Dr Amjad Fawzi

2019-2020

Lecture 1
 Definition

Physiology is the study of the normal

functions of the living organism
Levels of function
▪ MOLECULAR: The structure and interaction of the
molecules of the body is the subject of biochemistry

▪ CELLULAR:
▪ Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the body
▪ Groups of same cells performing same function are called
tissues(eg. muscle)
▪ Different tissues collected together form organs(eg. kidney)
▪ Groups of organs are called system(eg. Urinary system)
▪ All systems working together made an organism
Human Physiology is studied under the
following headings
 Basic Physiological Functions
▪ Supply of body tissues with oxygen and nutrients
▪ Removal of waste products
▪ Homeostasis
▪ Is defined as “ maintenance of stable internal
environment in spite of changing external
environment ” (for example maintenance body
temperature and blood pressure, Ph)
▪ Reproduction
▪ Higher intellectual functions like learning and
memory
▪ There is a relationship between structure and
function (Every structure is designed to
perform a particular function)

▪ Knowledge of Human Physiology is essential

to understand the other related subjects like
Biochemistry, Pharmacology, Pathology,
Medicine, etc…
 General Characteristics of Cell
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
to produce energy
necessary for its growth,
repair and other activities.
2. Eliminates carbon dioxide
and other metabolic wastes.
3. Fight invaders like bacteria
or toxic substances.
4. Reproduces by division
(except neuron, which do
not reproduce).
 Structure of the Cell
▪ Each cell is formed by a
cell membrane and cell
body (cytoplasm
&nucleus)

▪ Cytoplasm contains
different cell organelles
each has specific
function
Function of Cell Organelles
 Cell Membrane(CM)
▪ A double layer structure
consisting mainly of
protein and lipids
▪ Separates between the
extracellular fluid (ECF)
and the intracellular fluid
(ICF)
▪ Semi permeable
membrane allow only
some substances to pass
 Composition of Cell Membrane
1. Proteins (55%).
2. Lipids (40%) phospholipids and cholesterol.
3. Carbohydrates (5%).

Functions of cell membrane

1. Forming the boundary of the cell.
2. Protects the cell from toxic materials.
3. Transports materials(nutrients& wastes) across it.
 Movement of Materials Across CM
1. Passive transport
A. Simple diffusion: transport of
substances from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration.
B. Facilitated diffusion : similar
to simple diffusion but needs a
carrier protein.
▪ Transport do not need energy
(dowunhill).

2. Active transport
▪ Transport of substance from an
area of low concentration to an
area of high concentration
▪ Transport need energy (uphill)
 Different Types of Cell Membrane
Proteins
1. Structural protein
2. Transport Protein
▪ channel for passive transport of ions like Na, Cl,
K
▪ pump for active transport(Na-k pump, Ca pump)
▪ Carrier protein for transport of larger
molecules(glucose, amino acids)
3. Receptores proteins binding neurotransmitter and
hormones
4. Enzymatic proteins for catalyzing cell reactions
PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE

Dr Amjad Fawzi
2019-2020
Lecture 2
 Morphology
▪ a cell body (soma)
with 5-7 short
projections
(dendrites) which
receive signals
▪ long axon which
transmit signals
▪ axon terminal
contains terminal
buttons which stores
the neurotransmitter
synthesized by the cell
body
 Morphology
▪ Nerve cell is the
building block of the
nervous system

▪ The function of nerve is

impulse transmission
from one part of the
body to another
Types of Neurons Based on Structure
 Types of Neurons Based on Function

1. Sensory neurons (or afferent

neurons) carry impulses from
receptors to the central
nervous system
2. Interneurons connect
between sensory and motor
neurons
3. Motor neurons (or efferent
neurons) carry impulses from
the central nervous system to
effectors
▪ The two types of effectors
▪ Muscles (contract or relax)
▪ Glands (secretion)
 Types of Neurons Based on Myelination
1. Myelinated nerve fibers
▪ Axons covered with
myelin sheath (a protein-
lipid insulator) led down
by Schwann cell wrapping
around the axon
▪ Myelin sheath covers the
axon EXCEPT areas of 1
mm distance (node of
Ranvier)
2. Non myelinated nerve
fibers
▪ Nerve fibers without
myelin sheath
Myelinated Non myelinated
 RESTING MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL(RMP)
▪ At rest (no impulse
conduction)
outside the cell is positive
charge while inside is
negative (- 70 mv)

