AC Drives - 2019 PDF

EPM403
Industrial AC Drives
Why Electric Drives?

 Enabling fast and accurate motion control
 Robotics, elevators, cranes, process automation. . .
 Improving energy efficiency
 Process flow is controlled by means of the motor speed
 Pumps, fans, compressors. . .
 Conserving braking energy
 Transportation, cranes. . .
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Selection of AC Drive
 Before Selection Process
 There is a good deal of overlap between the major types of motor and drive.
 Underestimate the importance of starting with a comprehensive specification
of what really wanted, and how much weight attaches to such things as the
steady-state torque–speed curve, the inertia of the load, the pattern of
operation (continuous or intermittent) and the question of whether or not the
drive needs to be capable of regeneration.
 Standards and legislation, and hence can be baffled by questions from any
potential supplier.
 Drives Requirements &Specifications
General Market Requirements
 Some of the most common requirements of VSDs are: high reliability, low
initial and running costs, high efficiency across speed range, compactness,
satisfactory steady-state and dynamic performance, compliance with
applicable national and international standards (e.g. EMC, shock, and
vibration), durability, high availability, ease of maintenance, and repairs.
 The order and priority of such requirements may vary from one application to
another and from one industry to another.
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Drive Specifications
 Over specifying the requirements could often result in a more expensive
solution than necessary. Under specifying the requirements result in poor

performance and disappointment.
 The drive specifications – the AC input voltage, shaft mechanical power, and
shaft speed. The torque and current are calculated from these. Frequency and
power factor depends on the choice of motor.
 For a high-power drive, it is always recommended to carry out a “harmonic
survey”.
Drive Specifications
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Drive Classifications and Characteristics
 Other classifications include:
• Working voltage: Low-voltage <690V or Medium Voltage (MV) 2.4–11 kV
• Current type: Unipolar or bipolar drive
• Mechanical coupling: Direct (via a gearbox) or indirect mechanical coupling
• Packaging: Integral motors as opposed to separate motor inverter
• Movement: Rotary movement, vertical, or linear
• Drive configuration: Stand-alone, system, DC link bus
• Speed: High speed and low speed
• Regeneration mode: Regenerative or non-regenerative
• Cooling method: Direct and indirect air, direct water (raw water and deionized water)
Drive Classifications and Characteristics
By application By device By converter By motor By industry By rating
Appliances Thyristor AC/DC (chopper) DC Power Fractional kw

generation power < 1kW
Low Transistor AC/AC direct Induction motor Metal Low power <
performance (cyclo- and matrix- 5kW
(2Q) converter)
High Gate Turn-off Voltage source Synchronous Petrochemical Medium
performance Thyristor (GTO) inverter (VSI) motor power <
(4Q) 500kW
Servo Insulated Gate Current source Special motors: Process industry High power 1-
Bipolar inverter (CSI) BLDC, SRM, 50MW
Transistor Stepper, linear
(IGBT) motor
MOSFET Mining
Marine
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 Types of Loads
 Centrifugal Loads
Torque α speed2
Power α speed3
 Types of Loads
 Constant Torque Loads
Torque = constant
Power α speed
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 Types of Loads
 Squared power loads
Torque α speed
Power α speed2
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 Types of Loads
 Constant power loads
Torque α 1/speed
Power = constant
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 Operating Modes - Four Quadrant Operation

Te
Q2 Te Q1
+Va  +  m m +Va  + 
-Ia  -T +Ia  +T
Power = -ve Power = +ve
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring
Te
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Reverse motoring Reverse braking
Te
m m
Q3 Te Q4
-Va  -  -Va  - 
-Ia  -T +Ia  +T
Power = +ve Power = -ve
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 The selection of ASD and MOTOR for any application
requires considerable experience to get the selection right.
 In design phase two main items are important
 SAFETY: System needed to safety margins when it is build
 COST: cost to be minimized,
 by selecting the optimum size of MOTOR & CONVERTER for
each application
 Design process start with
Clear and accurate study for system requirements
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 Power Rating of Different Types of Motors
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 Power Rating of Different Types of Drives
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i. The following checklist covers the factors to be considered:
 The nature of the application
 Maximum torque and power requirements and how they change with speed
 Starting torque requirements
 The speed range - minimum and maximum speed
 Acceleration & deceleration requirements (Is braking necessary?)
 Compatibility with the mains supply voltage
 Environmental conditions where the converter and motor will operate, ambient
temperature, altitude, humidity, water, chemicals, dust, etc
 Ventilation and cooling for the converter and motor
 Direction (uni- or bi-directional)
 Accuracy of the speed control
 Dynamic response (speed and torque response requirements)
 Speed regulation requirements with changes in load, temperature and supply voltage
 The duty cycle, including the number of starts and stops per hour
17  Overall power factor of the drive system and its effect on the mains supply
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 EMI and harmonics in the mains power supply and in the motor and motor cable
 Are EMI filters required?
 Earthing, shielding and surge protection requirements
 Torque pulsations in the rotor shaft
 Control method - manual, automatic, analog, digital, communications
 Control and communications interfaces required for the plant control system
 Indications required
 Reliability requirements, is a dedicated standby unit required
 Protection features, in-built and external features required
 Power and control cable requirements
 Parameter settings, local or remote programming
 Maintenance spares and repair considerations
 Cost of the alternative systems, taking into consideration the capital cost,
performance advantages, energy savings, and efficiency or process improvements.
 Noise due to the harmonics in the motor
 Mechanical resonance at certain motor speeds
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 How to select a machine drives
 Required Power Rating
 Maximum speed and speed range
 Load requirements – Torque/speed characteristics
 Duty cycle and rating
 Regenerative operation and braking
 Enclosures and cooling
 Supply interaction and harmonics
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 The basic selection procedure
Most problems result due to less experience
 Incorrect selection and rating of AC induction motor
 Incorrect selection and rating of AC converter
 Incorrect parameter settings installed in VSD control system
The AC drive system is correctly selected and rated when:

