Leadership Styles

Elmer A. F. Conde
Content:
• definition of leadership
• core concepts in leadership
• dimensions in leadership
• core elements of leadership
• types of leaders
• styles of leadership
• theories and models in nursing leadership
Definitions of Leadership
• The privilege to have the responsibility to direct the
actions of others at varying levels of authority and
with accountability to both successful and failed
endeavors (Roberts, 1989)
• The process of influencing the activities of an
organized group in its effort to ward goal setting and
goal achievement (Stogdill, 1974).
Definitions of Leadership
• A process by which one inspires others to work
together for the achievement of a common mission
and goal, a social transaction (Merton, 1969).
• A vital ingredient which transforms a mere crowd
into a functional and useful organization. It can be
taught and that is a transferable skill (Adair, 1983).
Definitions of Leadership
• A means of persuasion and
example by which an
individual induces a group
to take action in accord with
a purpose common to
everyone (Gardner, 1993).
Leadership is therefore:
• Who leaders are: values, motives, personal traits
• What leaders know:: knowledge, skills and abilities
• What leaders do: behavior, habits, styles, and
competencies
Nursing Leadership

• The process where the nurse influences one or more

persons to achieve specific goals in the provision of
nursing care of one or more patients. It is also a
multidimensional process.
Core Concepts of Leadership
• L : lead, love, learn
• E : enthusiastic, energetic
• A : assertive, achiever
• D : dedicated, desirous
• E : effective, efficient
• R : responsible, respectful
Dimensions in Leadership

• LEADER

• SITUATION

• FOLLOWER
Leader
• Initiator or innovator to followers to direct them to a
situation that faces them.
• Seeks to address a situation to make it better to
everyone involved.
• “The only test of leadership is that if somebody
follows” – Robert Greenleaf
 Situation

• The medium where the

directing takes place. It
also includes the space
or locale to which
related activities are
tested and implemented.
Follower
• Hock (1999) identifies the characteristics of a
follower to include the following attributes: active,
responsible, autonomous in their behavior, critical in
their thinking without being insubordinate or
disrespectful.
• Kellerman underscores types of followers as any of
the following: alienated, sheep, yes people, survivors,
and effective followers.
Elements of Leadership
• Vision
• Influence
• Power
• Authority
• Responsibility
• Accountability
 VISION
• Provides direction to the influence process
• Can have one or more visions of the future to assist
them to move a group successfully toward the goal
• To make the vision work, the three critical elements
must be involved: the leader of the organization, the
members or staff and the situation in which they are
to function or the community
Effectiveness of Vision:
• Appears as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of
the leader
• Describe a future state, credible and preferable to the
present state
• Act as a bridge between the current state and a future
optimum state
• Appear desirable enough to energize followers
• Succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or
spiritual level
 POWER
• The ability to efficiently and effectively exercise
authority and control through personal, organizational
and social strength. It is the ability to impose the will
of one person or group to bring about certain
behaviors in other groups or persons.
• According to French and Raven (1959), sources of
power can be: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert,
information and referent.
 AUTHORITY
• Authority represents the right to expect or secure
compliance and is backed by legitimacy.
• Forms of authority could either be: line authority,
staff authority, and team authority.
 Line Authority
• It is a direct supervisory authority from superior to
subordinate. It flows in a direct chain of command
from the top to the company’s bottom.
• Under this type of authority the chain of command is
strictly followed. There is unity of command within
the chain that cannot be broken otherwise there will
be chaos in the organization. The line authority also
knows the extent or span of control over her
subordinates.
 Staff Authority
• It is an authority that is based on expertise and which
usually involves advising line managers.
• They coordinate and provide technical assistance or
advice to all advisors such as accounting, human
resources, information technology, research,
advertising, public relations and legal services.
 Team Authority
• It is granted to committees or work teams involved in
an organization’s daily operations.
• They are empowered to plan and organize their work
and to perform that work with a minimum
supervision.
 RESPONSIBILITY
• It is the obligation to perform the assigned task.
• When given a responsibility for a job, he must also be
given the degree of authority necessary to carry out
the task.
 ACCOUNTABILITY
• It is answering for the result of one’s actions or
omissions.
• It is a form of reckoning, where one accepts the
consequences of their decisions, good or bad.
• It is the final act in the establishment of one’s
credibility.
• Accountability results in rewards for the good
performance, as well as discipline for poor
performance.
 Behaviors of a Leader

