Cell Parts and Functions Table

Cell Organelle
Cell Function
Nucleus
Directs all cell activities "Brain or Control Center of cell"
Nuclear Envelope (Membrane)
Controls what passes in and out of the nucleus
Cytoplasm
Jelly-like substance found inside cell that acts as a medium for chemical reactions within the
cell
Golgi Body (Apparatus)
Packages the proteins made by the ribosomes so they can be sent out of the cell. The UPS store
of the cell
Mitochondrion
"powerhouse of the cell" breaks down sugar molecules to release energy, site of cellular
respiration, double membrane, self-replicating, contains own DNA, cristae
Vacuole
"Storage tanks" Can hold food, water or waste for the cell
Ribosome
Makes proteins for the cell, can be found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or free in the
cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Transportation network for the cell, moves materials around in the cell

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)- endoplasmic reticulum that has ribosomes attached.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)- does not have ribosomes attached

Lysosome
"Stomach of the cell" Helps the cell digest food, waste and worn out cell parts
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes and rRNA( stuff ribosomes are made of)
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
"Gatekeeper" Separates the cell from the rest of the environment and helps control what
passes in and out of the cell.  Semi-permeable: allows some materials to pass through but not all
Chloroplast
A special plastid that contains chlorophyll a pigment that captures the sun's energy to produce
glucose in a process called photosynthesis
Cell Wall
Rigid outer layer made of cellulose that supports and protects the cell (plant, fungi, and
bacterial cells)
Vesicle
Stores and Transports substances from the Golgi Body to the cell membrane for export. "The
UPS truck of the cell"
Cytoskeleton
gives support and shape to the cell, made of proteins
Centriole
Organizes special parts of the cytoskeleton called microtubules for cell division, migrates to
opposite ends (poles) of the cell to assist with cell division

The Animal Kingdom

There are many different types of animals in the world. Many animals are quite similar
to each other. Others are quite different. Animals can be classified based on their
similarities. Continue on, and learn more about your fellow Earth inhabitants.

Here are some of the animals you can investigate in our Science Reference Library. The
first name you read is the common name for the animal. The name in parentheses ( ) is
the Latin word for the group (the phylum or subphylum orclass or group or order) that
scientists sometimes use to refer to animals.

Protozoa
(phyla: protozoa)
Fish
(group: Pisces)

Echinoderms
such as starfish
(phyla: Echinodermata)
Amphibians
such as frogs
(class: Amphibia)

Annelids
such as earthworms
(phyla: Annelida)
Reptiles
such as crocodiles
(class: Reptilia)

Mollusks
such as octopus
(phyla: Mollusca)
Birds
(class: Aves)

Arthropods
such as crabs, spiders and insects
(phyla: Arthropoda)
Mammals
(class: Mammalia)

Crustaceans
such as crabs
(subphyla: Crustacea)
Marsupials
such as kangaroos
(order: Marsupialia)

Arachnids
such as spiders

(subphyla: Chelicerata
class: Arachnida)
Primates
such as gorillas and chimpanzees
(order: Primates)
Insects
(subphyla: Uniramia
class: Insecta)
Rodents
such as mice
(order: Rodentia)
 
Cetaceans
such as whales and dolphins
( order: Cetacea)
 
Animals such as seals
(order: Carnivora
family: Phocidae)
 
