ANATOMICAL TERMS

HISTORY
• During the Renaissance (“Rebirth”) the study of human life and medicine began to flourish.
• Scientist, Doctors and Artist would experiment and practice on the dead and incarcerated.
• Cadavers were positioned flat on their backs, thus making it easier to draw and reference
from that position.
• Many artist such as Leonardo da Vinci began to study, draw and diagram the human body.

ANATOMICAL POSITION
• Standing erect, with palms and feet facing forward
• Is the standard reference point in which all positions, movements, and planes are described

ANATOMICAL PLANES
• Fixed lines of reference along which the body is often divided or sectioned to facilitate
viewing of its structures
• Allow one to obtain a three-dimensional perspective by studying the body from different
views

Sagittal plane
• The plane dividing the body into right and left portions
• Midsagittal or median are names for the plane dividing the body into equal right and
left halves
Frontal plane
• The plane dividing the body into front and back portions
• Also called the Coronal plane
Transverse plane
• The horizontal plane dividing the body into upper and lower portions
• Also called the Horizontal plane

Positions and Directions

- Terms of position and direction describe the position of one body part relative to another, usually
along one of the three major body planes

Superior- Refers to a structure being closer to the head or higher than another structure in the
body
Inferior- Refers to a structure being closer to the feet or lower than another structure in the body
Anterior- Refers to a structure being more in front than another structure in the body
Posterior- Refers to a structure being more in back than another structure in the body
Medial- Refers to a structure being closer to the midline or median plane of the body than another
structure of the body
Lateral- Refers to a structure being farther away from the midline than another structure of the
body
Distal (Reference to the extremities only)- Refers to a structure being further away from the root of
the limb than another structure in the limb
Proximal- (Reference to the extremities only) Refers to a structure being closer to the root of the
limb than another structure in that limb
Distal / Proximal Cont.
- When you divide the skeleton into Axial (Blue) and Appendicular (Yellow) you can better
understand the extremities and their roots.
Superficial- Refers to a structure being closer to the surface of the body than another structure
Deep- Refers to a structure being closer to the core of the body than another structure
Ventral- Towards the front or belly
- You Vent out or your nose and mouth.
Dorsal- Towards the back
- Like the Dorsal fin of a dolphin.
Prone- Lying face down
- Like a Pro Baseball player sliding into Home.
Supine- Lying face up
- Lying on your spine and you can have soup poured into your mouth.
Unilateral- Pertaining to one side of the body
Bilateral- Pertaining to both sides of the body

Movements

Flexion- Bending a joint or decreasing the angle between two bones

- In the Fetal Position we are flexing our joints
Extension- Straightening a joint or increasing the angle between two bones
- In the Anatomical Position we are extending our joints
Hyperextension- Excessive extension of the parts at a joint beyond anatomical position.
Adduction- Moving a body part towards the midline of the body
Abduction- Moving a body part away from the midline of the body
Pronation- Turning the arm or foot downward
- (palm or sole of the foot - down)
- Prone
Supination- Turning the arm or foot upward
- (palm or sole of the foot - up)
- Supine
Retraction- Moving a part backward
Protraction- Moving a part forward
Elevation- Raising a part
Depression- Lowering a part
Rotation- Turning on a single axis
Circumduction- Tri-planar, circular motion at the hip or shoulder
External rotation- Rotation of the hip or shoulder away from the midline
Internal rotation- Rotation of the hip or shoulder toward the midline
Lateral Flexion- Side-bending left or right
Inversion- Turning the sole of the foot inward
Eversion- Turning the sole of the foot outward
Dorsiflexion- Ankle movement bringing the foot towards the shin
Plantarflexion- Ankle movement pointing the foot downward
Radial Deviation- Movement of the wrist towards the radius or lateral side.
Ulnar Deviation- Movement of the wrist towards the ulna or medial side.
Opposition- Movement of the thumb across the palm of the hand.
 OVERVIEW OF AN ORGAN SYSTEMS

MAJOR
ORGAN
COMPONENT FUNCTIONS
SYSTEM
ORGANS
 Protects deeper organs from
injury due to bumps,
Skin, nails, and hair; chemicals, bacteria and
Integumentary cutaneous sense organs and dehydration
glands  Excretes salts and urea
 Helps regulate body
temperature
 Supports and protects
internal organs
 Provides levers for muscular
Bones, cartilages, tendons, action
Skeletal
ligaments and joints  Stores minerals (calcium and
others)
 Cavities provide a site for
blood cell formation
 Skeletal muscles contract, or
shorten; in doing so, they
move bones to allow motion
Muscles attached to the (running, walking, etc.),
Muscular
skeleton grasping and manipulation of
the environment, and facial
expression
 Generates heat
 Allows body to detect
changes in its internal and
external environment and to
respond to such information
by activating appropriate
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves
muscles or glands
 Helps maintain short-term
homeostasis of the body via
rapid transmission of
electrical signals
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal  Promotes growth and
and pineal glands; ovaries, development; produces
testes and pancreas chemical “messengers”