• Passive or non – assertive

• Aggressive

• Assertive
 Passive
• A leader that feels self-pity and is lacking self-worth,
acts apologetically, is easily dominated by others and
speaks hesitantly.
• Has self-denial issues, inhibited, puts her self down as
a norm.
• This behavior is borne from low self-esteem and
confidence.
• This leader most of the times allows others to choose
and does not achieve desired goals.
 Aggressive
• Talks loudly on every subject
• Often depreciates other’s remarks and shown
insensitivity to the feelings of others
• Disregards other people’s rights and the aggressive
behavior is characterized by propensity to point
finger and says “you” frequently
• Enhance themselves at the expense of others
• Dictate the actions of others and achieve goals by
hurting others
 Assertive
• Midway between passive and aggressive
• Express opinions and beliefs without infringing on or
belittling the rights of others, refuse to be dominated
or manipulated
• They strive to enhance self and others, quite
expressive
• They naturally feel good about their self, they choose
for their self and achieve desired goals
Styles of Leadership
• Autocratic

• Bureaucratic

• Democratic

• Laissez-faire
 Autocratic
• Nurse leader-manager retains as much power and
decision – making authority as much as possible.
• Does not consult other nurses or co – employees, nor
they are allowed to give any input in decision
making.
• Nurses are expected to obey orders without receiving
explanations.
 Autocratic
• Under this leadership, the nurses are motivated by
rewards and punishments
• Leaders rely on threats and punishments to influence
others and they do not trust their employees.
• Best suited type of leadership in an emergency care
set-up.
 Bureaucratic
• Nurse leader-manager manages “by the book”,
everything is done according to procedure or policy.
• If it is not covered by the book, the nurse leader-
manager refers to the next level above her.
• The nurse leader is more than a rule enforcer rather
than a leader.
 Bureaucratic
• This task is effective in situations such as:
Routine tasks are performed
Certain standards or procedures are to be
understood
Employees are working with dangerous or delicate
equipments that require definite set of procedures
to operate
Safety or security training is being conducted
Employees are performing tasks that require
handling of cash
 Democratic
• Also called participative leadership, it encourages the
nurse employees to be a part of the decision making.
• Nurses are well-informed about everything that
affects their work.
• They share in the decision making and problem
solving responsibilities.
• The nurses are considered as rational who can
perform assigned tasks efficiently and affectively
according to the set of standards set by the profession.
 Democratic
• This style of leadership requires the leader to be a
coach who has the final say, but gathers information
from staff members before making a decision.
• Can produce high quality and high quantity work for
long periods of time. Many employees like the trust
they receive and respond with cooperation, team
spirit and high morale
 Characteristics of a
Democratic Leader
• Develops plan to help employees evaluate their own
performance
• Allows employees to establish goals
• Encourage the employees to grow on the job and be
promoted
• Recognizes and encourages achievement
• Shares the problem solving and decision-making to
the staff
• Encourages team building and participation
 Laissez-Faire
• Also known as “hands-off ” leadership
• There is little or no direction from the leader and the
nursing staff has as much freedom as possible.
• All authority or power is given to the employees and
they must determine goals, make decisions and
resolve problems on their own.
 Laissez-Faire
• Effective style of leadership when:
• Employees are highly skilled, experienced and educated
• Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do
it successfully on their own
• Outside experts such as staff specialists and consultants
are being used
• Employees are trustworthy and experienced
Nursing Leadership Theories