Plant Parts
What Do Different Plant Parts
Do?
Plant parts do different
things for the plant.
Roots
Roots act like straws
absorbing water and
minerals from the soil. Tiny
root hairs stick out of the
root, helping in the
absorption. Roots help to
anchor the plant in the soil
so it does not fall over. Roots
also store extra food for
future use.
Stems
Stems do many things. They
support the plant. They act
like the plant's plumbing
and nutrients from the roots
glucose from the leaves to
can be herbaceous like the
or woody like the trunk of an
Helpful terms
Herbaceous: 
Plants with stems that
are usually soft and
bendable. Herbaceous
stems die back to the
ground every year.
Woody: 
Plants with stems,
such as tree trunks,
that are hard and do
not bend easily.
Woody stems usually
don't die back to the
ground each year.
Photosynthesis:
A process by which a
plant produces its food
using energy from
sunlight, carbon
dioxide from the air,
and water and
nutrients from the soil.
Pollination: 
The movement of
pollen from one plant
to another. Pollination
is necessary for seeds
to form in flowering
plants.
What's the
difference between
a fruit and a
vegetable? 
A fruit is what a flower
becomes after it is
pollinated. The seeds
for the plant are inside
the fruit.
Vegetables are other
plant parts. Carrots
are roots. Asparagus
stalks are stems.
Lettuce is leaves.
Foods we often call
vegetables when
cooking are really
fruits because they
contain seeds inside.
Play a Plant Parts
Game!
system, conducting water
and food in the form of
other plant parts. Stems
bendable stem of a daisy
oak tree.
 A celery stalk, the In celery, the petiole Here the "pipes" are
part of celery that we serves many of the dyed red so you can
eat, is a special part same functions as a easily see them.
of the leaf structure stem. It's easy to see
called apetiole. A the "pipes" that
petiole is a small stalk conduct water and
attaching the leaf nutrients in a stalk of
blade of a plant to the celery.
stem.

Leaves

Most plants' food is made in their leaves. Leaves are designed to capture
sunlight which the plant uses to make food through a process called
photosynthesis.

Flowers

Flowers are the reproductive part of most plants. Flowers contain pollen and
tiny eggs called ovules. After pollination of the flower and fertilization of the
ovule, the ovule develops into a fruit.

Fruit

Fruit provides a covering for seeds. Fruit can be fleshy like an apple or hard
like a nut.

Seeds

Seeds contain new plants. Seeds form in fruit.

Plant Morphology

The Parts of a Flower

Peduncle: The stalk of a flower. 
Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached. 
Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing bud. 
Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored. 
Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther. 
Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced. 
Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a long style, topped by a
stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a seed. 
Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates. 
Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced.

The Parts of a
Leaf
Most leaves have two main
parts: (1) the blade and (2) the
petiole, or leafstalk. The leaves
of some kinds of plants also
have a third part, called
the stipules.
The Blade, or lamina, is the broad, flat part of the leaf. Photosynthesis occurs in the blade,
which has many green food-making cells. Leaf blades differ from one another in several ways:
(1) the types of edges, (2) the patterns of the veins, and (3) the number of blades per leaf.
The Types of Edges. Almost all narrow, grasslike leaves and needles leaves have a blade with a smooth edge, as
do many broadleaf plants, particularly those that are native to warm climates. The rubber plant, a common
house plant, is a good example of such a plant.

The leaves of many temperate broadleaf plants have small, jagged points called teeth along the blade edge.
Birch and elm trees have such leaves. Some plants have hydathodes, tiny valvelike structures that can release
excess water from the leaf. The teeth of young leaves on many plants, including cottonwood and pin cherry
trees, bear tiny glads. These glands produce liquids that protect the young leaf from plant-eating insects.

Some temperate broadleaf plants -- including sassafras trees and certain mulberry and oak trees -- have lobed
leaves. The edge of such a leaf looks as if large bites have been taken out of it. This lobing helps heat escape
from the leaf.

The Patterns of the Veins. Veins carry food and water in

a leaf. They also support the blade, much as the metal
ribs support the fabric of an open umbrella.

In most broad leaves, the veins form a netlike pattern,

with several large veins connected by smaller ones. The
smallest veins supply every part of the blade with water.
They also collect the food made by the green cells.

There are two main types of net-vein patterns

-- pinnate (featherlike) and palmate (palmlike or
handlike). Pinnately veined leaves have one large central
vein, called the midrib, which extends from the base of
the blade to its tip. Other large veins branch off on each
side of the midrib. The leaves of beech, birch, and elm
trees have such a vein pattern. A palmately veined leaf
has several main veins of about equal size, all of which
extend from a common point at the base of the blade. The
vein patterns of maple, sweet gum, and sycamore leaves
are palmate.

