LESSON I: FOUNDATIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
A. Nature of Communication
*** Think of words or phrases
synonymous or related to the word
communication. Words like information,
thoughts, speaking, express and social
media are popular answers
among communication learners.
Communication
• The word communication originated
from the two Latin words, communis that
means “to make common” and
communicare which is defined as “to
share”.
• According to Hamilton (2005),
communication is a process of sharing
experiences among people
that is clear and understandable.
• Communication can also be defined as
a systematic process by which people
interact through the exchange of verbal
and nonverbal symbols to create and
interpret meanings.
There are five (5) basic elements of the
communication process:
Sender
The sender, also known as the speaker
or encoder, is the source or the person
who intends to convey an information or
ideas to others.
Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)
Message
The message may refer to thoughts,
ideas, and emotions that are transmitted
from the sender to the receiver.
Channel
The channel refers to the medium or the
way through which the message is sent.
Receiver
The receiver or decoder interprets the
message transmitted by the sender.
Feedback
The feedback is the response given by
the receiver to the sender. This validates
if the message was interpreted correctly
by the receiver as how the sender
intended it to be.
Knowing the basic elements of
communication will allow you to
understand how communication goes as
a process.
B. The Speech Communication
Process
A model is a framework that provides
visual representation of a concept/s. It is
a guide to have a better understanding
of a process or an idea. In
communication, a model can be used to
identify with its process. The following
parts will show different communication
models conceptualized by
communication scholars to explain its
progression.
 • The communication models can be receiver would have the same factors
categorized into three types: influencing them.
–Linear
–Interactive Interactive
–Transactional
The illustration shows Wilbur
Linear Schramm’s first communication model
which explains the concept of process
and interaction in communication.

This is considered as the first model of

communication which was
conceptualized before 300 B.C. by the
Greek philosopher Aristotle. The model
shows five (5) primary elements.
Laswell’s Communication Model,
developed by Harold Laswell in 1948,
described the communication process
as a one-way process in which
communication is transmitted from a
sender to receiver.
Wilbur Schramm developed his second
communication model focusing on the
dual roles of communicators where they
can be both senders or encoders and
receivers or decoders.
Transactional
Dr. Julia Wood presented a
transactional model that depicts
communication as a continually
changing process.

In 1960, David Berlo, an American

communication scientist, introduced his
model of communication. The four
elements (source, message, channel
and receiver) are influenced by different
factors. Notice that both the source and

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

For this last model, one component is
NOISE. This refers to the interference in
the conversation. Generally, there are
two types of noise: External and Internal.
Any disturbance by people or the
environment is an external noise e.g. car
honking, friends chatting loudly, cold
temperature, squeaky chair. Internal
noise happens when your self-talk and/
or condition of your body become
barriers for your communication e.g.
mental/emotional disturbance because
of a family problem, illness, hunger.

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LESSON II: PERCEPTION OF SELF
AND OTHERS

Improve your Self-Talk

• Have conviction with your beliefs and
principles. But still have an open mind.
• Be positive and yet realistic.
• Feed your mind with knowledge and be
physically healthy
• Always check your thoughts. Are they
being too negative?
• Face your fears.
• It is alright to be sad but don’t dwell on
it. There is a time for healing and
relaxation.

Johari Window

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LESSON III: Intercultural
Communication

Culture
According, to Wrench, McCroskey, and
Richmond, the term culture refers “to a
relatively specialized lifestyle of a group
of people consisting of their values,
beliefs, behavior, and ways of
communicating. These are passed on
from generation to the next.”

Acquisition of Culture

Enculturation
Through enculturation, children learn the
traditional content of their culture and
they eventually assimilate its practices
and values. Ex. a parent teaches his/her
child to kiss the hands of elders as a
sign of respect

Acculturation
The direction of acculturation is usually
the host culture influencing the
newcomer. Ex. an exchange student is
directly or indirectly being influenced to
adapt to the culture of the host country

Intercultural Communication
This term refers to the communication
between members of different cultures.
The differences may point to racial,
ethnic, or socioeconomic aspects.

