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Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068

www.fuelfirst.com

Liquid fuels-fired porous combustor-heater

Sumrerng Jugjai *, Chanin Phothiya
Combustion and Engine Research Laboratory (CERL), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi, 91 Suksawat 48 Road, Bangmod, Thungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand

Received 5 June 2006; received in revised form 11 October 2006; accepted 12 October 2006
Available online 7 November 2006

Abstract

A new concept of a liquid fuels-fired porous combustor-heater (LPCH) without atomization is proposed. Basic experimental study
was conducted with liquid kerosene on a down-flow LPCH to prove its concept and evaluate its performance. Effects of dominating
parameters, i.e. mass flow rate of the cooling water, equivalence ratio and input thermal power, on temperature profiles within the
LPCH, thermal efficiency and pollutant emissions (CO and NOX) under different conditions have been investigated and compared with
those of the conventional free flame combustion system. The LPCH proved very effective in increasing thermal efficiency (up to 28% with
respect to the conventional system) with a manageable level of CO emissions but low NOX emissions. The dominating parameters have a
significant effect on flame location, combustion temperature and pollutant emissions. Operating the LPCH at optimized operating con-
ditions is important for the requirement of low CO emissions without compromising thermal efficiency and NOX emissions. Practical
applications of this LPCH are suggested.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Porous combustor-heater; Heat re-circulating combustion; Liquid fuels

1. Introduction neously with the combustion process has the advantage

One promising approach to enhance heat transfer to a
liquid in industrial combustion systems is the concept of
a porous combustor-heater (hereafter referred to as
PCH). The PCH is a combustion heat transfer device
involving relatively cold heat exchange surfaces (or tubes)
embedded in a stationary bed of porous inert material in
which a combustion (normally by gaseous fuels) is taking
place. Considerable practical benefits from the concept of
the PCH have been proposed [1–5]. Unlike a conventional
combustor composed of a heat exchanger heated by a hot
combustion gas, the PCH can provide a higher overall rate
of heat transfer to the embedded heat exchanger because
gas flow across the tubes is intensively mixed and made tur-
bulent by the solid particles in the bed, and the radiant heat
transfer from the solid particles to the tubes makes a signif-
icant contribution to the total. Removing heat simulta-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2470 9128; fax: +66 2470 9111.
E-mail address: sumrueng.jug@kmutt.ac.th (S. Jugjai).
of reducing the combustion temperature and suppressing
formation of NOX. CO could also be suppressed by con-
trolling the temperature distribution in the PCH in such
a way that quenching of the flames is minimized while
maintaining high thermal efficiency. In additions, combus-
tion takes place in a large number of small voids between
the particles as well as at their hot surfaces, yielding very
high combustion intensity and complete combustion. The
PCH can therefore yield very high density of combustion
and heat transfer to the working fluid, allowing compact
size and low cost.
In the previous works [1–5], emphasis was placed on the
PCH equipped with conventional one-way flow combus-
tion (OWFC) of gaseous fuel, wherein the heat transfer
phenomena and the combustion regime taking place were
clarified experimentally [1–4] and theoretically [5]. More
recently, a PCH equipped with the state-of-the-art tech-
nology of super adiabatic combustion [6] was developed.
Preferable heat transfer enhancement and combustion aug-
mentation were obtained with high thermal efficiency (up

0016-2361/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.10.007
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S. Jugjai, C. Phothiya / Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068 1063

Nomenclature

CL input thermal power, kW g thermal efficiency (ratio of total heat absorbed

d inter-distance between PB and PE by cooling water to input thermal power)
L length, mm
m_ mass flow rate of the cooling water, kg/min Subscripts
PB porous burner ad adiabatic
PE porous emitter boil boiling
DP pressure difference with respect to atmospheric c water coil
pressure, mm H2O i inlet
T temperature, C j water jacket
x distance, mm max maximum
min minimum
Greek symbols o outlet
U equivalence ratio (ratio of theoretical air to
practical air supplied)

to 80%) and significantly lower CO and NOX emissions

(as low as 40 ppm for both emissions at 0% excess O2) as
compared with the conventional PCH equipped with
OWFC.
While the above-mentioned development of PCH tech-
nology has focused on gaseous fuels, no attention has been
paid to the PCH that is fired with liquid fuels. In the fol-
lowing paragraphs, the concept of the porous burner
(PB) for liquid kerosene [7–14] in combination with the
heat exchanger in one unit is presented. This results in a
new concept of liquid fuel-fired porous combustor-heater
(hereafter referred to as LPCH). Thermal performance
and combustion characteristics are evaluated through mea-
suring thermal efficiency and emission of pollutants (CO
and NOX), and compared with those of the conventional
free flame combustion system. The effects of mass flow rate
of the cooling water at the water coil ðm_ c Þ, equivalence
ratio (U) and input thermal power (CL) on performance
of the LPCH are clarified.