Narrow leaves and needle leaves are not net-veined. Narrow leaves have a parallel-vein pattern. Several large
veins run alongside one another from the base of the blade to the tip. Small crossveins connect the large veins.
Needle leaves are so small that they have only one or two veins running through the center of the blade.

The Number of Blades per

Leaf. A leaf with only one blade
is called a simple leaf. Apple and
oak trees, grasses, and many
other plants have simple leaves.
A leaf with more than one blade
is known as a compound leaf.
The blades of a compound leaf
are called leaflets.

The leaflets in a compound leaf

may be arranged in a pinnate or
palmate pattern. In pinnately
compound leaves, the leaflets
grow in two rows, one on each
side of a central stalk, called
the rachis. Plants with pinnately
compound leaves include ash
and walnut trees and garden
peas. The leaflets in a palmately
compound leaf all grow from the
tip of the leafstalk. Clover, horse
chestnut trees, and many other plants have palmately compound leaves.
A few plants -- including carrots, honey locust trees, and Kentucky coffeetrees -- have double compound leaves,
with each leaflet being divided into a number of still smaller leaflets.One double compound leaf looks more like
a group of twigs and leaves than like a single leaf.

The Petiole is the stemlike part of the leaf that joins the blade to the stem. Within a petiole are tiny tubes that
connect with the veins in the blade. Some of the tubes carry water into the leaf. Others carry away food that the
leaf has made. In many trees and shrubs, the petioles bend in such a way that the blades receive the most
sunlight, thus assuring that few leaves are shaded by other leaves. The petiole also provides a flexible "handle"
that enables the blade to twist in the wind and so avoid damage.

In some plants, the petioles are much larger than the stems to which they are attached. For example, the parts
we eat of celery and rhubarb plants are petioles. In contrast, the leaves of some soft-stemmed plants, particularly
grasses, have no petioles.

The Stipules are two small flaps that grow at the base of the petiole of some plants. In some plants, the stipules
grow quickly, enclosing and protecting the young blade as it develops. Some stipules, such as those of willows
and certain cherry trees, produce substances that prevent insects from attacking the developing leaf.

In many plants the stipules drop off after the blade has developed, but garden peas and a few other kinds of
plants have large stipules that serve as an extra food-producing part of the leaf.

Parts of a stem
These are the basic elements of a plant stem and the organs (eg leaves and flowers) which extend from it:

This is the role of each of the major stem parts:

 Stem
The term ’stem’ refers to the structure which provides support for the plant and connects the roots (which draw up water
and nutrients) to the leaves (which produce energy) and flowers (which are in charge of reproduction). There can be one
stem originating from the roots with lateral stems growing from it, many different stems coming out from the roots, or a
combination of the two. Where there is just one stem coming from the roots of a woody perennial this is known as a
‘trunk’.

 Branch/lateral growth/side shoot

These different terms are all used to describe stems which come out of the main stem. Generally this growth is slightly
slimmer than the main stem or ‘trunk’ of the plant.

 Node
Nodes are areas of growth. These parts of the stem contain a lot of cells which are called ‘meristematic‘; cells which
actively divide to create lots of new cells. Nodes are where you will find buds, side shoots, leaves and flowers growing.
Nodes are important when propagating plants by stem cuttings.

 Internode
This is the space between two nodes. It is the area which extends to give the stem more length and, therefore, the plant
more height. It is also known as the ‘internodal’ area.

 Axillary bud
These are buds which form in the axils between a stem and a side shoot, or between a stem and a leaf. These buds may
remain dormant or may develop into a side shoot, leaf or flower.

 Apical bud
This type of bud is found at the tip of stems and denotes a strongly meristematic area, ie an area where cells are actively
dividing and, therefore, lengthening the stem. At these apical growth points there is a build up of a hormone called auxin,
which controls the growth. The heightened levels of auxin at the tips of stems inhibits the axillary buds (this is called
‘apical dominance’) and is the reason why they often remain dormant. When we prune plants we remove the apical buds,
which encourages more growth from the axillary buds. This is why plants often become more bushy with pruning .