 Motor specification is correct
The correct type and size of electric motor has been selected, whose
output torque, speed and accuracy are adequate for all load and
environmental conditions.
 AC converter specification is correct
The correct type and size of AC converter has been selected, whose output
(voltage, current, frequency) meets the motor requirements for all load
and environmental conditions.
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 The basic selection procedure
From the motor point of view, the main factors which need to be considered are
1. the motor power rating (kW),
2. the number of poles (speed) and
3. the frame size so that the load torque on the motor shaft remains within the
continuous torque capability of the motor at all speeds within the speed
range.
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 load ability of converter fed squirrel cage motors
Load ability: is the continuous load torque capacity of a standard squirrel
cage induction motor used with VVVF converters.
• When selecting an AC motor for any drive application, the most important
requirement is to ensure that the motor does not become overloaded or stall
under all circumstances of speed and load.
• For AC motors connected to the power supply direct-on-line (DOL) called

fixed speed: It is usually sufficient to ensure that load torque is sufficiently
below motor torque at the rated speed of the motor.
• In the case of a variable speed drive. The load torque usually changes with
speed, so it is essential to check that the motor torque exceeds the load
torque at all speeds in the speed range.
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The AC VSD load ability curve:
• Motors fed from VVVF converters can be loaded continuously at torques
below the load ability limit line for the speed range.
• Many AC converters have an over-current capacity of up to 150% for 60 sec
to cover starting and transient operation.
solid line marks the maximum
limits of continuous load torque
The speed range and load torque capacity (load ability) of a squirrel cage motor when controlled by a
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PWM-type VVVF converter
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 The Nature of the Machine load
For fixed speed drives: the power requirement in kW at the rated speed.
On larger drives: motor manufacturers usually ask for more information about the
load
1-the moment of inertia
2- the acceleration requirements.
3- more details about the load characteristics are always necessary.
The output torque of an AC VSD is considered to be adequate when it:

• Exceeds the breakaway torque of the machine load.
• Can accelerate the load from standstill to its preset speed within the acceleration
time required by the process.
• Exceeds the load torque by an adequate margin during continuous operation at any
speed in the speed range and under all conditions.
• Motor current does not exceed the thermal ratings of all electrical components and
24 remains below the load ability curve during continuous operation.
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 The Nature of the Machine load
what needs to be known about the machine load can be
covered by the following:
1. The load torque, the type, magnitude and characteristics of the load
torque connected to the output shaft of the motor
2. The speed range, the minimum and maximum speed of the variable
speed drive
3. The inertia of the motor and mechanical load connected to shaft of
the motor
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The load torque
 The torque required by the driven machine determines the size
of the motor because the continuous rated torque of the motor
must always be larger than the torque required by the driven
machine.
 The load torque determines the cost of the motor because the
cost of an electric motor is Approximately proportional to its
rated output torque (not its rated power!).
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The load torque
 Another important aspect of the load torque is that the figure should
apply at the shaft of the motor. When gearboxes, conveyers or hoists
are involved, the actual torque at the machine must be converted to
torque at the motor shaft.
 The conversion formula to convert the load torque, speed and
moment of inertia to motor shaft values depends on the
transformation ratio.
 The load requirements are often given as the mechanical absorbed
power (Pm kW) at a particular speed (n rpm).
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The load torque
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The load torque: Conversion between Linear and Rotary Systems
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The load torque: Gears
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The load torque
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Variable torque machine loads
Machines with variable torque over
their entire speed range, such as
centrifugal pumps and fans.
The following are some of the important factors associated with this type
of load:
 The starting torque for normal centrifugal pumps and fans is very low and
below the loadability curve of the AC motor for all speeds. Slurry pumps can
some times be a problem, as they can have a high breakaway torque.
 The required starting current is low, so the overload capacity of converters is
seldom required during acceleration.
 Running for long periods at low speeds is seldom a problem.
 However, running at speeds above the motor base speed could be a problem
because the power requirement of this drive increases as the cube of the
32 speed. This is incompatible with the capabilities of the constant power region
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Constant torque machine loads
Constant torque machine loads are those which
exhibit a constant torque over their entire speed
range, such as conveyors, positive displacement
pumps.
The following are the potential problems when driving constant torque
loads from a converter fed electric motor:
 The starting torque is theoretically equal to the full speed load torque but, in practice,
the real starting torque can be much higher due to the additional requirements of:
 Breakaway torque
 Acceleration torque (dynamic torque)
 Running for long periods at low speeds can result in motor thermal over-load, if the
load torque is above the motor loadability curve.
 Separate forced cooling may be necessary in some cases.
 Running at speeds above the motor base speed could also be a problem, with
33 increased motor slip and a higher possibility of stalling the motor.
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The speed range
 The selection of the correct size of electric motor for a VSD is
affected by the speed range within which it is expected to run
continuously. The important factor is that the motor should be able to
drive the load continuously at any speed within the speed range
without stalling or overheating the motor
 Running the motor at below base speeds (f < 50 Hz) with a standard
TEFC cage motor has the following effects on the motor:
Reduces the motor cooling because the cooling fan, which is attached to
the motor shaft, runs at reduced speed. Therefore, the temperature rise
in the motor will tend to be much higher than expected.
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Running the motor at above base speeds (f > 50 Hz) with a
standard TEFC cage motor has the following effect on the motor
 The air-gap flux is reduced because the V/f ratio is reduced. Consequently, there is a
reduction in the output torque capability of the motor. The torque is reduced in
proportion to the frequency. The load torque is not permitted to exceed the pullout
torque of the motor, even for a short period, otherwise the motor will stall.
 The maximum torque allowed at above-synchronous speeds depends on the motor
characteristics and frequency as follows:
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TL max  0.6Tp Nm
f
Where
Tp = Pull-put torque (maximum torque) of the motor in Nm
f = Actual frequency in the above-synchronous range in Hz
0.6 = Factor of safety
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Figure shows an example of the torque–speed curve for a variable speed pump drive,
operating in the range from 10 Hz to 50 Hz Some comments are:
1. The load torque is well within the load ability limits at all speeds.
2. The maximum speed is below the base speed of 50 Hz. The speed range should NOT be increased
above 50 Hz because the load torque will exceed the load ability limit of the drive. (Load torque
increases as the square of the speed.)
3. Starting torque is low, so there should be no problems with breakaway.
4. The acceleration torque is high, so the drive can be expected to quickly reach its maximum speed, if
fast acceleration is required. However, with pumps, a long acceleration time is normally desirable to
prevent water hammer.
Load curve
Example of speed range and torque curve of a

variable speed pump drive when controlled by a
PWM-type VVVF converter
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Some comments on the conveyer application are:
1. The load torque falls outside the load ability limits at low speeds below 28 Hz there could be problems
running the motor continuously at speeds below 28 Hz.
2. Although the maximum speed is below the base speed of 50 Hz, but the speed range could be increased
above 50 Hz to take advantage of the load ability characteristic above 50 Hz. (Load torque remains
constant with increases in speed.)
3. Starting torque is high, with a high breakaway, so there may be some problems with breakaway.
4. Acceleration torque is small, so the drive ramp-up time may have to take place over a long period to
avoid exceeding the VSD current limit.
Load curve
Torque-speed curve for a variable speed conveyor

drive, operating in a range from 10 Hz to 50 Hz.
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The Inertia of machine loads
 During acceleration and deceleration, the moment of inertia of the load imposes an
additional dynamic acceleration torque on the motor.
 The moment of inertia and the required acceleration time together affect the motor
torque and consequently the size and cost of the motor.
 The dynamic acceleration torque TA is calculated as follows:
dn
TA  J 2 Nm
dt
This can be rewritten as follows, with the speed in rev/min:
2 n2  n1
TA  J Tot Nm
60 t
TM  TL  TA Nm
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The selection procedure may now be summarized as follows:
STEP 1: Specify the initial data for the drive application
To select the correct motor/converter combination, the following information must be
available:
 Voltage and frequency of the power supply
 The breakdown or starting torque
 The load torque and its dependence on speed
 Speed range of the variable speed drive
 Acceleration requirements or ‘ramp times’
 The moment of inertia of the motor and load
STEP 2: Specify the number of poles of the motor
The number of poles determines the synchronous speed of the motor and its usually
selected according to the maximum speed required by the application. Modern VVVF
converter are available with output frequencies of up to 400 Hz.
Above-synchronous speeds are of particular advantage for constant torque loads, where
the maximum speed should ideally, be in the range of 50-100 Hz.
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STEP 3: Select the motor power rating
Using the load torque requirements, the power rating of the motor can be selected from a motor
manufacturer’s catalogue using the formula
Torque( Nm) xSpeed (rpm)