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LESSON IV : VERBAL MESSAGES
A. Speech Mechanism
Verbal Communication is the spoken
or written message used by a person to
express himself/ herself.
Speech Organs
• Speech organs are not created solely
(only) for speech; they have other
function as well. The nose and the
mouth, for example are breath passages,
the teeth and the tongue for chewing
• Lips
• Teeth
• Tongue - It is located directly above
the pharynx. It is a major speech organ.
Five Parts: Tip or Apex, Front, Center,
Dorsum (back of the tongue), Root
(farthest)
• Alveolus – gum ridge; it is the area
easily touched by the apex to produce
several sound
• Hard Palate – roof of the mouth • Soft
Palate
• Trachea – “windpipe”; it is an air
passage between the lungs and the
pharynx
• Larynx – voice box; at the top end of
the trachea Four parts: The Base,
Adam’s Apple, Vocal Cords (most
essential organ in the larynx), Glottis
• Pharynx – throat; cavity between the
larynx and the mouth
• Lungs – source of energy
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• Diaphragm – above the abdomen, and
between it and the chest; (most) speech
usually happens in exhalation
The English Sounds
Speech is the act, faculty or power of
speaking; oral communication; the ability
to express one’s thoughts and emotions
by sounds and gesture.
Phonetics is the study of sounds.
Phoneme is the smallest unit of speech/
spoken language conveying a distinction
in sound.
One or more phonemes combine to form
a syllable. One or more syllables
combine to form a word.
The English sound is classified into
three namely: Vowels, Consonants,
Dipthongs
Pronunciation & Articulation
Pronunciation - describes the
combination of vowels, consonants,
syllables, and accents that a speaker
can use to emphasize a specific word.
Articulation - is the process of forming
meaningful oral symbols through the
manipulation of the articulators - the
tongue, soft and hard palates, teeth,
gums, lips and jaw
Place of Articulation
• Bilabial – refers to the production of
the consonant sounds with the use of
the upper and lower lips pressed
together or almost touching one another.
• Labio-dental – refers to the lips and
teeth where the lower lip is touching the
upper teeth to articulate the sound.
• Lingua-dental – the sound produced
with the tongue contacting the teeth.
• Lingua-alveolar – refers to the sound
made when the tongue touches the
alveolar ridge or the roof of the mouth.
• Lingua-palatal – are sounds that are
produced as the tongue makes contact
with the hard palate.
• Lingua-velar – the sound made as the
tongue is raised and touches the soft
palate.
• Glottal – refers to the glottis, the
opening between the vocal cords in the
larynx, and of which sound is produced
by closing the glottis or the opening of
the vocal cords.
Manner of Articulation
• Plosives or stops – are consonant
sounds produced by a momentary
blocking of the airflow and the sudden
release of the blocked air. The following
sounds are plosives or stops. [p], [b], [t],
[d], [k], [g].
• Fricatives – are consonant sounds
produced by forcing air through the
narrow channel made by placing two
articulators close together. The following
sounds are fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [h],
[ ᶴ ], [ ᶾ ] [ ᶿ ] [ ᶞ ].
• Nasals – refer to the production of
sounds with a lowered velum in the
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mouth and allowing air to escape freely
through the nose like [m], [n], [ᶇ].
• Laterals – are consonant sounds
produced when the tongue is raised to
the roof of the mouth that the air flows or
passes out of both the sides of the
tongue.
• Glides – are the sounds produced
from constricting the vocal tract but not
really obstructing it. Examples of these
consonant sounds are [hw], [w], [j].
• Affricates – are those that are formed
by stopping the flow of air and then
releasing it, so that a friction-sound is
produced. [t ᶴ], [ d ᶾ].
C. The International Phonetic
Alphabet
With phonetic transcriptions, dictionaries
tell you about the pronunciation of the
words. Phonetic transcriptions are
usually written in the International
Phonetic Alphabet or IPA.
Speech Rhythm
A. Stress
Vocal Stress and Emphasis
Stress is the degree of prominence of a
syllable within a word. The syllable is
generally made louder and higher in
pitch than neighboring syllables. Ex.
présent – presént próject – project
Stress is usually symbolized by { ‘ }
being placed on the syllable intended to
be emphasized or pronounced more
audibly than the rest of the syllables in
the word or phrase.
Classifications: Major (primary and
secondary) and minor (tertiary and
weak). The primary stress is considered
the stress that is always present in word
except for monosyllabic words.
Vocal Pauses
Pauses are punctuation guides to
speech. They aid in attaining emphasis.
Pauses are also used deliberately to
achieve a desired effect like pausing
when you introduce a new idea, giving
your audience time to absorb what you
are saying, or making a dramatic impact
to a statement. Pauses also provide an
unobtrusive means for the speaker to
inhale. This also helps in verbal phrasing,
moving from one idea to the next.