 Leaf
The leaves are either sessile (growing directly out of the stem) or petiolate (growing on a stalk called a petiole). Leaves
grow out of nodes and the point where the leaf or petiole meets the stem is called the leaf axil.

 Pedicel and flower

See ‘parts of a flower‘.
The internal structure of a stem varies depending on the type of plant. Its basic constituents are the phloem and xylem
vessels which form the plant’s transportation system, meristematic ‘cambium’ cells which are actively dividing cells
producing more phloem and xylem tissue, and cortex cells which fill in the gaps between the other types of cells and can
also store food or become meristematic (growing) in order to repair damage to the stem.
In woody perennials, and some other plants, the ongoing production of phloem and xylem cells is responsible for the
thickening of the plant’s stems. This increase in width stretches and squashes the epidermis, or ’skin’, of the stem, so the
plant has to keep on producing new epidermal cells. The old, dead cells build up and appear as bark on the outside of the
stem. Tiny pores (which appear as spots on some stems) called ‘lenticels’ allow gases (such as oxygen) to enter and
leave the inside of the stem, used for purposes such as respiration.

Parts of the Nerve Cell and Their Functions

Silvia Helena Cardoso, PhD

[1. Cell body] [2.Neuronal membrane] [3.Dendrites] [4. Axon] [5. Nerve ending]

1. Cell body 
 
 The cell body (soma) is the factory of the neuron. It produces all the
proteins for the dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals and contains
specialized organelles such as the mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
endoplasmic reticulum, secretory granules, ribosomes and polysomes to
provide energy and make the parts, as well as a production line to assemble
the parts into completed products.

Cytosol - Is the watery and salty fluid with a potassium-rich solution inside
the cell containing enzymes responsible for the metabolism of the cell. 

1. Nucleus - Derived from the Latin word for "nux", nut, the nucleus is the
archivist and the architect of the cell. As archivist it contains the genes,
consisting of DNA which contains the cell history, the basic information to
manufacture all the proteins characteristic of that cell. As architect, it
synthesizes RNA from DNA and ships it through its pores to the cytoplasm
for use in protein synthesis. 

The.Nucleolus is an organelle within the nucleus which is involved actively

in ribosome synthesis and in the transfer of RNA to the cytosol. 
  
2. Golgi Apparatus - membrane-bound structure that plays a role in
packaging peptides and proteins (including neurotransmitters) into vesicles. 

3. Polyribosomes - there are several free ribosomes attached by a thread.

The thread is a single strand of mRNA (messenger RNA, a molecule
involved in the synthesis of proteins outside the nucleus). The associated
ribosomes work on it to make multiple copies of the same protein.

4. Neuronal membrane (see next box)

5. Mitochondrium - this is the part of the cell responsible for the supply of
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).  Neurons need an
enormous amount of energy. The brain is one of the most metabolically
active tissues in the body. In man, for example, the brain uses 40 ml of
oxygen per minute. Mitochondria use oxygen and glucose to produce most
of the cell's energy. 
The brain consumes large amounts of ATP. The chemical energy stored in
ATP is used to fuel most of the biochemical reactions of the neuron. For
example, special proteins in the neuronal membrane use the energy
released by the breakdown of ATP into ADP to pump certain substances
across the membrane to establish concentration differences between the
inside of the neuron and the outside. 

6. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Smooth Endoplasmic

Reticulum  (7) - A system of tubes for the transportation of materials within
the cytoplasm. It may have ribosomes (rough ER) or no ribosomes (smooth
ER). With ribosomes, the ER is important for protein synthesis. 

Nissl Bodies - Groups of ribosomes used for protein synthesis. 

2. Neuronal Membrane  
 
 The neuronal membrane serves as a barrier to
enclose the cytoplasm inside the neuron, and to
exclude certain substances that float in the fluid
that bathes the neuron. 

