acidizing the acid injection pressure is above
formation fracture pressure. False

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YN

Causes of low well productivity

Causes of low well productivity

Low Productivity is a drope in production in oil wells

Decrease in relative permeability:

Near wellbore restrictions:

Figure(1)Formation skin damage

Skin Factor is usually defined to account for additional

Skin factor effect:

Mathematical expression of skin factors:

Skin due to damage is a measure of the amount of damage or

Skin due to partial penetration formation when dealing with

As the flow streamlines converge to fit into the effectively

This pressure drop can be represented as a skin factor due

Skin due to deviation is a skin component due to partial

Effect on well pore radius

Numerate factors that lead to a decrease in production?

Give two reasons for the mechanic's failure?

Talk about formation damage.

Talk about pressure effect on low productivity.

Define the skin factor.

Give Mathematical expression of skin factors:

Give expression to each symbol in the equation

Fill the blanks

Put true or false:

Choose the correct answer:

Draw plot of formation damage.

WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS CLASS…

Prediction Sand production (PSP)

How to determine the quantity of sand production?

The use of this method requires calibration against particular

Formation properties log

Porosity information can be derived from well logs or laboratory

Finite element analysis

difficult to acquire with a high degree of accuracy under actual

than either fluid alone. These relative permeability effects can

place with a properly-sized screen. To determine what size gravel-

Operational and economic influences:

whether to gravel pack is fairly easy if the formation material is

Production Log tool(PLT)

Application of production logs

is usually easier and more quantitative while the latter is more

1. Diagnose production problems and allocate production.

Near Wellbore Damage Characterization

Permeability reduction and formation damage

effective permeability to hydrocarbons near the wellbore. It may

The Wellbore Damage During The Production Process Occur When:

In order to avoid these problems:

How to determine the quantity of sand production?

Define Gravel Pack.

Can e always use Gravel Pack while sand producing?

The difficulty arises when the strength of the formation material is

What does Near Wellbore Damage Characterization mean?

What would reduce the permeability in Near Wellbore?

Fill the blanks:

How can we avoid Permeability reduction in Near Wellbore?

Put True or False:

Choose the correct answer:

How can the injections cause damage to the wellbore?

How can the production processes cause damage to the

OBJECTS WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS

Exploration wells Producing wells

The purpose of reservoir characterization in general is to provide data for

Well testing is also used in reservoir monitoring, by providing average