SURVEYING

( LECTURE 1 )
SURVEYING
 SURVEYING IS THE ART OF DETERMINING THE
POSITIONS OF POINTS ON OR NEAR THE EARTH’S
SURFACE BY MEANS OF MEASUREMENTS IN THE 3
ELEMENTS OF SPACE ; NAMELY, DISTANCE ,
DIRECTION , AND ELEVATION.
–RAYNER AND SCHMIDT

 SURVEYING IS THE ART OF MEASURING HORIZONTAL

AND VERTICAL DISTANCES BETWEEN OBJECTS , OF
MEASURING ANGLES BETWEEN LINES , OF
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF LINES , AND OF
ESTABLISHING POINTS BY PREDETERMINED ANGULAR
AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS.
–DAVIS , FOOTE , ANDERSON , AND MIKHAIL
SURVEYING
 SURVEYING IS THE ART OF MAKING SUCH
MEASUREMENTS OF THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF
POINTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH THAT , ON
DRAWING THEM TO SCALE , NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL
FEATURES MAY BE EXHIBITED IN THEIR CORRECT
HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL RELATIONSHIPS.
–CLARKE
 SURVEYING IS THAT BRANCH OF APPLIED
MATHEMATICS WHICH TEACHES THE ART OF
DETERMINING THE AREA OF ANY PORTION OF THE
EARTHS SURFACE , THE LENGTH AND DIRECTIONS OF
THE BOUNDARY LINES , THE CONTOUR OF THE
SURFACE , AND OF ACCURATELY DELINEATING THE
WHOLE IN PAPER.
–WEBSTER
SURVEYING
 SURVEYING IS THE SCIENCE OR ART OF MAKING SUCH
MEASUREMENTS AS ARE NECESSARY TO DETERMINE
THE RELATIVE POSITION OF POINTS ABOVE , ON , OR
BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH , OR TO
ESTABLISH SUCH POINTS.
–BREED , HOSMER AND BONE

 SURVEYING IS THE SCIENCE AND ART OF

DETERMINING RELATIVE POSITIONS OF POINTS
ABOVE , ON OR BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
, OR ESTABLISHING SUCH POINTS.
–BRINKER AND WOLF
SURVEYING
 SURVEYING IS THE ART AND SCIENCE OF
DETERMINING ANGULAR AND LINEAR
MEASUREMENTS TO ESTABLISH THE FORM , EXTENT ,
AND RELATIVE POSITION OF POINTS , LINES AND
AREAS ON OR NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH OR
ON OTHER EXTRATERRESTIAL BODIES THROUGH
APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND THE USE OF SPECIALIZED
EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES.
–JUNY PILAPIL LA PUTT
Two Main Categories

 Geodetic Surveying
 Considers curvature of the earth Geodetic line /
 Provide an accurate framework for a large Plumb line
survey
Polar axis
 Plane Surveying Ellipsoid
 Surface of the earth: as an infinite horizontal Geocentric line
plane

b
 Direction of gravity:
Geoid
 Constant over the entire site.
 Defines vertical lines ( “plumb lines”), Equatorial plane
 Plane normal to a plumb line horizontal
a
plane.

Hence, rectangular coordinate system:

most suitable for plane surveying
 Types of Surveying

 Cadastral surveys
 Determine lawful boundaries & areas of properties rather
than detail features of the landscape
 Used in legal disputes, taxation, etc.
 Also called property surveys / boundary surveys

 City surveys
 Surveys of areas in and near city
 For planning expansions or improvements , locating
property lines , fixing reference monuments , determining
physical features and configuration of the land , and
preparing maps.
 Types of Surveying

 Construction surveys
 Surveys undertaken at construction site
 For providing data regarding grades , reference lines ,
dimensions , ground configuration , and location and
elevation of structures which are of concern to
engineers, architects, and builders.
 Forestry surveys
 Surveys executed in connection with forest management
and mensuration, and the production and conservation of
forest lands.
 Types of Surveying

 Hydrographic surveys
 Surveying streams , lakes , reservoirs , harbors, oceans , and
other bodies of water.
 Made to map shore lines , chart the shape of areas
underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
 Of general importance in connection with navigation,
development of water supply and resources , flood control ,
irrigation , production of hydro electric power, subaqueous
constructions, and recreation.
 Types of Surveying

 Industrial surveys
 Sometimes known as optical tooling.
 Refers to use of surveying techniques in shipbuilding ,
construction and assembly of aircraft , layout and installation
of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where
very accurate dimensional lay outs are required.
 Mine surveys
 Performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structure , to fix surface
boundaries of mining claims, determine geological formations,
to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades
for other related mining work.
 Types of Surveying

 Photogrammetric surveys
 Makes use of photograph taken with specially designed
cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.