▪ Na-K pump
▪ Three Na ions are pumped
out in exchange for two K
ions(keeps outside
positive)
 ACTION POTENTIAL (AP)
▪ Nerve signal(impulse) moves
along nerve axon as an action
potential (AP)
▪ Action potential is defined as
a " sudden change of inside
the cell from the normal
negative to positive potential
(increased Na permeability-
Na in) called depolarization
▪ immediately followed by
rapid return back to the
normal negative inside the
cell (increased K
permeability-K out) called
repolarization
 STAGES OF ACTION POTENTIAL

1. Resting stage
– inside negative and
outside positive
2. Depolarization stage
– Na enter the cell Na in K out
– inside cell becomes
positive
3. Repolarization stage
– K move out of the cell
– inside cell returns back to
negative
 STIMULUS FOR NERVE AND MUSCLE
EXCITATION
1. Chemical
– acid, base, strong salt
2. Mechanical
– Pressure, crushing, pricking
3. Electrical
– electrical current
Mechanism: all above factors increases
membrane permeability to Na producing an AP
 Intensity of Stimulus
▪ Threshold stimulus: The minimum intensity
of stimulus that will just produce a response
(AP or nerve impulse )

▪ At the level of single axon, , any stimulus with

subthreshold intensiy will not produce an AP

▪ Again, increasing the stimulus intensity above

threshold level will produce no change in
response, thus the AP of a single nerve axon
obey the "all or none law“
 PROPAGATION OF AP
▪ In myelinated axons, AP
will jump from one
node of Ranvier to
another(myelin acts as
an insulator)
▪ This type of conduction
is called saltatory
conduction which is
about 50 times faster
than the unmyelinated
fiber
 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE CONDUCTION
VELOCITY

1. Myelination
– myelinated nerve is about 50 times faster than
non myelinated
2. Axon diameter
– Larger diameter axon is faster than small axon
– Speed of nerve conduction is about 0.5
meter/second for small axons and about 100
meter/second for the largest axon
 FACTORS WHICH INHIBIT NERVE EXCITABILITY

1. Hypercalcemia
(high ECF Ca)

2. Hypokalemia
(low ECF K)

3. Local anesthesia
(cocaine, procaine,
lidocaine)

❑ Mechanism
All above factors decrease Na
permeability thus the nerve becomes
less excitable(stronger stimulus is
required to stimulate it)
 CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE FIBERS TYPES
1. The letter system: )larger diameter fibers are listed first)
▪ A fibres (alpha,beta, gama and delta)
▪ B fibers.
▪ C fibers

2. The numerical system (larger diameter fibers are listed first)

▪ Ia, Ib, II, III, and IV fibers.

3. The physio-anatomical system

▪ afferent and efferent fibers which is further divided into
▪ somatic and visceral fibers and this is again divided into
▪ general and specific fibers