The membrane with its mosaic of proteins is

responsible for many important functions:

 keeping certain ions and small molecules

out of the cell and letting others in, 
 accumulating nutrients, and rejecting
harmful substances,
 catalyzing enzymatic reactions, 
 establishing an electrical potential inside
the cell,
 conducting an impulse
 being sensitive to particular
neurotransmitters and modulators . 

The membrane is made of lipids and proteins - fats and chains of aminoacids. The basic
structure of this membrane is a bilayer or sandwich of phospholipids, organized in such a
way that the polar (charged) regions face outward and the non polar regions face inward.

The external face of the membrane contains the receptors, small specialized molecular
regions which provide a kind of "attachment port" for other external molecules, in a
scheme analogous to a a key and a keyhole. For each external molecule there is a
corresponding receptor. Whenever receptors become attached to a molecule, some
alterations of the membrane and in the interior of the cell ensue, such as the modification
of permeability to some ions. 

3. Dendrites 
 

These structures branch out in treelike fashion and serve as the main apparatus for
receiving signals from other nerve cells. They function as an "antennae" of the neuron
and are covered by thousands of synapses. The dendritic membrane under the
synapse (the post-synaptic membrane) has many specialized protein molecules called
receptors that detect the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. A nerve cell can have
many dendrites which branch many times, their surface is irregular and covered in
dendritic spines which are where the synaptic input connections are made. 

4. Axon 
 

Usually a long process which often projects to distant regions of the nervous
system. The axon is the main conducting unit of the neuron, capable of
conveying electrical signals along distances that range from as short as 0.1
mm to as long as 2 m. Many axon split into several branches, thereby
conveying information to different targets. Many neurons do not have axons.
In these so-called amacrine neurons, all the neuronal processess are
dendrites. Neurons with very short axons are also found. 

A The axons of many neurons are wrapped in a myelin sheat, which is

xon    composed of the membranes of intersticial cells and is wrapped around the
  
axons to form several concentric layers. The myelin sheath is broken at
various points by the nodes of Ranvier, so that in cross section it looks like a
string of sausages. The myelin protects the axon, and prevents interference
between axons as they pass along in bundles, sometimes thousands at time. 

The cells that wrap around peripheral nerve fibers - that is, nerve fibers
outside of the brain and spinal cord - are called Schwann cells (because they
were first described by Theodor Schwann). The cells that wrap around axons
within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) are called
oligodendrocytes. The axon, with its surrounded sheath, is called a nerve
fiber. Between each pair of sucessive Schwann cells is a gap of a node of
Ranvier. 

The Axon Hillock

The axon hillock is where the axon is joined to the cell. It is from here that the
electrical firing known as an action potential usually occurs. 

5. Nerve Ending (Presynaptic Terminals) 

 

Synapses are the junctions formed with other nerve cells where the presynaptic
terminal of one cell comes into 'contact' with the postsynaptic membrane of
another. It is at these junctions that neurons are excited, inhibited, or modulated.
There are two types of synapse, electrical and chemical. 

Electrical synapses occur where the presynaptic terminal is in electrical continuity

with the postsynaptic. Ions and small molecules passing through, thus connecting
channels from one cell to the next, so that electrical changes in one cell are
transmitted almost instantaneously to the next. Ions can generally flow both ways at
these junctions i.e. they tend to be bi-directional, although there are electrical
junctions where the ions can only flow one way, these are know as rectifying
junctions. Rectifying junctions are used to synchronise the firing of nerve cells. 

Chemical synaptic junction is more complicated. The gap between the post- and
presynaptic terminals is larger, and the mode of transmission is not electrical, but
carried by neurotransmitters, neuroactive substances released at the presynaptic
side of the junction. There are two types of chemical junctions. Type I is an
excitatory synapse, generally found on dendrites, type II is an inhibitory synapse,
generally found on cell bodies. Different substances are released at these two types
of synapse. The direction of flow of information is usually one way at these
junctions. 