 Route surveys
 Involves the determination of alignment , grades ,earthwork
quantities , location of natural and artificial objects in
connection with the planning, design, and construction of
highways , railroads , pipelines, canals, transmission lines and
other linear projects.
 Types of Surveying

 Topographic surveys
 Made for determining the shape of the ground, and the
location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.
The features shown include such natural objects as hills ,
mountains , rivers , lakes , relief of the ground surface, and
works of man , such as roads , buildings , ports , towns ,
municipalities, and bridges.
Compass
For measuring angles and
directions

 Observe bearings
Common

Surveying
Used in reconnaissance and hasty
Instruments
work

Compass
Tapes
For measuring lengths:
Fiberglass
Measuring tape
measuring
 Direct linear tape
measurements

 Cheap & robust

 For small details

Steel
tape
Tripod
 Three-legged stand with pointed Tripod Head Horizontal
metal shoes
 Most surveying instruments:
Tripod
mounted on top of tripods during Height -
use middle to
upper
 Tripod legs: can be maneuvered to chest
height
make instrument roughly horizontal
& centered over the station marker, Feet - dug
followed by fine adjustments on the into ground
instrument. (if possible)
Alidade and Plane Table Survey

The alidade is an instrument

designed mainly for
moderately accurate surveys
and geological mapping
 Leveling Instrument
For measuring height differences:

 Level: has a telescope that

can be rotated about the
vertical axis while
maintaining a horizontal line
of sight
 Staff: long rod, when held
vertically over the point of
interest, provides height
readings to be read by the
level
Automatic
Readings
 A pair of readings Staff Level
determines the change in on
height a staff
Engineer’s Transit

For measuring angles,

directions & distance
 A telescopic sight pivoted
both horizontally & vertically

 Built-in graduated circles for

measuring horizontal & vertical
angles
Theodolite
For measuring angles, directions &
distance
 A telescopic sight pivoted both
horizontally & vertically

 Built-in graduated circles for

measuring horizontal & vertical
angles

 Theodolites used on construction

sites: 20”, 6”, 5” or 3” of arc

 Geodetic theodolites: 1” or even 0.1”

Electronic theodolite with
Optical Theodolite
EDM mounted on top
Electronic Distance Measurement

 Laser equipment for very accurate

distance measurement

 Can typically measure thousands of

meters with only a few mm’s error

 Used in all serious control work, &

often in detail surveys as well

EDM & rechargeable

ED
battery M
Total Station

More advanced instrument:

 Theodolite, EDM, data

processor & display unit
combined into one; provides
instant data conversion into
three-dimensional
coordinates & interface with
computers

Total station with

memory cards
Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Satellites-based systems
giving accurate three-
dimensional coordinates of
any point on earth occupied by
a GPS receiver. Also used for
navigation purposes
ERRORS

 Defined as the difference between the true value

and the measured value of a quantity and is often
beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.

MISTAKES

 Are inaccuracies in measurements which occur

because some aspect of a surveying operation is
performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment , and improper
execution. Also caused by a misunderstanding of
a problem , inexperience, or indifference of the
surveyor.
TYPES OF ERRORS

 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign
and magnitude as long as field conditions remains constant
and unchanged.
Will repeat itself in other measurements still maintaining the
same sign, and thus will accumulate.
Can be computed and their effects be eliminated by applying
corrections , employing proper techniques in the use of
instruments or by adopting a field procedure which will
automatically eliminate it.
TYPES OF ERRORS

 ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
This type of error is purely accidental in character.
Caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and are
present in all surveying measurements.
Usually of minor importance in surveying operations since
they are variable in sign and are of a compensating nature.
SOURCES OF ERRORS

 INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
Due to imperfections of the instrument used , either from
faults in their construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to use.
a. Measuring with a tape of incorrect length
b. Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly
spaced
 NATURAL ERRORS
Caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as
changes in magnetic declination , temperature , humidity ,
wind , refraction , gravity and curvature of the earth.
SOURCES OF ERRORS

 PERSONAL ERRORS
Arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight , touch
and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be
inaccurate.
ex. error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of
plumb
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

 ACCURACY
Indicates how close a given a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.