2. Concept and experiments of the LPCH

Since so many phenomena are involved, the most prob-

able concept of LPCH can be explained by Fig. 1. Because
of heat re-circulation from porous emitter (PE) to porous
burner (PB) by intense irradiative heat flux , heat dis-
perses into the PB and increases the temperature of the
PB up to well above the saturation temperature Tboil of
the liquid fuel. As the liquid fuel (kerosene) flows (gravity-
and capillarity-driven) against the heat within the PB, Fig. 1. Concept of the LPCH with intense irradiative heat flux from PE
evaporation occurs because of complex interaction between to PB for evaporation followed by combustion simultaneously with heat
removal within packed bed PE and out of bed for practical
phases. Liquid kerosene may experience film boiling once utilization.
in contact with the high-temperature (above the Leiden-
frost temperature [15]) surface of the PB pore and is
quickly vaporized. This results in enhanced evaporation tion within the PE. In short, PB and PE are coupled by
within the PB. Super heating of the fuel vapor within the an intense thermal irradiative heat flux , yielding a con-
PB may also be established, enabling auto-ignition of the tinuous evaporation within the PB, which in turn supports
mixture followed by a subsequent homogeneous combus- a continuous combustion within the PE. Heat extraction
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1064 S. Jugjai, C. Phothiya / Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068
for practical utilization could be achieved through a direct
removal of heat within the porous matrix of the PE and
removal of heat that transfers in the lateral direction of the
PE .
Fig. 2 shows the corresponding experimental apparatus
for the down-flow LPCH. It consists of two main cylindri-
cal porous media, i.e. an upstream one (PB) and a down-
stream one (PE). The PB is made of a packed bed of
metallic wire screen with mesh size of 100 mesh/in.,
whereas the PE is made of a packed bed of inert solid
alumina spheres with average diameter of 19 mm. A small
space separating the two porous media serves as a mixing
chamber for homogeneous mixture of fuel vapor and the
swirling air. The water coil having inside diameter of
6 mm is embedded within the PE for extracting heat within
the PE, whereas the water jacket is for absorbing heat that
transfers in the lateral direction of the PE. The location of
the water coil xc = 225 mm is used throughout the experi-
ment and is judged by experience.
The combustion characteristics are determined from
profiles of the temperature along the burner axis and the
composition of the combustion gases at the exit of the
LPCH. In order to know the temperature profiles, N-type
thermocouples (0.25-mm diameter) of T1 to T16 (repre-
sented by solid circles in Fig. 2) were used and inserted
through small ports in the burner wall. Each thermocouple
wire was insulated with magnesium oxide and the entire
assembly sheathed in 1.5-mm diameter. These thermocou-
ples were inserted normal to the axis of the burner and
can be positioned at any radial position depending on sec-
tion (Fig. 2). In the PE section and mixing chamber, the
thermocouples (T5–T16) were positioned at the centerline
of the burner, whereas in the PB section the thermocouples
(T1–T4) were positioned at the interface between the
Fig. 2. Experimental apparatus for the LPCH.
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cement lining and the PB so as to prevent the liquid fuel
flow pattern within the PB from being disturbed by protru-
sion of the thermocouple junctions. The thermocouple
signals are digitized by a general-purpose data logger,
and then transmitted to a personal computer.
The thermocouple readings can represent the solid phase
(or porous medium) temperature since the thermocouples
are also solid by themselves. This simplifies the analysis
greatly, and the price we pay for this convenience is some
loss in accuracy due to error arising from several effects,
such as heat transfer effects caused by conduction and radi-
ation, etc. In order to know the true gas temperatures, the
thermocouple readings have to be corrected but this was
not performed because radiation error involves many
unknown due to the complex radiative field around the
bead particularly when the thermocouple is inside the por-
ous matrix. Moreover, the uncertainty in the results is high
due primarily to the lack of reliable interface convective
heat transfer coefficient and also the lack of reliable data
for thermophysical/chemical and radiative properties of a
porous matrix.
Uncertainties in the intrusive thermocouple measure-
ment are of concern. However, thermocouple is the only
technique available at present to measure temperature
inside a porous medium burner. Repeated measurement
shows an uncertainty of about 10% for the temperature.
The results of the measurement are instructive, but should
be interpreted with proper caution regarding the limita-
tions of the experimental technique. Upon steady state con-
dition for each experimental condition was reached,
thermocouple reading for each location was almost flat
with relatively small perturbation. Then the temperatures
were averaged over a specific time interval and plotted on
a graph.
Emission analysis of the dry combustion products at the
LPCH exit is carried out by using the Messtechnik Eheim
model Visit01L, which is a portable emission analyzer
designed especially for quasi-continuous measurement. A
gas processing system of NOX and CO is especially tuned
for electrochemical sensors, ensuring long-time stability
and accuracy of measurement. The measuring range of
the analyzer is 0–4000 ppm for NOX and 0–10,000 ppm
for CO with measuring accuracy of about ±5 ppm (from