Heart, blood vessels and
Cardiovascular
blood
Lymphatic vessels, lymph
Lymphatic/immun
nodes, spleen, thymus, and
e 
tonsils
Nose, pharynx, larynx,
Respiratory
trachea, bronchi and lungs
Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestines
Digestive and accessory glands (teeth,
salivary glands, liver, gall
bladder, and pancreas)
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra
(hormones) that travel in the
blood to exert their effects on
various “target organs” of the
body
 Plays a role in regulation of
long-term homeostasis
 Primarily a transport system
that carries blood containing
oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes, ions,
hormones and other
substances to and from the
cells where exchanges are
made; pumping action of the
heart propels blood through
the blood vessels
 Protects body with blood
clots, antibodies, and other
protein molecules in the
blood
 Houses cells (lymphocytes
and others) that act in the
immune response to protect
the body from foreign
substances
Picks up fluid leaked from the
blood vessels and returns it
to the blood
 Cleanses blood of pathogens
and other debris
 Keeps the blood continuously
supplied with oxygen while
removing carbon dioxide
 Breaks down ingested foods
to tiny particles, which can be
absorbed into the blood for
delivery to the body cells
 Undigested residue leaves
the body as feces
 Rids the body of nitrogen-
containing wastes (urea, uric
acid and ammonia) which
result from the breakdown of
proteins and nucleic acids by
body cells
  Maintains water, electrolyte
and acid-base balance of
blood
 Produce germ cells (sperm)
Male (testes, scrotum, penis,
for perpetuation of the
duct system which carries
species
Reproductive sperm to the body exterior
 Produces germ cells (egg);
Female (ovaries, uterine
the female uterus houses a
tubes, uterus, vagina)
developing fetus until birth

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
BASIC SKIN FUNCTIONS
 It insulates and cushions deeper body organs
 Protects the entire body from mechanical damage (bumps and cuts), chemical damage
(acids and bases), thermal damage (heat and cold), ultraviolet radiation and bacteria
 The uppermost layer of the skin is full of keratin and cornified in order to prevent water loss
from the body surface
 The skin acts as a mini-excretory system: urea, salts, and water lost when we sweat
 Manufactures several proteins important to immunity and synthesizes vitamin D.
 The cutaneous sensory receptors which include the touch, pressure, temperature and pain
receptors

Structure of the Skin

Two distinct regions:
1. Epidermis – made up of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of keratinizing
2. Dermis – made up of dense connective tissue
*deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis

Hypodermis – it anchors the skin to underlying organs

- shock absorber and insulates the deeper tissues from extreme temperature changes

EPIDERMIS
- avascular
- keratinocytes which produce keratin, the fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a tough
protective layer

Epidermis – the 5 strata

STRATUM BASALE (stratum germinativum)

 lies close to the dermis and contains the only epidermal cells that receive adequate
nourishment
 constantly undergoing cell division and millions of new cells are produced daily

* The daughter cells are pushed upward away from the source of nutrition to become
part of the epidermal layer closer to the skin surface. They move away from the
 dermis and become part of the more superficial layers, the stratum spinosum and
then the stratum granulosum

STRATUM CORNEUM
 Outermost layer and is 20 to 30 cell layers thick
 The shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely filled with keratin are referred to as
cornified or horny cells
 The abundance of keratin in this layer allows it provide a durable “overcoat” for the body
 Rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily and is replaced by new cells
 We have a totally “new” epidermis every 25 to 45 days!

MELANIN
 A pigment that ranges in color form yellow to brown to black
 Produced by special cells called melanocytes found in the stratum basale

DERMIS
 A strong, stretchy envelope that helps to hold the body together
 Both collagen and elastic fibers are found throughout the dermis
*collagen fibers - responsible for the toughness of the dermis; attract and bind water and thus
help to keep the skin hydrated
*elastic fibers – give the skin its elasticity when we are young

 2 major regions of dense fibrous connective tissue:
1. Papillary Layer
- Upper dermal region
- Uneven and has fingerlike projections from its superior surface called dermal
papillae
- Dermal papillae contains capillary loops which furnish nutrients to the
epidermis
- Other house pain receptors and touch receptors called Meissner’s corpuscles
2. Reticular Layer
- deepest skin layer
- contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands
- and deep pressure receptors called Pacinian corpuscles

SKIN COLOR

3 pigments that contribute to skin color

1. The amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown or black) of melanin in the epidermis.
2. The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue.
3. The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels.