B. Intonation
When the voice goes up and down as
the speaker changes his thoughts or
emotions, he is said to be producing a
melody or tune of speech. In speech,
this tone or melody is called the
intonation.
• Final Intonation or 2-3-1 pattern, also
known as the rising-falling intonation, is
a basic pattern used in declarative and
imperative statements and information
questions. It can be two types: the drop
or shift; and the glide.
• Rising Intonation or 2-3-3 pattern –
used for questions answerable by yes or
no.

C. Phrasing

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LESSON V: THE VOICE
Voice is the sound that is produced
when speaking, singing, etc. There are
four processes involved in voice:
Respiration, Vibration, Resonation,
Pronunciation
Respiration or compression is simple
breathing. Before we speak, we inhale
air. This is called inhalation or exhalation.
When we speak, we exhale air, a
process which is called exhalation.
Inhaling is the process when the air
passes through the wind pipe (trachea)
and into the lungs. Exhaling is the
process of emitting or releasing air from
the lungs through the nose and mouth.
Vibration or phonation is the
production of the voice sounds. It is the
rapid opening of the vocal folds that lie
horizontally in the larynx for sounds.
When the air hits the wind pipe, it
passes through the larynx or the voice
box which can be found in the upper part
of the windpipe. The vibration of the
vocal folds produces the sound.
Resonation is the process of enriching
or amplifying of sound. The parts of the
body called resonators allow the sounds
to echo – the throat, sinuses, chest
cavity. One way of checking how the
voice changes in sound is to block the
resonators. For example, pinching your
nose then speaking.
Pronunciation is the process of
articulation of the sound or the shaping
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of the sound into an intelligible speech.
This is the last phase of the voice
production. It involves changing the
shape and dimension of the oral cavity
in the mouth, which produces sounds in
speech or singing. Properly pronounced
syllables, formed by consonants and
vowels, automatically make these
changes. The sounds then become the
auditory symbols of the spoken
language.
An effective communicator must know
how to control the following aspects of
voice for a dynamic delivery. Vocal
characteristics include volume, pitch,
rate, quality, pauses, vocal stress, and
emphasis, and vocal variety.
Volume is defined as the intensity or
loudness of your voice.
The pitch of your voice refers to the
highness and lowness of your voice.
Your natural pitch is determined by the
length and width of your vocal cords.
Women’s vocal cords are
characteristically thinner and longer than
those of men; thus, women tend to have
pitches higher than men. The faster the
sound waves vibrate, the higher the
pitch. The slower they vibrate, the lower
the pitch.
Rate refers to the speed at which a
person speaks, including the length or
duration of sounds, and the length and
number of pauses. It is another aspect
of voice that helps in audience
comprehension.

Kuya Cesar - was a Filipino radio

broadcaster popular for his slow speech
Steve Woodmore (London, England) -
can rapidly articulate at a rate of 637
words per minute. That is four times
faster than the average human.

Vocal quality is the texture of the sound

or tone that distinguishes it from another
tone having the same pitch, duration,
and loudness. It refers to the timbre of
the voice, a characteristic that
distinguishes your voice from another.
A resonant quality is desirable so that
the voice sounds deep and mellow.
Voices that are too thin, harsh, strident,
nasal, hoarse, or breathy sound
unpleasant and should be improved.
However, certain aspects of your vocal
quality are determined by the structure
of your body, and cannot be changed.