• Trait Theories
• Behavioral Theories
• Situational or Contingency
Theories
• Contemporary Leadership
Theories
• Quantum Leadership
Trait Theories
 “Great Man” Theory
• Assumes that the capacity
for leadership is inherent,
that great leaders are
born, not made.
• Often portray great
leaders as heroic, mythic,
and destined to rise to
leadership when needed.
 Trait Theory
• Assumes that people inherit
extraordinary qualities and
traits that make them suited for
leadership.
• They have special traits that
make them leaders: tireless
ambition, zest for life, great
orator skills, irresistible looks
and extremely persuasive
 Trait Theory
• Stogdill (1974) found that leaders tend to be higher
than non-leaders on: intelligence, dominance, self-
confidence, activity level and knowledge on the task.
• Reeves (2001) noted that leaders possess these traits:
emotional stability and composure, admitting error,
good interpersonal skills, intellectual breadth
 Trait Theory
• Gardner (1993) also said that
decisiveness, trustworthiness, self
confidence, capacity to motivate
people, skills in dealing with people,
task competence among others make
up traits
Behavioral Theories
 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
• A famous psychologist, he postulated that the
worker’s behavior is influenced by interactions
between the personality, the structure of the primary
work group and the socio-technical climate of the
workplace.
• Her categorized leadership styles into:
authoritarianism, democratic, laissez-faire.
 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
• Also developed the “Field Theory of Human
Behavior”. He believed that people act the way they
do depending on self-perceptions and their
environments. To understand a leader’s behavior or
that of the follower, one must look at the totality of
the individual’s experience.
• This individual carries perceptions that are valid and
must be taken into account.
 Chris Argyris (1932- __)
• An organizational psychologist who developed the
concepts of: “Ladder of Inference” and “Double Loop
of Learning”
 Ladder of Inference
• It is based on the idea that the individuals interpret
data to make meaning and make sense of it.
• With the available data, one then selects to process,
interpret, and finally draw up conclusions.
• The conclusions that are drawn are not objective but
subjective. At each step, there is bias in the process
depending on the person’s experience.
Ladder of Inference
 Ladder of Inference
• It reminds nurse-managers that, when
communicating, one needs to communicate not just
subjective conclusions, but also the reasoning process
and assumptions that underline the conclusions.
• Otherwise, the real sources of disagreement will not
be known which is usually lie in one’s assumptions
rather than conclusions.
 Double Loop Learning
• A learning process of detecting and correcting errors.
• The focus of the theory is on solving problems that
are complex and ill-structured and which change as
problem-solving advances.
 Double Loop Learning
• This concept has an impact in nursing profession.
• It would mean questioning the age-old ways of doing
things that never works anyway but are continued for
various reasons.
 Rensis Likert (1903-1981)
• Best known for the two theories: Linking Pin Model
& Four Management Systems
• The model hopes to achieve regularity of practice
which would reinforce the organizational structure
laid down by the organization. The competence and
synergy of all the efforts of the workers would lead to
the achievement of common purposes and goals.
 Rensis Likert (1903-1981)
• Likert gave special attention to the impact of leaders’
behaviors on workers motivation and the performance
of groups. This leads to the identification of the four
main styles of leadership which he called “Four
Systems Approach”.
The Linking Pin & 4 Management
Systems Theories
Four Management Systems

1. Exploitative – Authoritative
2. Benevolent – Authoritative
3. Consultative
4. Participative
 Blake and Mounton
Managerial Grid Model
• Conceptualized by
Dr. Robert R. Blake
(1918-2004) and Dr.
Jane S. Mounton (
-1987)
• It attempts to
conceptualize
management in terms
of relations and
leadership style.
 Managerial Grid Model
• Consists of two behavioral dimensions: concern for
task or production and concern for people
• Concern for task or production: leader cares little
about people and operates in fear of something going
wrong. The focus of the leader is on achieving results
and productivity.
• Concern for people: leader cares a little about
productivity and operates wholly from a desire to be
loved and approved of.
 Managerial Grid Model
• Leaders lay somewhere along the continuum of
concern for productivity to concern for people
• There is no ‘one best way’ of leadership
• Different styles are needed for different situations.
• Identified the 5 different leadership according to the
varying emphasis on each of the two dimensions:
impoverished style, country club style, produce or
perish style, middle of the road style and team style.
 Situational or Contingency Theories
• Are theories that believe in different types of
leadership for different situations
• It is also called contingent theories because the
leadership style would be dependent on the situation
that a leader is faced at the moment
• Proponents: Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard, Fred
Fiedler, Victor Harold Vroom and Yetton, Robert
House
 Paul Hersey and
Kenneth Blanchard
• Leaders should adapt their style to follower
development style based on how ready and willing
the follower is to perform required tasks. Their
readiness depends on their competence and
motivation.
 Paul Hersey and
Kenneth Blanchard