Skin color is influenced by emotional stimuli and many alterations in skin color signal certain
disease states:
 Redness or erythema – reddened skin may indicate embarrassment(blushing), fever,
hyperextension, inflammation or allergy
 Pallor or blanching – emotional stress and some become pale; pale skin may signify
anemia, low BP, impaired blood flow into the area
  Jaundice or yellow cast- signifies liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are absorbed
into the blood, circulated throughout the body and deposited in body tissues
 Bruises or black-and-blue marks – reveal sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted in the tissue spaces

Appendages of the Skin

1. Cutaneous Glands
- Are all exocrine glands that release their secretions to the skin surface
- 2 groups : sebaceous and sweat
 Sebaceous(Oil) Glands
- Found all over the skin except on the palms and soles
- Sebum is a lubricant that keeps skin soft and moist and prevents the hair from
becoming brittle; contains chemicals that kill bacteria
 Sweat glands or Sudoriferous glands
- More than 2.5 million per person
- 2 types : eccrine and apocrine
- Eccrine – produce sweat primarily water plus some salts, vitamin C, traces of
metabolic wastes and lactic acid
- Apocrine – confined in the axillary and genital areas; secretion contains fatty
acids and proteins(milky and yellowish color)

2. Hair and Hair Follicles

- Functions : - Guarding the head against bumps
-Shielding the eyes
-Helping to keep foreign particles out of the respiratory tract
- Hair – flexible epithelial structure and produced by hair follicle
- Hair pigment – made by melanocytes in the hair bulb and varying amounts of
different types of melanin (yellow, rust, brown, black) combine to produce all
varieties of hair color from pale to blond to black
- Medulla
- Cortex
- Cuticle – most heavily keratinized region; provides strength and helps keep the
inner hair layers tightly compacted; tends to wear away at the tip of the shaft
allowing keratin fibrils in the inner region to frizz out
- Hair come in different size and shapes:
o oval - hair is smooth and silky and the person has wavy hair
o flat and ribbonlike - the hair is curly or kinky
o perfectly round - hair is straight and tends to be coarse
- Hair follicles – compound structure
o Inner epidermal sheath – composed of epithelial tissue and forms the
hair
o Outer epidermal sheath – composed of dermal connective tissue
o Arrector pili – small bands of smooth muscle cells connect each side of
the hair follicle to the dermal tissue
3. Nails
- Scalelike modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of
other animals
- the stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the nail bed
 - Nail matrix responsible for nail growth

Homeostatic Imbalance #1
Despite melanin’s protective effects, excessive sun exposure eventually damages the skin. It
causes the elastic fibers to clump, leading to leathery skin. It also depresses the immune
system. This may help to explain why many people infected with the herpes simplex or
cold sore, virus are more likely to have an eruption after sunbathing. Overexposure to the
sun can also alter the DNA of skin cells and in this way lead to skin cancer. Black people
seldom have skin cancer, attesting to melanin’s amazing effectiveness as a natural
sunscreen.
Homeostatic Imbalance #2
Any restriction of the normal blood supply to the skin results in cell death and, if severe or
prolonged enough, skin ulcers. Decubitis ulcers (bed sores) occur in bedridden patients
who are not turned regularly or who are dragged or pulled across the bed repeatedly. The
weight of the body puts pressure on the skin, esp. over bony projections. Because this
restricts the blood supply, the skin becomes pale or blanched at pressure points. At first, the
skin reddens when pressure is released, but if the situation is not corrected, the cells begin
to die and typically small cracks or breaks in the skin appear at compressed sites.
Permanent damage to the superficial blood vessels and tissue eventually results in
degeneration and ulceration of the skin
Homeostatic Imbalance #3
When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and the skin of Caucasian appear blue, a
condition called cyanosis. Cyanosis is a common during heart failure and severe breathing
disorders. In black people, the skin does not appear cyanotic because of the masking effects of
melanin but cyanosis is apparent in their mucous membranes and nail beds
Homeostatic Imbalance #4
If a sebaceous gland’s duct becomes blocked by sebum, a whitehead appears on the skin surface. If
the accumulated material oxidizes and dries, it darkens forming a blackhead. Acne is an active
infection of the sebaceous glands accompanied by pimples on the skin. It can be mild or severe,
leading to permanent scarring. Seborrhea known as cradle cap in infants, is caused by overactivity
of the sebaceous glands. It begins on the scalp as pink, raised lesions that gradually form a yellow to
brown crust that sloughs off as oily dandruff.