❑ SMALLER AXONS (type C & IV) ARE CONCERNED WITH PAIN

SENSATION
PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE

Dr Amjad Fawzi
2019-2020

Lecture 3
 MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY

Three types of muscle tissue

Skeletal muscle
 Properties of skeletal muscle

▪ Are directly attached

to the skeleton by
tendons
▪ Aid in movement
▪ Voluntarily action
▪ Stimulated by motor
neurons
▪ Undergo fatigue
▪ Striated appearance under microscope due to the
arrangement of actin and myosin contractile protein filaments
in the muscle fibers
Cardiac Muscle
 Properties of cardiac muscle
▪ Cardiac muscle tissue is made up of many
branching &interlocking cardiac muscle fibers, that
give the tissue its properties
▪ Each cardiac muscle fiber contains a single nucleus
▪ Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle fiber is striated
appearance under microscope due to the
arrangement of actin and myosin contractile
protein filaments
▪ Involuntarily contraction
 Properties of cardiac muscle
▪ Autorhythmicity: Heart contract rhythmically
without external signals due to "pacemaker"
cells(SA node)
▪ Regulated by autonomic nervous system
▪ Sympathetic(stimulate heart rate)
▪ Parasympathetic(inhibits heart rate)
▪ DO NOT FATIGUE
▪ Rich in mitochondria and myoglobin (O2 storage
pigment)
▪ Have good blood supply
 The cardiac conduction system
▪ Is a group of
specialized cardiac muscle
fibers in the walls of the
heart that send signals to
the heart muscle causing it to
contract
▪ The main components of
the cardiac conduction system
are:
▪ SA node
▪ AV node
▪ bundle of His
▪ bundle branches
▪ and Purkinje fibers
Spread of cardiac impulse
Smooth muscle
 Properties of smooth muscle
▪ Smooth appearance when viewed under a microscope
▪ Arranged in sheets of muscle fibers
▪ Contract involuntarily
▪ Regulated by autonomic nervous system
▪ Sympathetic : inhibits contraction(relaxation)
▪ Parasympathetic: stimulates contraction
▪ Found in walls of hollow structures(viscera), including
veins, arteries, and intestines, bronchi
▪ Peristaltic movement maintains flow of fluid and food along
hollow structures
▪ Contract slowly and rhythmically
▪ Fatigue slowly
 Comparison between muscle types

Skeletal muscle fiber Cardiac muscle fiber Smoothmuscle fiber

 Blood
▪ Part of the circulatory
system(heart, blood
vessels& blood)

▪ Supply different body

needs like oxygen and
nutrients

▪ Removal of waste
products
 Composition of Blood
➢Blood is composed of :
1. Plasma (55%)
2. Blood cells(45%)
➢Blood volume = 7% of bodyweight
 Composition of Plasma

▪ Pale yellow fluid consists of:

– Water (91%)
• medium for blood components
– Plasma proteins (7%)
• albumin, globulins & fibrinogen
– Other solutes (2%)
• ions , nutrients ,vitamins ,gases , hormones, & waste
products
 Blood Cells

1. Red blood cells (RBC)

or erythrocytes

2. White blood cells

(WBC) or leukocytes

3. Platelets
(thrombocytes)
 General Functions of Blood

1. Transporting gases(RBC), nutrients, hormones,

and metabolic wastes(plasma)

2. Regulating pH and body temperature

3. Minimize blood loss at injury sites(platelets)

4. Defending the body against pathogens(WBC)

Blood Fluid Components and Functions
 Blood Production (HEMOPOIESIS)
All circulating blood cells (RBC,WBC and platelets) begin in the
bone marrow from a single type of cell, the STEM CELL
HEMOPOIESIS
 Red Blood Cell (RBC)

• Biconcave discs , diameter 7.5 micrometers

• Flexible membrane so can pass through small capillaries(5 micrometers)
• Life span about 120 days
• Normal RBC count in blood
– Male: 5 - 5.5 millions/cubic mm
– Female: 4.5 - 5.0 millions/cubic mm
• RBC transport O2 from lungs to tissues and CO2 from tissues to lungs
– RBC count decrease in anemia and increase in polycythemia
Erythropietin: A hormone produced in the kidney and
stimulate RBC production in the bone marrow.
 Hemoglobin (Hb)

Hb is the red, oxygen carrying pigment in RBC

consists of (4) subunits. Each subunit consists of:
1. Heme : an iron-containing compound
2. Globin :a protein consists of 4 olypeptides:
▪ 2 alpha (α) chains and
▪ 2 beta (β) chains
• Each iron atom can bind to (1) molecule of O2
• Therefore, each Hb molecule can transport (4)
Oxygen molecules.
▪ Normal value:
▪ adult male is 13.5-17.5 g/dl
▪ adult female 11.5-15.5 g/dl
 RBC Recycle
• About 3 million new RBC entering the
circulation from bone marrow per second
• Components of hemoglobin individually
recycled:
– Iron (from Heme) is recycled by being
• stored in phagocytes(Ferritin)
• transported to bone marrow by the blood bound to
protein transferrin(for new Hb synthesis)
– Globin is converted into amino acids
WBC Types and Functions
 Platelets
Structure
• Flattened discs
• Circulate for 9-12 days before being removed by phagocytes

Function
• Transporting chemicals important to clotting
• Forming temporary plug in walls of damaged blood vessels (stop
blood loss)
 Platelet production

• Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow release

platelets into circulating blood

• Rate of platelet formation is stimulated by

thrombopoietin, thrombocyte-stimulating factor
 Hemostasis
• Prevents the loss of blood through vessel walls

• Three phases
1. Vascular phase(vasoconstriction)
2. Platelet phase(formation of temporary plug)
3. Coagulation phase(formation of stable clot)
The Vascular and Platelet Phases of Hemostasis
The Coagulation Phase of Hemostasis
(Clot Formation )
Blood Clot
 Clot retraction
• Final phase of healing

• Platelets contract and pull the edges of the

vessel together
 Fibrinolysis
• Clot gradually dissolves through action of plasmin
– Activated form of plasminogen

• Clotting can be prevented by :

1. Anticoagulants include heparin, aspirin(depress
clotting process)
2. Fibrinolytic enzymes like Streptokinase and
Urokinase(dissolve an existing clot) used in the
treatment of myocardial infarction)
 The Cardiovascular System(CVS)
▪ A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
▪ The heart pumps blood
▪ Blood vessels transport blood to all body parts
▪ deliver oxygen and nutrients
▪ remove CO2 and other waste products
 The Heart
➢ Heart has 4 chambers:
– Two atria (receiving chambers)
– Right atrium
– Left atrium
– Two ventricles (pumping chambers)
– Right ventricle
– Left ventricle

➢ Heart wall has 3 layers:

– Epicardium (outer layer)
– Connective tissue layer
– Myocardium (middle layer)
– Mostly cardiac muscle
– Endocardium(inner layer)
– Endothelium
 Blood
Circulation

Figure 11.3
 The Heart Valves
➢ Allow blood to flow in only one
direction

➢ Four valves
– 2 Atrioventricular valves
1. Bicuspid valve (left)
2. Tricuspid valve (right)

– 2 Semilunar valves (between

ventricle and artery)
1. Pulmonary valve (right)
2. Aortic valve (left)
 Cardiac Output
➢ Cardiac output (CO)
– Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute

➢ Stroke volume (SV)

– Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction

– CO = (heart rate/ min) x (stroke volume)

= 70 beats/min X 70 ml
= 4900 ml/min( about 5 liters/min)
 Regulation of Heart Rate
➢ Increased heart rate
1. Sympathetic nervous system
2. Hormones(Epinephrine,Thyroxine)
3. Exercise
4. Low blood volume

➢ Decreased heart rate

1. Parasympathetic nervous system
2. High blood volume
 The Vascular System
➢Taking blood to the tissues and back
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles
3. Capillaries
4. Venules
5. Veins

Figure 11.8a
•Tunica media: a smooth muscle layer controlled by sympathetic nervous system to
regulate tissue blood flow according to tissue activity.

•Walls of arteries are the thickest

•Lumens of veins are larger

 Movement of Blood Through Vessels

• Arterial blood is pumped

by the heart

• Veins use the milking

action of muscles to help
move blood

Figure 11.9
 Blood Pressure
➢ Measured in large
arteries(Brachial, Radial)
– Systolic pressure at the peak
of ventricular contraction
– Diastolic pressure when
ventricles relax

➢ Pressure in blood vessels

decreases as the distance
away from the heart
increases
 Factors Influence Blood Pressure

1. Cardiac output.
2. Peripheral vascular resistance.
3. Volume of circulating blood.
4. Viscosity of blood.
5. Elasticity of vessels walls.
 Variations in Blood Pressure
Human normal range is variable
➢Normal
➢100-140 mm Hg systolic
➢60-90 mm Hg diastolic

➢Hypotension
➢Low systolic (below 100 mm HG)

➢Hypertension
➢High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
➢Can be dangerous if it is chronic
The Respiratory System

Dr Amjad Fawzi
2020
 Respiratory System Functions
1. Gas exchanger

2. Voice production

3. Olfaction

4. Regulation of blood pH
 Lungs
• The principal organs of
respiration(gas exchanger)

– Right lung: Three lobes

Left
– Left lung: Two lobes
 Divisions of Respiratory System

• Upper respiratory tract

– Nose, pharynx and
associated structures.