Each terminal button is connected to other neurons across a small gap called a
synapse. The physical and neurochemical characteristics of each synapse
determines the strength and polarity of the new input signal. This is where the brain
is the most flexible, and the most vulnerable. Changing the constitution of various
neurotransmitter chemicals can increase or decrease the amount of stimulation that
the firing axon imparts on the neighbouring dendrite. Altering the neurotransmitters
can also change whether the stimulation is excitatory or inhibitory. 

Your Body's Systems

Circulatory System
The circulatory system is the body's transport system. It is made up of a group of organs that transport blood
throughout the body. The heart pumps the blood and the arteries and veins transport it. Oxygen-rich blood leaves
the left side of the heart and enters the biggest artery, called the aorta. The aorta branches into smaller arteries,
which then branch into even smaller vessels that travel all over the body. When blood enters the smallest blood
vessels, which are called capillaries, and are found in body tissue, it gives nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
takes in carbon dioxide, water, and waste. The blood, which no longer contains oxygen and nutrients, then goes
back to the heart through veins. Veins carry waste products away from cells and bring blood back to the heart ,
which pumps it to the lungs to pick up oxygen and eliminate waste carbon dioxide.
Digestive System

The digestive system is made up of organs that break down food into protein, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
and fats, which the body needs for energy, growth, and repair. After food is chewed and swallowed, it goes down
the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is further broken down by powerful stomach acids. From the
stomach the food travels into the small intestine. This is where your food is broken down into nutrients that can enter
the bloodstream through tiny hair-like projections. The excess food that the body doesn't need or can't digest is
turned into waste and is eliminated from the body.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up of a group of glands that produce the body's long-distance messengers, or
hormones.Hormones are chemicals that control body functions, such as metabolism, growth, and sexual
development. The glands, which include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands,
thymus gland, pineal body, pancreas, ovaries, and testes, release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which
transports the hormones to organs and tissues throughout the body.

Immune System

The immune system is our body's defense system against infections and diseases. Organs, tissues, cells, and cell
products work together to respond to dangerous organisms (like viruses or bacteria) and substances that may enter
the body from the environment. There are three types of response systems in the immune system: the anatomic
response, the inflammatory response, and the immune response.

 The anatomic response physically prevents threatening substances from entering your body. Examples of
the anatomic system include the mucous membranes and the skin. If substances do get by, the
inflammatory response goes on attack.
 The inflammatory system works by excreting the invaders from your body. Sneezing, runny noses, and
fever are examples of the inflammatory system at work. Sometimes, even though you don't feel well while
it's happening, your body is fighting illness.
 When the inflammatory response fails, the immune response goes to work. This is the central part of the
immune system and is made up of white blood cells, which fight infection by gobbling up antigens. About a
quarter of white blood cells, called the lymphocytes, migrate to the lymph nodes and produce antibodies,
which fight disease.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is also a defense system for the body. It filters out organisms that cause disease, produces
white blood cells, and generates disease-fighting antibodies. It also distributes fluids and nutrients in the body and
drains excess fluids and protein so that tissues do not swell. The lymphatic system is made up of a network of
vessels that help circulate body fluids. These vessels carry excess fluid away from the spaces between tissues and
organs and return it to the bloodstream.
Muscular System

The muscular system is made up of tissues that work with the skeletal system to control movement of the body.
Some muscles—like the ones in your arms and legs—are voluntary, meaning that you decide when to move them.
Other muscles, like the ones in your stomach, heart, intestines and other organs, are involuntary. This means that
they are controlled automatically by the nervous system and hormones—you often don't even realize they're at
work.

The body is made up of three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Each of these has the ability to
contract and expand, which allows the body to move and function. .

 Skeletal muscles help the body move.

 Smooth muscles, which are involuntary, are located inside organs, such as the stomach and intestines.
 Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. Its motion is involuntary

Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves. One of the most important systems in your
body, the nervous system is your body's control system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses
throughout the body. These nerve impulses tell your muscles and organs what to do and how to respond to the
environment. There are three parts of your nervous system that work together: the central nervous system, the
peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system.

