~

t. ~
~
~
•
•

•
~

I
I

'
THE
SENSE
OF
0
ur ea.IS,
EA I b h to remind
. 1·t seems, are far from being perfect transducers; we ought therefore h
ourselves from time to time that what we hear is often greatly affected Y ow we ear

By CRAIG STARK

~~
~IF A TREE falls in the forest where no one hears it,
does it make any s:iund ?'' is an antique conun.
drum beloved by instructors in freshman philoso-
phy. The answer, of course, depends on how we define
"sound. " If by "sound " we mean the alternating waves
of compression and rarefaction of air particles which a
woodsman, if present, would hear, the answer is clearly
yes. If, however, we mean an aural sensation produced b)'
the stimuli picked up by the ear, then the answer is no.
Since both definitions are equally useful, though for dif.
ferent purposes, there is no real philosophical problem.
Let us complicate our question, however, by suppos.
ing that a fores ter leaves a battery-operated tape recorder
running in the woods and later returns to fi nd that he
can now reproduce in his living room, at some later
time, the "sound " of the falling tree. Most of us would
now argue that whether or not he could he·i ti ,, I
, r 1e
sound " of the tree would depend on the fidelity of his rea
recorder and component systtm. But that - If
' 1s on1}' 11a an
66
answer, for one could still ask how clearly his aural
sensations correlated with the sound waves coming from
the loudspeakers. Questions such as this are the concern
of psychoacoustics, a science which in the last century
has made some rather startling discoveries about the
relation behveen the sea of sound that surrounds us and
our perception of it. And not until we can bridge the
gap between the subjectivity of the trained, kno11:led~;
able ear and the quantitative objectivity of the engineer
measurements can we really know what we mean 11,hen we
talk about high-fidelity music reproduction. he
The human ear is an extraordinary instrument. O~al-
one hand , its sensitivity is so great that, to use th e ·u
ogy of the noted physicist Alexander Woo d' it WI tt
respond to a level of energy comparable to 'a 50-wathe
0
light bulb viewed at a distance of 3,000 miles. 0 V1J ?
tlier hand, 1f. one were to set a tape recorder s ear
meter to read " Q" at this threshold of aucli'bln• 1 ther
11 1 " 1 .' tie
.ould not overload (yielding a sensation . °
f Patn ra
RELATIVE LOUDNESS LEVELS OF COMMON SOUND
SOUND PRESSURE (dynes/ cm2) POWER AT EAR (watts/ cm2)
 THE FREQUENCY RANGE OF MUSIC
(Fundame ntal ranges for the principal instruments a nd voices)

I T

SINGING VOICE
•I

BRASS

l
I I I
l r-r--rl' ALTO SAXOPHONE
µ i l . i l.J,.l::::cI:::c:I:rll-n-rinir-h-
BASISICLA~INH 1 111111 1 11

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1 IBAk~J 9 r1 ll 1111 WOODWINDS I
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I I I I
I I I I
L.U..J..J..4"1...t:::I::i:::::t:I:p::C:::C:::::c:r:::6::rrn-r+.,...,....,~ GUITAR
17 I
VIOLA
t- ~~ss, 1111 STRINGS
CELLO
I I II I
I
rrtnmTTTTTTTT"rl°T""T"".,...,...,....;..L:] VIOLIN I,

J'I I ·1
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co""'j ci' " "" co""" co""" co""" coH
II I' I T 'I' 111 IITI I'
10
I 11
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Lowe r l,m,t of ordinary piano scale
I I
Lowe r limit of o rgan scale
II /
Middle c
Up
I
r · .
I
pe rilmit of o rdmarly piano scale
/
/ /
, I~ 40
I 60
I 100 b Upper
1 limit of organ
1 scale
2 1
'
(possib le ranges)
BASS (WOOFER) •---t-~
. . . •--••--- :.__ _~1'_
~S00 .~K~
MID-RANGE, .
- - TREBLE
2K S.K
(TWEETER) I
oK 20K
¢'
 440
.--~ THRE:SHOLO
OF Fe: I I I
I I I 2000
i-- ,-.,EL I~
Cit
--
--
L--~ r-!.,_NG ( PA
◄20 200 l
~ ~
~~
~ r-- r--. 20