• Identified four
leadership style (S1
to S4) that match the
development levels
(D1 to D4) of the
followers.
 Leadership Styles
• S1: Directing/Telling Leaders
Leader defines the roles and tasks of the follower
and supervises them closely.
Decisions are made by the leader and announced,
so communication is largely one-way.
 Leadership Styles
• S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders
The leader still defines roles and tasks, but seeks
ideas and suggestions from the followers.
Decisions remain the leader’s prerogative but
communication is much more two-way.
 Leadership Styles
• S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders
The leader passes day-to-day decisions such as
task allocation and processes to the follower.
The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions
but control is with the follower.
 Leadership Styles
• S4: Delegating Leaders
Leaders are still involved in decision and problem-
solving but control is with the follower.
The follower decides when and how the leader will
be involved.
 Fred Fiedler
• Developed the Contingency Model
• Fiedler believed that the leader’s personal
characteristics are stable and therefore, so is the
leadership styles.
• He believed that there is no single approach that
could provide an adequate solution for the various
management problems.
 Contingency Model Theory
• It is a leadership theory that moved from research of
traits and personal characteristics of leaders to
leadership styles and behaviors.
• The model focused on the personality and
relationship between the leader and group members,
programming of group’s assignment and positional
power of the leader.
• The model exemplifies task oriented leadership style.
The leader has a great influence or power over group
members.
 Contingency Model Theory
• 3 distinct aspects of the theory: leader – member
relation, task structure, position power.
• Leader – member relation: refers to how well the
manager and workers get along.
• Task structure: refers to how the nature of the job to
be done is highly structured or fairly unstructured or
somehow in between
• Position power: refers to how much legitimate
authority the leader-manager possesses.
 Vroom and Yetton
Participative Model
• Selection of leadership styles will determine decision
making.
• Effective ness of decision making is affected by:
importance of the decision quality and acceptance,
amount of relevant information possessed by the
leader and the subordinates, the likelihood that
subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or
cooperate in trying to make good decision if allowed
to participate, amount of disagreement among
subordinates with respect to their preferred
alternatives.
 Participative Model
• Provides set of rules or norms that determine how
participatory a leader should be when making
decisions.
• After weighing up various contingencies, a leader can
choose to:
Decide on their own, and if necessary sell their
decision.
Consult some staff members individually,
gathering some information ideas and then make
decisions for themselves
 Participative Model
Consult the staff as a group, gathering their
suggestions but still making the decision
themselves
Facilitate a meeting where they define the
problem and set the limits which a decision
needs to be made, and then uses a consensus
approach to make a decision.
 Participative Model
– Delegate the decision-making process either to the
team or individual responsible for enacting the
decision.
 Path-Goal Theory
• Developed by Robert House, a leader adopts a
certain leadership style such as: directive
leadership, supportive leadership, participative
leadership and achievement-oriented
leadership.
 Transactional Leadership
• The leader motivates the followers by appealing to
their own self-interest
• Its principles are to by means of the exchange
process. It is a contract for mutual benefit that has
contingent rewards.
• The leadership style may encourage the leader-
manager to adapt to their style and behavior to meet
the perceived expectations of the followers.
 Transactional Leadership
• The four types of behavior that
comprises this style of leadership
include: contingent rewards,
management by exception, active
management by exception and
laissez-faire leadership.
 Transformational Leadership
• Most effective and beneficial leadership behavior to
achieve long-term success and improved
performance.
• A person with this type of leadership style is a true
leader who inspires her team constantly with a shared
vision of the future.
• Leaders are highly visible and spend a lot of time
communicating.
• They do not necessarily lead from the front as they
tend to delegate responsibility among their team.
 Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
• Promotes employee development
• Attends to needs and motives of the
followers
• Inspires through optimism, influences
changes in perception
• Provides intellectual stimulation and
encourages follower creativity.
 Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
• Uses role modeling
• Is focused on process, cooperation
and networking
• Provides sense of direction and
encourages self-management
 Servant Leadership
• Developed by Robert Greenleaf (1904-1990)
• It emphasizes the leader’s role as the steward of the
resources such as human, financial, and otherwise
provided by the organization.
• It encourages the leaders to serve others while staying
focused on achieving results in line with the
organization’s values and integrity.
 10 Characteristics
of Servant-Leaders
• Listening
• Empathy
• Healing
• Awareness
• Persuasion
• Conceptualization
• Foresight
• Stewardship
• Commitment to growth of people
• Building community
 Emotional Intelligence
in Nursing Leadership
• Developed by Daniel Goleman
 Emotional Intelligence
in Nursing Leadership
• It is defined as a person’s self-awareness, self-
confidence, self-control, commitment and integrity,
the ability to communicate, influence, initiate change
and accept change (Goleman, 1998).
• Goleman developed a four quadrant model of EQ.
These quadrants are self-awareness, social awareness,
self management and relationship management.
 Self-awareness
• Is the ability to recognize one’s own feelings as it
happens, to accurately perform self-assessment and
have self-confidence. It is the keystone of emotional
intelligence.
 Emotional self-awareness: reading one’s own emotions and
recognizing their impact
 Accurate self-assessment: knowing one’s strengths and
limits
 Self-confidence: a sound sense of one’s self-worth and
capabilities.
 Self management
• It is the ability to keep disruptive
emotions and impulses in check,
maintain standards of honesty
and integrity, take responsibility
for one’s performance, handle
change, and be comfortable with
novel ideas and approaches.
 Self management
• Emotional control: keeping disruptive emotions and
impulses under control
• Transparency: displaying honesty and integrity
• Adaptability: flexibility on adapting to changing
situations or overcoming obstacles
• Achievement: the drive to improve performance to meet
inner standards of excellence
• Initiative: readiness to act and seize opportunities
• Optimism: seeing the upside of the events
 Social Awareness
• Empathy: sensing other’s emotions, understanding
their perspective, and taking active interest in their
concerns
• Organizational awareness: reading the currents,
decision networks, and politics at the organizational
level
• Service: recognizing and meeting the needs of the
followers, clients, or customers.
 Relationship Management
• Inspirational leadership: guiding
and motivating with a compelling
vision
• Influence: wielding a wide range
of tactics for persuasion
• Developing others: bolstering
others’ abilities through feedback
and guidance
 Relationship Management
• Change catalyst: initiating, managing, and leading in a
new direction
• Conflict management: resolving disagreement
• Building bonds: cultivating and maintaining a web of
relationships
• Teamwork & collaboration: cooperation and team
building
 Quantum Leadership