the measured value) and resolution of 1 ppm for both
NOX and CO. All measured emissions in the experiment
are those corrected to 0% excess oxygen and dry-basis.
Repeated measurement shows an uncertainty of about
10% for the species concentrations.
The experimental procedure as well as other measuring
devices for various values, i.e. fuel flow rate, air flow rate
and pressure difference DP, remain the same as those
employed in the previous work [7] except measuring devices
for the water flow rate (m_ c and m_ j ) and bulk mean tempera-
tures of water at the water coil (Tc,i and Tc,o) and at the water
jackets (Tj,i and Tj,o) were added by standard laboratory
devices. After a preheating phase with non-premixed lique-
fied petroleum gas (LPG)–air combustion the operation
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was switched to liquid kerosene–air combustion. Liquid
kerosene having lower heating value of about 42 MJ/kg
was used as a fuel.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proof of the concept, thermal performance and
combustion characteristics
Fig. 3 shows a comparison in steady state temperature
distributions of three different conditions. Case a represents
a conventional free flame combustion and heat transfer sys-
tem, which is equipped with the water coil but without the
PE installed. Total thermal load was provided by both the
water coil and the water jackets. Case b is studied to under-
stand heat transfer enhancement by the PE but without the
water coil embedded. Water jackets were the only thermal
load for this case. Case c is the LPCH in which the PE is
installed with the water coil embedded. Total thermal load
was provided by both the water coil and the water jackets.
Among them, case c yields maximum combustion temper-
ature, steepest temperature gradient across the length of
the PE and minimum outlet exhaust gas temperature. In
spite of the stronger quenching effect provided by the water
jackets and the water coil, the LPCH can yield higher com-
bustion temperature at a leaner mixture (U = 0.5) as com-
pared with case b (U = 0.6). This is attributed to the heat
re-circulating combustion characteristic [16], yielding a
combustion temperature higher than the corresponding
adiabatic one (Tad). Using different d in cases b and c is
due to an urgent need to understand the effect of d on
the LPCH performance, a smaller inter-distance d =
50 mm was adopted in case c. A decrease in d results in
an increase in the shape factor, which in turn increases
the amount of heat re-circulation from the PE to the PB
by thermal radiation. This heat may be sufficient to com-
pensate for an increase in quenching effect caused by
embedding the water coil inside the PE, which is already
1400
Tad (Φ = 0.5)
1200 x x
x x x
1000 x an important role of the water coil in further enhancing
x
x x
x x
T (oC)
800
600
400
Tboil
200 x Swirling air
Water coil
x x xPB d PE
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480
x (mm)
Fig. 3. Comparison in T of case a (+) (U = 0.6), case b (·) (U = 0.6 and
d = 80 mm) and case c or LPCH (d) (U = 0.5 and d = 50 mm) at
CL = 13 kW, m_ c ¼ 1:5 kg=min.
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S. Jugjai, C. Phothiya / Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068 1065
100 3000 200
c 2500
150
b 2000
NO X (ppm)
CO (ppm)
a
η (%)
50 1500 100
1000
50
500
0 0 0
η CO NOx
Fig. 4. Comparison in g, CO and NOX of cases a, b and c.
quenched by the water jacket. The steepest temperature
gradient along the centerline of the LPCH means maxi-
mum heat transfer to the water coil and to the water jackets
was obtained. Based on the aforementioned reasons, the
concept of the proposed LPCH has been proven.
Fig. 4 shows a comparison in g, CO and NOX of the
three cases. Among them, case c (LPCH) yields maximum
values of g and CO at 80% and 800 ppm, respectively,
whereas case a yields an opposite result with minimum val-
ues of g and CO at 52% and 100 ppm, respectively. Case b
yields values of g and CO at 62% and 500 ppm, respec-
tively, which lie between those of case c and case a. Four
main issues could be drawn from Figs. 3 and 4. Firstly, g
and CO of case b increase by 10% and 400 ppm, respec-
tively, as compared with case a, implying a significant role
of the PE in enhancing the rate of heat transfer to the water
jacket though without the water coil installed. Case b offers
a simple option for an efficient heat transfer system. How-
ever, an increase in g of case b is followed by an increase in
CO emissions. Each 1% increase in g of case b is sacrificed
to an increase in CO of about 40 ppm, which may be attrib-
utable to the presence of the PE. The cool water wall may
greatly reduce the temperature of the adjacent solid parti-
cles of the PE, resulting in a large temperature drop in
the vicinity of the inner surface of the system and thus an
incomplete combustion.
Secondly, g and CO of case c increase by 18% and
300 ppm, respectively, in comparison to case b, implying
the rate of heat transfer. But this is again sacrificed to an
increase in CO emissions. Each 1% increase in g is followed
by a slight increase in CO of about 16 ppm, implying a
x
smaller effect of the water coil on the combustion charac-
x teristics as compared with the PE.
x
x Thirdly, in spite of the highest CO emissions, case c
yields energy savings of about 22.5% and 35% as compared
with cases b and a, respectively. These results confirm a dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the LPCH in enhancing heat
transfer, whilst CO emissions are within a manageable
level.
Fourthly, in spite of the maximum combustion temper-
ature, case c can yield almost constant NOX of about
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1066 S. Jugjai, C. Phothiya / Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068