 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It sends out nerve impulses and
analyzes information from the sense organs, which tell your brain about things you see, hear, smell, taste
and feel.
 The peripheral nervous system includes the craniospinal nerves that branch off from the brain and the
spinal cord. It carries the nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
 The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary action, such as heart beat and digestion.

Reproductive System

The reproductive system allows humans to produce children. Sperm from the male fertilizes the female's egg, or
ovum, in the fallopian tube. The fertilized egg travels from the fallopian tube to the uterus, where the fetus develops
over a period of nine months.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system brings air into the body and removes carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, trachea, and
lungs. When you breathe in, air enters your nose or mouth and goes down a long tube called the trachea. The
trachea branches into two bronchial tubes, or primary bronchi, which go to the lungs. The primary bronchi branch off
into even smaller bronchial tubes, or bronchioles. The bronchioles end in the alveoli, or air sacs. Oxygen follows this
path and passes through the walls of the air sacs and blood vessels and enters the blood stream. At the same time,
carbon dioxide passes into the lungs and is exhaled.

Skeletal System

The skeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments and tendons. It shapes the body and protects organs. The
skeletal system works with the muscular system to help the body move. Marrow, which is soft, fatty tissue that
produces red blood cells, many white blood cells, and other immune system cells, is found inside bones.

Urinary System

The urinary system eliminates waste from the body, in the form of urine. The kidneys remove waste from the blood.
The waste combines with water to form urine. From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to
the bladder. When the bladder is full, urine is discharged through the urethra.
Systems of the Human Body:
Human body is made of ten different systems. All the systems require support
and coordination of other systems to form a living and healthy human body. If
any one of these systems is damaged, human body will become unstable and this
lack of stability will ultimately lead to death. The instability caused by damage of
one system cannot be stabilized by other systems because functions of one
system cannot be performed by other systems. Knowledge of human body
systems is very important for a medical professional because it is the base of all
medical sciences and clinical practices. Although, generally, the structural aspects
of human body systems are studied in anatomy and the functional aspects are
studied in physiology but it is very important to have a coordination between the
two subjects because knowledge of structure is incomplete without the knowledge
of function and the knowledge of function is incomplete without the knowledge of
structure.
A brief introduction to all the systems of human body is given in the table
below. For details of a system, please go to its section by clicking on the
link to that system’s section.
Name: Components Role

Strength, Support, Shape,

Skeletal System Bones, Associated cartilages, Joints Protection, Leverage, Cell
Production

Motor power for movements of

Muscular System Muscles (Skeletal Muscles, Smooth mucles, Cardiac Muscles)
body parts.

Control and Coordination of all

Nervous System Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Nerve Endings body functions (Nervous
coordination)

Respiratory Lungs, Nose, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveolar sacs,

Gaseou exchange
System Alveoli

Cardiovascular Flow of blood (and nutrients)

Heart, Blood vessels (Arteries, Veins and Capillaries), Blood
System throughout body

Lymph vessels, Central lymphoid tissue, Peripheral Lymphoid

Lymphatic System Drainage and Protection
Organs, Lymphocytes

Endocrine glands (Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid

glands, Adrenal glands, Pancreas (endocrine part), Testes Regulation of body functions
Endocrine System
(endocrine part), Ovary (endocrine part), Liver (endocrine (Chemical coordination)
part))

Alimentary Canal (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, Small

Digestive System Intestine, Large Intestine, Anus), Liver, Pancreas, Salivary Digestion and absorption of food
glands, Teeth, Tongue

Regulation of body’s internal

Urinary System Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra environment, and production
and excretion of urine

Formation of sperms and

Male Reproductive
Penis, Testes semen, and fertilizing the
System
female
 Female
Formation of eggs and bearing
Reproductive Uterus, Ovaries, Vulva, Labia, Clitoris
the fetus during development
System