• Developed by O’Grady and Malloch

(2003) described it as a new
leadership style for the new age.
• They postulated mostly leaders are
neither prepared or equipped to
change outmoded models because the
foundations of their leadership
concepts are based in the past
 Quantum Leadership

• In quantum leadership, control is

not he issue but rather change
dominates the climate.
• The quantum leader recognizes
continual movement and change
occur in reality and creativity
and innovation are the core of
good work performance.
 Benefits of Applying Quantum
Leadership in Healthcare

• Recognize how healthcare changes

have affected all of them
• Properly explain each change,
actively engage in conflict
resolution and exchange of ideas
• Work together to resolve the
difficulties that emerge as their
systems intersect.
 As Quantum Leaders,
Nurse-Managers:
• Offer creative and
innovative solutions
• Seek to discover
educational opportunities
instead of relying on past
methods of
accommodating new
nurses in the workforce
 As Quantum Leaders,
Nurse-Managers:

• Provide mentoring
opportunities and
expert preceptorships,
quantum leaders can
effectively help all
involved to provide
better care for patients
 References
Adair, J. (1983). Effective Leadership. Gower: Aldershot

Argyris, C. (1957). Personality and Organizations: The

Conflict Between System and Individual. New York:
Harper Collins

French, J. & Raven B. H. (1959). “The bases of Social

Power”. In D. Cartwright, Studies of Social Power.
Michigan: Institute for Social Research.

Gardner, J. (1989). On Leadership. New York: Free Press.

 References
Hersey, P & Blanchard, K. (2008). Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human
Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education

Kipnis, D & Schmidt, S. (1982). Profiles of

Organizational Strategies. California: University
Associates.

Lewin, K.L. (1939). Field Theory in Social Science;

Selected Theoretical Papers. New York: Harper
& Row.
 References
Likert, R. (1932). “ A Technique for the
Measurement of Attitudes”, Archives of
Psychology 140: pp. 1 – 55.

Merton, R. K. (December 1969). “The Social

Nature of Leadership,” American Journal of
Nursing.

Miner, J. (2005). Organizational Behavior:

Essential Theories of Motivation and
Leadership.” Armonk: M. E. Sharpe
 References
Porter-O’Grady, T & Malloch, K. (2003). Quantum
Leaders: A textbook of New Leadership. USA:
Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Reeves, V. (2001). Traits of Effective Respected,

and Liked Leader.