121 ppm because of a change in the combustion regime [7] 100

from partial combustion within the PE (case b) to a more
submerged combustion within the PE. If a fully submerged
combustion flame within the PE could be obtained by
removing d, reduction in NOX may be possible as occurred
in the porous burners for gaseous fuels [4,6]. Also combus-

η (%)
tion within the PE can be considered homogeneous because 50
of complete separation of the evaporation zone (PB) and
the combustion zone (PE). The more homogeneous the
combustion is, the smaller the amount of NOX emitted [17].
Since combustion within the PE simultaneously with
heat transfer produced a relatively strong quenching effect
0
resulting in a marked increase in CO emissions as occurred 0 1 2. 3 4 5
in case c, determination of favorable operation ranges with mc (kg/min)
acceptable emission of CO is important, and will be
Fig. 6. Effect of m_ c on g of LPCH (d) as compared with case a (+).
described in the subsequent section.

because of a strong quenching effect resulting in incomplete

3.2. Effect of m_ c
The effect of m_ c on performance of LPCH is of special
interest. In this study, m_ c was varied, whereas m_ j (total water
flow rate at the water jackets) was kept constant at
8.5 kg/min. As m_ c increases, a slight increase in CO with a
slight decrease in NOX has been observed as shown in
Fig. 5. This may be attributed to reduction in the quenching
effect, which is caused by a shift in the flame location (spec-
ified by location of the maximum temperature) far from the
water coil and directed towards the upstream side of the PE
as observed from the experiment. The flame cannot propa-
gate through the water coil owing to a strong quenching
effect and is always stabilized within the PE at upstream side
of the water coil. The higher the water flow rate m_ c is, the
farther the flame location automatically retreats from the
water coil. Even though the LPCH system yields acceptably
high CO emissions, it yields higher g as compared with case
a as shown in Fig. 6. g of the LPCH has shown an increasing
trend with m_ c because of improvement in heat transfer coef-
ficient at the inner wall surface of the water coil. Then an
asymptotic value of g appeared as m_ c exceeded 1.5 kg/min
combustion with steady increase in CO emissions. There-
fore, m_ c ¼ 1:5 kg=min was employed throughout the rest
of the experiment because it yields acceptably high CO
emissions (<1000 ppm) with gmax = 80%.
3.3. Effect of U and CL
Fig. 7 shows the effect of U on CO at various CL. Vary-
ing U was obtained by varying flow rate of the swirling air,
whereas CL was kept constant. CO emissions yield a U-
shaped profile as U varies in every CL. As U increases
CO emissions initially decrease until a minimum value
COmin is reached with the corresponding equivalence ratio
UCO min. Then CO emissions increase in the final increase in
U. This means that complete combustion took place in the
initial range with a marked increase in combustion temper-
ature as observed during the experiment, whereas incom-
plete combustion occurred in the subsequent range with
almost constant combustion temperature owing to a strong
quenching effect and a possible incomplete mixing of fuel
vapor and the swirling air. This incomplete mixing caused

3000 200 3000

2500 2500
150
2000 2000 x
NOx (ppm)

CO (ppm)
CO (ppm)

x
1500 100 1500 x