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LESSON VI: LISTENING
“I like to listen. I have learned a great
deal from listening carefully. Most
people never listen.” - Ernest
Hemingway
There is a difference between hearing
and listening. Hearing is the physical
ability to receive sound waves in the
brain; listening is the mental ability to
pay attention to the message carried by
those sound waves.
Hearing is the physiological process of
receiving sound waves.
A. The Problem of Poor Listening
Skill
Listening is a complex process—an
integral part of the total communication
process, albeit a part often ignored. It is
something you consciously choose to
do.
On average, students spend…
9% of their time writing
16% of their time reading
30% of their time speaking
45% of their time listening
* Of the time spent communicating each
day, 45% is devoted to listening. *
Usually a person only remembers about
50% of what is said tothem. * After eight
hours they forget another 1/2 to 1/3 of
what was originally grasped. So that
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means you typically forget about 75% of
what you hear. *
There are several factors on the problem
of listening: outside the source, the
speaker, and the listener him/herself.
Factors affecting the Listening
Process
Barriers – block listening/understanding;
unfamiliar language, anger, attitudes,
biases, needs, beliefs, fear, hearing
problems, tuning out, stress, ignorance,
prejudices, tired.
Memory – 3 types: Immediate (recalling
information for a brief period of time),
Short term (recalling information for
carrying out a routine or daily task),
Long term (recalling information from
past experience),
Noise – internal and external
distractions
* Poor listeners miss a lot of important
explanations, contents, and reminders.
Many fail to fully grasp concepts and
instructions just because of manifesting
this characteristic – the habit of poor
listening.
B. How to Listen Effectively
*One should understand the process
and modes of listening.
The Process
1. Receiving
2. Understanding
3. Remembering
4. Responding
5. Evaluating
Three Basic Listening Modes
Competitive or Combative Listening
This refers to a kind of listening whereby
one listens only just to go get some point
of rebuttal or argument. One only finds
faults in the speaker and argue.
Passive or Attentive Listening
This refers to a kind of listening whereby
one listens and accepts everything
whatever the speaker would say without
any verification or question whether the
speaker is right or wrong.
Active or Reflective Listening
This refers to a kind of listening whereby
one listens and makes some questions
to verify or clarify some point addressed
to the speaker. This the most useful type
of listening beneficial to both the
speaker and listener.
The Structure of Speech
The logical arrangement of ideas is
known as the pattern of development.
The pattern helps you follow ideas easily
and understand a text better. Having the
ability to recognize it will help you
distinguish major details from minor
ones and predict ideas.
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Candy/ Keyhole Illustration
The Introduction and Conclusion should
be of the same length. Both should
create a lasting impact to your audience.
The Body part should have the biggest
chunk of the details.
A. The Introduction - Getting your
audience’s attention is the priority in
making the introduction part of your
speech. Make sure to also have a
smooth transition going to the body of
the speech. You can begin your
introduction in several ways: With a
question, With a surprising fact or
statistic, With a fascinating story related
to the topic, With a striking quotation
B. The Body - Substantial and specific
details are expected to be shown or
heard from this part of the speech. But
avoid irrelevant information that may
have an impact on maintaining the
attention of the audience. Transitions
can either be words, phrases, or even
statements. These are used to improve
speaking or writing. It helps bring two or
more ideas together smoothly form
coherent lengths.
C. The Conclusion - Create a lasting
impact for the audience. Let them
remember how insightful your speech is
by highlighting provoking or inspiring
statement
INVOLVED IN HEARING
COMPREHENSION
- Speech Perception
- Word recognition
- Sentence processing
- Construct literal meaning
- Hold information
- Recognize cohesive devices
- Infer the implied meaning & intention
- Predict what is to be saidd
- Decide how to respond
STAGES OF LISTENING
Receiving Stage
- when a person hears sounds
- he/she makes a decision whether to
accept/reject the sounds heard
Attending Stage/Evaluation
-analyzing the sounds on the basis of
quality, pitch, loudness, and rate.
Responding Stage
- manifestation of replies can be orally
done or through action
Comprehensive
- listening to understand
Appreciative
- process of listening to appreciate what
the speaker is talking about
Emphatic
- ability to listen to other & feel for the
other person
Critical Listening
- listening to understand in order to
make evaluations and judgements about
the content of the message
Active
Attentive
WHERE TO USE LISTENING?
- Lectures, Speeches, Instructions,
Games, Newscast, Directions, Advice,
Service

Remembering Stage
- information stays in the head

5 TYPES OF LISTENING

Discriminative
- when the listener distinguishes
between the verbal & non-verbal
messages

Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
Communication
• Transmission of thoughts from one
mind to others
• A process in which people share
thoughts, ideas and feelings with each
other
• An essential function of civilization
• Consists of writing,reading,speaking
and listening
• Involves giving and receiving
ideas,feeling and attitudes between two
or more persons and it results in a
response.
Language
• Man’s most effective medium of
communication.
• Allows people to communicate their
ideas- to say or write things to each
other and express their communicative
needs.
Oral Communication
• Is the sounds representation of a
language
• It consists of speaking and listening
processes.
• Speaking, the process begins with
expression of ideas through association
with words.
• Listening,begins with expression as
heard in context, followed by recall of
content through association between
expression and ideas.
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The Process of Communication
Stage 1 the process starts with a
stimulus in a form of an occurance such
as an idea,a startling news,a
disagreeable remark, or a positive
comments that activates the sensory
processes of the sender.
Stage 2 Stimulus is transmitted by the
nerve fibers to the brain which in turn
recognizes the event.
Stage 3 His thoughts are being encoded
into language symbols or words which
must be in the same language that the
listener knows and understands.
Stage 4 Now the speaker is ready to say
his thoughts aloud in the language and
the symbols he has chosen.
Stage 5 Speech sounds are uttered in
proper sequences to transmit the
message.
Stage 6 The sounds containing the
message are heard and the gestures
that accompany them are seen by the
receiver.
Stage 7 The receiver now decodes from
sound to language and encodes from
thought to words.
Stage 8 The response is now carried by
the wavelengths to the first speaker the
original source of the message.
Stage 9 The sounds and subsequently
the language and message are heard.
Dyadic - 2 persons involed (interview,
dialogue, chat)
Small group - 3-25 persons (peer group
communication
Large group - 26-500 persons (seminar,
forum, conference)
VOICE LEVELS
Pitch
• Is another element of voice which
shows emotion. It is the location of the
sound on musical scale and is
determined by the tension applied to the
tone- producing mechanism- the vocal
chords.
Key Tone
• This is the general pitch level and it
varies from person to person.
High Level
• Weakness, Excitement, Irritation,
Extreme youth
Low Level
• Assurance, Power, Strength
Voice Inflections
• The change in pitch occurring between
syllables or words is called inflection.
Your voice is capable of many rising and
falling inflections in order to give
meaning to your words and sentences.
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Melody Patterns
• In speaking, the rhythm and swing of
your phrases and sentences form into a
continuous pattern of changing pitch so
that as the mood changes, this melodic
pattern also changes.
Voice Intensity
• Loudness or intensity refers to the
effect of a sound on the ear- its loudness
or softness. This amplification of the
tone is caused by the force of the
expiratory air stream and the efficient
use of the resonators, not by the
constriction of the throat.
Degrees of Emphasis
• Force can be applied in varying
degrees of emphasis, such as a sharp
reduction or a sharp increase in
intensity.
Forms of Intensity
• Is the manner in which force is applied
gradual but firm, firm but rapidindicating
a change in feeling or emotion.
EFFUSIVE FORM
• It suggests deep but restrained
feelings, grandeur, dignity, or reverence.
EXPULSIVE FORM
• It suggests, decisiveness, vigor and
sincerity.
EXPLOSIVE FORM
• The feeling is that of violence
stemming from extreme anger, sudden
fear and other strong emotions that flare
up in abrupt fashion.
Target- or focus is the particular
direction to which you are aiming and
addressing~ the person directly in front
of you, those in the last row, or the entire
audience.
RATE OF SPEECH
• SPEAKING is characterized by
variations in speed.
• SLOW SPEECH projects such
personality characteristics as calmness,
acceptance of others, and formality.
However, if the rate is too slow, it may
project an image of dullness,
listlessness, apathy, laziness and
sometimes lack of intelligence.
• RAPID SPEECH projects animation,
enthusiasm, excitement and informality.
But to speak too fast may also suggest
nervousness, tension, anxiety or a
flighty personality.
• SLOW SPEECH may result in the
distortion of vowel sounds while RAPID
SPEECH may result on the omission or
slighting of consonants.
• Generally, the rate or speed in speech
depends on the thought you are
expressing.
• The rate of speech is also a reflection
on the speaker’s mood.
QUANTITY IN SPEECH RATE
• This is the length of time that is spent
in the actual utterance of vowel sounds
within words and the duration varies
Aila Nicole Ramos (FEU-NRMF)
according to the mood or sentiment
being expressed.
• If you are sad, heavy of heart, deeply
serious or in a reflective mood, your
speech tends to be slow, taking more
time in prolonging the vowels within the
words.
• If you are happy, joyful excited or in a
hurry, you will probably speak faster
than is usual, pronouncing the vowel
tones in shorter duration because of the
gaiety of he mood.
VARIETY OF RATE IN SPEECH
• VARIETY is the “spice of life” as the
saying goes and this is true not only in
writing but more so in speaking.
• Changes in speaking rate can be rapid,
light, gay, slow or very slow.
• Achieving rate variety can be done
through pauses and changes in pace.
• ELEMENTS OF VOICE: the
articulation and pronunciation of sounds,
and expressiveness, and the proper and
skillful use of the various speech forms.