Roberts, W. (1989). Leadership Secrets of Attila

the Hun. New York: Grand Central Publishing.
 References
Stogdill, R. (1974). Handbook of Leadership. New
York: Free Press.

Tan C. & Beltran E. (2009). Leadership &

Management in Nursing: A Transformative and
Reflective Patient Care Text (1st ed.) Manila:
Educational Publishing House.
Thank You
for
Your Time
• Alienated: independent and critical yet
passive in their behavior resulting in
psychological and emotional distance with
their leaders. They are potentially disruptive
and a threat to the organization.
• Sheep: These are dependent and uncritical.
They simply do as they are told by their
leaders.
• Yes People: dependent or uncritical but very active in
their behavior. They uncritically reinforce the
thinking and ideas of their leaders with enthusiasm,
never questioning or challenging the leader’s ideas or
proposals. These types of followers are dangerous to
the leader because they are most likely to give false
positive reaction and give no warning to potential
pitfalls to the leadership.
Survivors: They are the
least disruptive and lowest-risk
followers. They test the water or
sample the wind most if not all the
time. Their motto is “BETTER SAFE
THAN SORRY.”
Effective followers: share four
essential qualities: self-
management, commitment,
competence and focus, courage.
Influence
• The ability to obtain followers
• In the art of influencing people, communication is
important. Poor communication leads poor influence
or none at all.
• For Kipnis and Schmidt (1982), influence can be any
of the following: assertiveness, ingratiation,
rationality blocking, coalition, sanction, exchange,
upward appeal.
 Assertiveness

• One sends direct

messages to others
and is able to stand
up for her own
rights without
violating the rights
of others.
 Ingratiation

An individual makes
another feel important
or good before making
a request. The person
acts humbly or is
friendly before making
a request.
 Rationality

Involves convincing
someone of the merits of
a detailed plan, which is
supported by
information, reasoning
or logic
 Blocking
• A hostile form of influence
where an individual achieves the
goal of influencing another
person either with the threat of
or the actual act of cutting off
from communication or
interaction the other intended to
be influenced.
 Coalition

Collective form of
influence where a person
gets several co-workers to
“back her up” when
making a request.
 Sanction

It is hinged on the
promise of punishment in
the case of non-
cooperation and reward
in case of acquiescence or
cooperation.
 Exchange

It involves offering a
favor or a personal
sacrifice as an incentive
for the performance of a
request.
 Upward Appeal

Obtaining support
from the higher-up
to push someone
into action.
 Legitimate Power
Bestowed upon a leader
by a given position in
the hierarchy of an
organization. This is the
most important and
obvious kind of power.
 Reward Power
Derived from the
manager’s ability to
give rewards to her
subordinates for
compliance to her
orders or requests.
 Coercive Power
• Based on the leader’s ability to punish subordinates
for non-compliance with his directives. It might refer
to the ability to withhold rewards or even create an
untenable working situation for such subordinates.
• The most obvious but the least effective form of
power as its builds resentment and resistance within
the targets of coercive power.
 Expert Power
• Derived from special abilities or skills unique
to the leader. It is the ability to influence
others through the possession of knowledge or
skills that are useful to them.
• This power is highly specific and limited only
to the particular area in which the expert is
trained and qualified.
 Referent Power

• Based on relationships and connections.

It is more known as “networking”.
• It also means the power or ability of
individuals to attract others and build
loyalty.
Chain of Command
is an unbroken line of reporting
relationships that extends
through the entire organization.
It helps the employees know to
whom they are accountable and
to whom to go to with a
problem.
 Unity of Command
• States that each person in
an organization should take
orders from and reports to
only one person. This helps
prevent conflicting
demands being placed on
employees by more than
one superior.
 Span of Control
Refers to the number of
employees that should be
placed under the direction of
one leader-manager. Generally
a wide span of control is
possible with better-trained,
more experienced, and
committed employees.
 Exploitative - Authoritative
• Least effective performance
• Managers show little confidence in staff associates
and ignore their ideas
• Staff associate do not feel free to discuss their jobs
with the manager
• Responsibility for the organization’s goal is at the
top; goals are established through orders
 Benevolent – Authoritative
• The manager is condescending to staff associates
• Staff associates ideas are sometimes sought after but
they do not feel very free to discuss their jobs with
the manager
• Top management and middle management are
responsible for setting goals
• Decisions are made at the top with some delegation
• Staff associates are occasionally consulted for
problem solving
 Consultative
• The manager has substantial confidence in staff
associates
• Their ideas are usually sought and they feel free to
discuss their work with the manager
• Responsibility for setting goals is fairly general.
• Managers are quite familiar with the problem faced
by their staff associates.
 Participative
• Associated with the most effective performance
• Managers have complete confidence in their staff
associates
• Ideas are always sought
• Managers are very well informed about the problems
faced by their staff associate and decision making is
well integrated throughout the organization with full
involvement of staff associates.
 Impoverished Style
• Description: leaders have low concern for both
people and production. This style is used to avoid
getting into trouble.
• Characteristics: main concern is not to be held
responsible for any mistakes which results in less
innovative decisions. This leader is indifferent, non-
committal, resigned and apathetic. Leaders just do
enough to keep their job.
 Impoverished Style