SKIN CANCER

BASAL CELL CARCINOMA

- Least malignant and most common skin cancer
- they cannot form keratin because stratum basale cells are altered
- occur most often on sun-exposed areas
- slow growing and metastasis seldom occurs before it is noticed

SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

- arises at stratum spinosum
- grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes if not removed
- appears most often on scalp, ears, dorsum of hands, and lower lip

MALIGNANT MELANOMA
- cancer of melanocytes
 - deadly and increasing rapidly

SKELETAL SYSTEM

What are the 5 Functions of the Skeletal System?

- Muscle attached to bones!!
1. Movement: Skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles. Your legs and arms move
when the muscles pull on the bones.
2. Support: The backbone is the main support center for the upper body. It holds your head up and
protects your spinal cord.
3. Protection: The bones of your skull protect your brain. Your ribs protect your lungs and heart
from injury.
4. Makes Blood: Red and white blood cells are formed by tissue called marrow, which is in the
center of the bone.
5. Storage: Bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, for use by the body

• Parts of the skeletal system include:

– Bones (skeleton)
– Joints
– Cartilages
– Ligaments
• Divided into two divisions:
– Axial skeleton (skull, ribs and vertebra)
– Appendicular skeleton (pelvis, extremities)

Bones of the Human Body

• The adult skeleton has 206 bones
• Two basic types of bone tissue
– Compact bone: Homogeneous
– Spongy bone: Small needle-like pieces of bone and many open spaces

Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape

• Long bones
– Typically longer than wide
– Have a shaft with heads at both ends
– Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus
• Short bones
– Generally cube-shaped
– Contain mostly spongy bone
• Examples: Carpals, tarsals
• Flat bones
– Thin and flattened, usually curved
– Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
• Irregular bones
 – Irregular in shape
– Do not fit into other bone classification categories
• Example: Vertebrae and hip

Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Diaphysis
– Shaft
– Composed of compact bone
• Epiphysis
– Ends of the bone
– Composed mostly of spongy bone
Structures of a Long Bone
• Periosteum
– Outside covering of the diaphysis
– Fibrous connective tissue membrane
• Sharpey’s fibers
– Secure periosteum to underlying bone
• Arteries
– Supply bone cells with nutrients
• Articular cartilage
– Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
– Made of hyaline cartilage
– Decreases friction at joint surfaces
• Medullary cavity
– Cavity of the shaft
– Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
– Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Osteon (Haversian System)
– A unit of bone
• Central (Haversian) canal
– Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
– Canal perpendicular to the central canal
– Carries blood vessels and nerves

What makes our bone strong?

Changes in the Human Skeleton

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
– Bridge of the nose
– Parts of ribs
– Joints

Bone Growth
- Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
 o New cartilage is continuously formed
o Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage
- Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
o Bones change shape somewhat
o Bones grow in width

Types of Bone Cells

-Osteocytes
o Mature bone cells
-Osteoblasts
o Bone-forming cells
-Osteoclasts
o Bone-destroying cells
o Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
-Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 PTH determines when or if bone is to be broken down or formed in response to the need for
more or fewer calcium ions in the blood.
 The stresses of muscle pull and gravity acting on the skeleton determine where bone matrix
is to be broken down or formed so that the skeleton can remain as strong and vital as
possible.

Bone Fractures
• A break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
– Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin
– Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
– Realignment of the bone

Common Types of Fractures

Repair of Bone Fractures
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
A fibrocartilage callus is a temporary formation of fibroblasts and chondroblasts which
forms at the area of a bone fracture as the bone attempts to heal itself.
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
The hard new bone substance that forms in an area of bone fracture. Bony callus is part of
the bone repair process.

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

2 divisions of the skeletal system

The Axial Skeleton
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts
– Skull
– Vertebral column
– Bony thorax
The Skull
• Two sets of bones
– Cranium
– Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Paranasal Sinuses- Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity

The Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the tongue

The Fetal Skull

• Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
– Allow the brain
to grow
– Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
The Vertebral Column
• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
• The spine has a normal curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

- Forms a cage to protect major organs

- Made-up of three parts: Sternum, Ribs, Thoracic vertebrae

The Appendicular Skeleton

• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

• Composed of two bones
– Clavicle – collarbone
– Scapula – shoulder blade
• These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement

Bones of the Upper Limb

• The arm is formed by a single bone
– Humerus
• The forearm has two bones
– Ulna
– Radius
• The hand
– Carpals – wrist
– Metacarpals – palm
– Phalanges – fingers

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
– Ilium
– Ischium
– Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
 • Protects several organs
– Reproductive organs
– Urinary bladder
– Part of the large intestine

Bones of the Lower Limbs

• The thigh has one bone
– Femur – thigh bone
• The leg has two bones
– Tibia
– Fibula
• The foot
– Tarsus – ankle
– Metatarsals – sole
– Phalanges – toes

Arches of the Foot

• Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
– Two longitudinal
– One transverse