x
1000 COmin
1000 x
x x xx
50
500 500 ΦCO min

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
.
mc (kg/min) Φ

Fig. 5. Effect of m_ c on CO (d) and NOX (+) of LPCH (solid line) as Fig. 7. Effect of U on CO at CL = 10 kW (+), CL = 12 kW (·) and
compared with case a (dotted line) at CL = 13 kW, U = 0.6. CL = 15 kW (d).
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S. Jugjai, C. Phothiya / Fuel 86 (2007) 1062–1068 1067

200 relatively wide experimental range of U and CL. This con-

firms a distinguishing characteristic of the LPCH, which is
capable of suppressing the formation of NOX.
150 Fig. 9 shows the corresponding g variation with U at
various CL. At constant CL, g yields a convex profile as
NOx (ppm)

x x x xx xx
x
100
50
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Φ 4. Conclusions
Fig. 8. Effect of U on NOX at CL = 10 kW (+), CL = 12 kW (·) and
CL = 15 kW (d).
the flame location to move towards the water coil, resulting
in an increase in the quenching effect and thus the subse-
quent incomplete combustion.
As CL increases from 10 to 15 kW, favorable operating
condition of UCO min yields an increasing trend, whereas
COmin shows a decreasing trend. Meanwhile, the U-shaped
curve of CO emissions widens, yielding a favorably wide
operating range. This is attributed to an increase in com-
bustion temperature and an improvement in mixing as
CL increases. However, the increase in UCO min is strongly
dependent on the increase in CL, which is accompanied
by very high combustion temperature. Therefore, no exper-
iment was conducted for CL over 15 kW so as to prevent
the system from overheating.
Fig. 8 shows the corresponding NOX variation with U at
various CL. Despite a marked increase in combustion tem-
perature with U in the initial stage at constant CL as
observed during the experiment, NOX emissions were
almost insensitive to U. On the other hand, NOX emissions
were slightly increased as CL increases. However, the max-
imum value of NOX does not exceed 140 ppm within the
100
xx
x x xx
x x
η (%)
x
U increases, with an initial increase in its value until a max-
imum value gmax is reached. Then a decreasing in g was
observed in the final variation in U because of incomplete
combustion with steep increase in CO as shown in Fig. 7.
However, gmax is further increased as CL increases and is
shifted toward higher equivalence ratio U because of
increase in combustion temperature.
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1. The LPCH proved very effective in increasing g (up to
28% with respect to the conventional system; case a)
with a manageable level of CO emissions but low NOX
emissions. The LPCH can provide the basis for further
development of the state-of-the-art technology of a
new version and a more advanced thermal system
fuelled by liquid fuels, such as highly efficient low-pollu-
tant-emission boilers, water heaters, and so on for both
industrial and residential applications.
2. Effect of m_ c , U and CL on g and pollutant emissions of
the LPCH have been clarified. These parameters have a
significant effect on flame location combustion tempera-
ture and pollutant emissions. Operating the LPCH at
optimized operating conditions is important for the
requirement of low CO emissions without compromis-
ing thermal efficiency and NOX emissions.
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