• Results: disorganization,
dissatisfaction,
disharmony among
people due to lack of
effective leadership
 Country Club Style
• Description: Leader has high concern for people and
a low concern for production.
• Leaders use this style pay much attention to the
security and comfort of the employees, in the hope
that this would increase performance.
 Country Club Style
• Characteristics: Leader is attentive to his people’s
needs and has developed satisfying relationships and
work culture but at the expense of achieving results.
• The leader is defined as agreeable, eager to help, non-
confrontational, comforting and uncontroversial.
 Country Club Style

• Results: Work
atmosphere is usually
friendly but not
necessarily
productive.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Description: Has high concern for production and a
low concern for people, leaders using this style of
leadership find employees needs unimportant. They
provide their employees with money and expect
performance back. Managers using this style also
pressure their employees through rules and
punishments to achieve the company goals.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Characteristics: The leader concentrates almost
exclusively on achieving results. People are viewed
as commodity to be used to get the job done.
Communication is de-emphasized and conflict is
resolved by suppressing it. Leadership is controlling,
demanding and over-powering.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Results: This style is based on Theory
X (McGregor) and is commonly
applied by companies on the edge of
real or perceived failure. This is used
in case of crisis management. Though
high output is achieved in a short
time, it becomes costly as there is
high labor turn-out.
 Middle-of-the-Road Style:
• Description: Leaders use this style to balance between
company goals and workers’ needs. By giving some
concern to both people and production, leaders hope
to achieve acceptable performance.
• Characteristics: This leader is compromiser who
wants to maintain the status quo and avoid any
problems. The leader is aware of and wants to focus
on productivity but not at the expense of the morale
of the team.
 Middle-of-the-Road Style

• Results: Leader
compromises in which
neither production and
people’s needs are met.
 Team Style
• Description: Leaders who use this style rely heavily
on making employees feel as a constructive part of
the organization
• Characteristics: Leader pays high concern both to
people and production. Leaders encourage teamwork
and commitment among employees. The leader may
be characterized as open-minded, flexible and one
who inspires involvement.
 Team Style
• Results: Leader achieves high work performance
through leading his people to become dedicated to the
organizational goals. There is a high degree of
participation and teamwork. Leader satisfies the basic
need of people to be involved and committed to their
work.
 Directive Leadership
Specific advice is given to the
group and ground rules and
structure are established. Such
advises include clarifying
expectations, specifying or
assigning certain tasks to be
followed.
 Supportive Leadership

Good relations are

promoted with the
group and sensitivity to
subordinates’ needs is
shown.
Participative Leadership

Decision making is
based on consultation
with the group and
information is shared
with the group.
Achievement-oriented Leadership

Challenging goals are

set and high
performance is
encouraged while
confidence is shown in
the group’s ability.
 Contingent Reward
• To influence behavior,
the leader clarifies the
work needed to be
accomplished. The leader
uses rewards or
incentives to achieve
results when expectations
are met.
Management by Exception
• To influence behavior, the
leader uses correction or
punishment as a response to
unacceptable performance or
deviation from the standards.
It seeks to minimize the
opportunity for exceptions by
enforcing defensive
management processes.
 Active Management
by Exceptions
• To influence behavior,
the leader actively
monitors the work
performed and uses
corrective methods to
ensure the work is
completed to meet
accepted standards.
Laissez-Faire Leadership
• The leader is indifferent and
has a hands-off approach
toward the workers and their
performance.
• The leader-manager ignores
the needs of others, does not
respond to the problems or
does not monitor
performance.