• Lower respiratory tract

– Larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs.
 Nose
❑ Nasalcavity:
❑ Passageway
❑ Cleans,
humidifies, and
warms air
❑ Smell
❑ Speech
 Pharynx

❑ Common opening
for digestive and
respiratory systems

❑ Three regions
❑ Nasopharynx
❑ Oropharynx
❑ Laryngopharynx
 Larynx

• Functions
– Maintain an open
passageway for air
movement
– Epiglottis and vestibular
folds prevent swallowed
material from moving into
larynx
– Vocal folds are primary
source of sound
production
 Tracheo-bronchial Tree
Physiologically divided into:
• Conducting zone
• Extends from the trachea to terminal
bronchioles which is ciliated for
removal of debris
• Passageway for air movement
• Cartilage holds tube system open and
smooth muscle controls tube
diameter

• Respiratory zone
• Extends from the
respiratory bronchioles
to alveoli
• Site for gas exchange
 Pleura
• Two thin membranes
surrond the lungs:
1. Visceral pleura (covers the
lung)
2. Parietal pleura (lines the
inner chest wall)

• Thin layer of Pleural fluid

present in the pleural
cavity:
– Acts as lubricant
– Sealant(hold parietal and
visceral pleurae together
(due to the negative
Intrapleural pressure)
 Ventilation
• Movement of air into and out
of lungs(inspiration &
expiration)

• Air moves from area of higher

pressure to area of lower
pressure

• Pressure is inversely related to

volume(Boyl Law)

Muscles of Respiration
 Gas Exchange
Gases diffuse down concentration gradients
• Oxygen
– LUNGS: Moves from
alveoli into blood
– TISSUES : Oxygen moves
from tissue capillaries
into the tissues

• Carbon dioxide
– TISSUES: Moves from
tissues into tissue
capillaries
– LUNGS: Moves from
pulmonary capillaries
into the alveoli
 Gas Transport

• Transport of Oxygen
– Bound to Hemoglobin (98.5%)
– Dissolved in plasma (1.5%)

• Transport of Carbon Dioxide

– Bicarbonate ions (70%)
– In combination with blood proteins (23%)
– Dissolved in solution with plasma (7%)
 Control of Breathing

(Aortic and carotid bodies)

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Proff. Amjad Fawzi-2020
Introduction
▪ Primary components of
food(balanced diet) include:
▪ Carbohydrates
▪ Proteins
▪ Fats
▪ Essential nutrients (not be
produced by body) include:
▪ Vitamins
▪ Minerals
▪ Some fatty acids
▪ Some amino acids
▪ Food taken more than body need is stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscle cells, and fat
in fat cells

▪ Excess fat storage can lead to obesity and

serious health problems
 Functional Anatomy of Digestive System
1. Primary Digestive Organs
Organs where actual digestion takes place.
▪ Mouth
▪ Pharynx
▪ Esophagus
▪ Stomach
▪ Small intestine& Large intestine.
2. Accessory Digestive Organs
Organs which help primary digestive organs in the
process of digestion.
▪ Teeth
▪ Tongue
▪ Salivary glands
▪ Exocrine part of pancreas
▪ Liver & Gallbladder.
Functions of the Primary Digestive Organs
Accessory Digestive Organs
 Control of Salivary Secretion
▪ Saliva is secreted by brain
signals when subject see
or smell food
▪ Both sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
system supplies the
salivary glands and
increase salivary
secretion
▪ Parasympathetic produces
large volume of watery
saliva rich in enzymes
▪ Sympathetic produce a
small thick saliva rich in
mucus
 Swallowing (deglutition)
• The process of passing a substance from the mouth to
pharynx then into esophagus, while shutting the
epiglottis to prevent food entry to the lungs (serious
aspiration pneumonia)

• Phases of swallowing reflex:

1. Voluntary (oral) phase: tongue push food to pharynx
2. Involuntary(pharyngeal &esophageal) phase: receptors in
the pharynx stimulated by the presence of food
❖ https://youtu.be/wqMCzuIiPaM
 The ”Gag reflex”
(Pharyngeal reflex )
• Reflex contraction of the back of the throat when
touch the:
– roof of mouth
– back of tongue
– area around tonsils
– back of your throat
• Other stimuli : Taste, Sight, Smell, Sound
• Gagging is a normal reflex which protects
against swallowing harmful substances