 PRECISION
The degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made.
Portrayed by the closeness of one another of a set of repeated
measurements of quantities.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE ( MPV or X )
ARITHMETIC MEAN OR THE AVERAGE.
REFERS TO A QUANTITY WHICH, BASED ON AVAILABLE
DATA , HAS MORE CHANCES OF BEING CORRECT THAN
HAS ANY OTHER.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A SURVEYING INSTRUCTOR SENT OUT SIX GROUP OF

STUDENTS TO MEASURE A DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO
POINTS MARKED ON THE GROUND. THE STUDENTS CAME
UP WITH THE FOLLOWING SIX DIFFERENT VALUES :
250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, AND 251.22 METERS.
ASSUMING THESE VALUES ARE EQUALLY RELIABLE AND
THAT VARIATIONS RESULT FROM ACCIDENTAL ERRORS,
DETERMINE THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF THE
DISTANCE MEASURED.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. THE ANGLES ABOUT A POINT Q HAVE THE FOLLOWING
OBSERVED VALUES, 130°15’20” , 142°37’30” , AND 87°07’40”.
DETERMINE THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF EACH
ANGLE.

α3 α1
Q

α2
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. THE OBSERVED INTERIOR ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE ARE
A = 35°14’37”, B = 96°30’09”, AND C = 48°15’05”. DETERMINE
THE DISCRIPANCY FOR THE GIVEN OBSERVATION AND
THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF EACH ANGLE
4. MEASUREMENT OF THREE HORIZONTAL ANGLES ( SEE
ACCOMPANYING FIGURE ) ABOUT A POINT P ARE:
APB= 12°31’50”, BPC= 37°29’20”,AND CPD= 47°36’30”. IF
THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SINGLE ANGLE APD=
97°37’00”,DETERMINE THE MOST PROBABLE VALUES OF
THE ANGLES. D C

P A
RESIDUAL ( V )
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS DEVIATION.
DEFINED AS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANY MEASURED
VALUE OF A QUANTITY AND ITS MOST PROBABLE VALUE.
PROBABLE ERROR ( PES )
A QUANTITY WHICH , WHEN ADDED TO AND SUBTRACTED
FROM THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE , DEFINES A RANGE
WITHIN WHICH THERE IS A 50 PERCENT CHANCE THAT THE
TRUE VALUE OF THE MEASURED QUANTITY LIES INSIDE (
OR OUTSIDE ) THE LIMITS THUS SET.
RELATIVE ( ERROR ) PRECISION
EXPRESSED BY A FRACTION HAVING THE MAGNITUDE OF
THE ERROR IN THE NUMERATOR AND THE MAGNITUDE OF
A MEASURED QUANTITY IN THE DENOMINATOR.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. PROBABLE ERROR. THE FOLLOWING VALUES WERE

DETERMINED IN A SERIES OF TAPE MEASUREMENTS OF A
LINE : 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, AND 1000.46
METERS. DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING:
A. MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF THE MEASURED LENGTH
B. PROBABLE ERROR OF A SINGLE MEASUREMENT AND
PROBABLE ERROR OF THE MEAN.
C. FINAL EXPRESSION OF THE MOST PROBABLE LENGTH
D. RELATIVE PRECISION OF THE MEASUREMENT
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. FOUR MEASUREMENTS
OF A DISTANCE WERE RECORDED AS 284.18 , 284.19 , 284.22
, AND 284.20 METERS AND GIVEN WEIGHTS OF 1 , 3 , 2 ,
AND 4 , RESPECTIVELY. DETERMINE THE WEIGHTED
MEAN.

2. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. IT IS DESIRED TO

DETERMINE THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF AN ANGLE
WHICH HAS BEEN MEASURED AT DIFFERENT TIMES BY
DIFFERENT OBSERVERS WITH EQUAL CARE. THE VALUES
OBSERVED WERE AS FOLLOWS : 74°39’45” ( IN 2
MEASUREMENTS ) , 74°39’27”(IN 4 MEASUREMENTS) , AND
74°39’35”(IN 6 MEASUREMENTS)
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. LINES OF LEVELS TO
ESTABLISH THE ELEVATION OF A POINT ARE RUN OVER 4
DIFFERENT ROUTES. THE OBSERVED ELEVATIONS OF THE
POINT WITH PROBABLE ERRORS ARE GIVEN BELOW
DETERMINE THE MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF THE
ELEVATION OF THE POINT.

OBSERVED PROBABLE E2 W= 1 / E2 RELATIVE P=ELEV(RW)

LINE ELEVATION ERROR WEIGHT
(ELEV) (E) ( RW )
1 219.832 ±0.006 0.000036 27778 16 3517.312
2 219.930 ±0.012 0.000144 6944 4 879.720
3 219.701 ±0.018 0.000324 3086 1.78 391.608
4 220.021 ±0.024 0.000576 1736 1 220.021
SUM 22.78 5008.121