Power  kW
9550
STEP 4: Select a suitable frequency converter
A converter with a rating suitable for the motor selected should then be selected from the
manufacturer’s catalogue. Converters are usually manufactured for power ratings that match the
standard sizes of squirrel cage motors. Catalogues usually give the current rating as well as a check
to ensure that the motor current is below that of the converter.
The following factors must be considered:
 Supply voltage and frequency
 Rated current of the motor
 Duty type (variable torque or constant torque)
A converter is selected as that the rated current of the converter is higher than the rated current of
the motor. Also, the type of converter should be suitable for the duty required. Some manufacturers
have different converters for the two duty types.
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STEP 5: Final Checks
The following final checks should be made:
 Is the continuous power rating of the motor (de-rated for altitude, temperature,
harmonics, etc) greater than the continuous power requirements of the load?
 Is the starting torque capability of the variable speed drive high enough to exceed the
breakaway torque of the load?
 If the VSD is operating in the over-synchronous speed area, is the motor torque
capability at maximum speed adequate for the load torque?
 Is the speed accuracy adequate for the application?
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Load and motor steady state torque
 At constant speed, Te= Tl
 Steady state speed is at point of intersection between Te and Tl of the steady
state torque characteristics
Torque Te Tl
Steady state
speed
r
42 Speed
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Torque and speed profile
 J = 0.01 kg-m2, B = 0.01 Nm/rads-1 and Tload = 5 Nm.

 What is the torque profile (torque needed to be produced) ?
speed Speed profile

(rad/s)
100
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
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speed
(rad/s)
d
100
Te  J  B  Tl
dt
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
0 < t <10 ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(0) + 5 Nm = 5 Nm
10ms < t <25 ms Te = 0.01(100/0.015) +0.01(-66.67 + 6666.67t) + 5

= (71 + 66.67t) Nm
25ms < t< 45ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(100) + 5 = 6 Nm
45ms < t < 60ms Te = 0.01(-100/0.015) + 0.01(400 -6666.67t) + 5

= -57.67 – 66.67t
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speed
(rad/s)
100
Speed profile
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
Torque
(Nm)
72.67
torque profile
71.67
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5
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
-60.67
45 -61.67
45
Torque
(Nm)
70 J = 0.001 kg-m2, B = 0.1 Nm/rads-1

and Tload = 5 Nm.
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
-65
For the same system and with the motor torque profile
given above, what would be the speed profile?
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EPM403

Why Electric Drives?

 Robotics, elevators, cranes, process automation. . .

 Improving energy efficiency

 Process flow is controlled by means of the motor speed

 Pumps, fans, compressors. . .

 Conserving braking energy

 Underestimate the importance of starting with a comprehensive specification

another and from one industry to another.

solution than necessary. Under specifying the requirements result in poor

 For a high-power drive, it is always recommended to carry out a “harmonic

Appliances Thyristor AC/DC (chopper) DC Power Fractional kw

 Maximum speed and speed range

 Load requirements – Torque/speed characteristics

 Duty cycle and rating

 Regenerative operation and braking

 Enclosures and cooling

 Supply interaction and harmonics

The AC drive system is correctly selected and rated when:

• For AC motors connected to the power supply direct-on-line (DOL) called

The output torque of an AC VSD is considered to be adequate when it:

Example of speed range and torque curve of a

Torque-speed curve for a variable speed conveyor

Torque( Nm) xSpeed (rpm)

 J = 0.01 kg-m2, B = 0.01 Nm/rads-1 and Tload = 5 Nm.

speed Speed profile

0 < t <10 ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(0) + 5 Nm = 5 Nm

10ms < t <25 ms Te = 0.01(100/0.015) +0.01(-66.67 + 6666.67t) + 5

25ms < t< 45ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(100) + 5 = 6 Nm

45ms < t < 60ms Te = 0.01(-100/0.015) + 0.01(400 -6666.67t) + 5

70 J = 0.001 kg-m2, B = 0.1 Nm/rads-1

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