-
i100
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Ill eO i - , I\.
MUSIC
,... ,.. 2
(/)
w
z
I
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"- b
-
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50 r--,.. l
)--
t
~
Ill 20
40
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'"""'
......
~
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\
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(/) Figu re I. A veraged and aJ)proxim ate

02

.002
(/) intensity and freq uenc)' ranges of s11eech
l./
w
I[
:::>

~ and music are shou-n in relation ro th e

t-
i 0 - OFH
EARING_ I .0002 n. 11pper and lou·er extremes that can be
handled by the human hearing apparatus.
5,0 100 200 600 1kHz 2kHz SkHz 10kHz :20k~';00:2 The upper limit is the threshold of
F'REQUENCY IN Hz (CYCLES PER SECOND) J)ain : the lo1t'er limit is th e
threshold of hearing.
one of sound) until an approximate reading of
+130 VU ( one " V o1u'.ne U nit. "
th:10
= ..... _,_
..
. ~ ,.
one decibel) . This 120 .- (FE£LlNGJ l 2 0 " ' ~ ~ ~ LEVEY,

represents a voltage ratI~ ~f more tha~ 3,000,000 to 1. ..............

-- !Mo-... -1
. -
i-..._

fortunately for the real_ist'.c reproduction of music and ••oo •oo-·· ••

.:__.,,
--:: "' . L/
.J i--...
speech, these extreme ltm1ts of the ear's sensitivity are Id

not involved ( see Figure 1) .

•0 80
~ .... 80
,._
~
.
"'0 ':-r-.., _,/
But if the sensitivity range of the ear exceeds the
eo ' •,
............... -...
Clpabilities of home audio equipment, its frequency
i
.. - - eo I,
.
~ ~
> . ........... !?._
. f...,(.:
.
response certainly d.oes not, as the well-known Fletcher-
Munson curves ( Figure 2) attest. Every ardent audio-
phile knows that if he turns the volume down to a
"'.J
>
I-
ii
Z 20
40
r,
~
.............

"•-.:::- "
--~~
r--..,.._ 40

20.
·-.
--
I--- _.
I,
/

-/
/
level his wife and the neighbors can tolerate, the music "'
I- L•

-- -~· ,
10
~ o"",..
begins to sound " thin" and lacking in the deep bass 0
-.....__
register, where the ear is much less sensitive. This is the 20_ 60 100 200 500 11lHz 2.111.Hz 5'H2 10ltl-h 2
justification, of course, for the fact that almost all ampli- !:!i!! SECONOl
..REQUENCV IN HJ !CVCLES

fiers and receivers have "loudness" controls designed
to boost the low frequencies automatically at low listen-
ing levels. I, for one, have always found this type of
compensation worse than useless-particularly if it can-
not be switched off- for the amount of bass boost needed
depends on the perrei ved loudness of the music ( and
the individual's possible deviation from the "normal"
Fletcher-Munson response curve) , yet the amount of
bass boost supplied is determined only by the position
of the volume-control knob. The specific setting of the
rolume control for a given loudness is determined by a
number of factors , including the output of the phono
cartridge, the sensitivity of the power amplifiers, the
efficiency of the speakers, and so forth. With this many
variables at work simultaneously, exact loudness com-
pensation is almost impossible with one simple control.
But although the ear has a frequency-response curve
much inferior to that of most high-fidelity components,
'.f given enough sound pressure, it is capable of respond-
ing to frequencies ranging from approximately 20 to
2.0,ooo Hz. The upper frequency limit tends to vary con-
siderably with the individual, generally being highest in
young children and tending to decline (particularly
among men) with age.
More important implications about the relation be-
Figure 2. Fletcher-Munson curves show ,chat the actual levels
of test tones m11st be for them to be heard as having the same
loudness. The curves at 10, 50. and 110 dB, derivetl from the [a.
ter studies of R obinson and Dadson, are included for comparison.
tween what we hear and how we hear arise when we
consider the low frequencies, for ,vhen sound with a
frequency much under 20 Hz is produced, the ear does
not perceive a tone, but rather a series of separate pulses.
Waveforms with a repetition rate greater than 20 H z
( or I / 20 of a second, or 50 milliseconds, whichever
you prefer) will be heard as a continuous tone. While
experimental results vary somewhat according to the test
conditions and the individual ear, it is well documented
that sonic events lasting less than 50 milliseconds ( 50
ms) do not completely overcome the " inertia" of the
hearing process. This affects both the perceived intensity
of the sound and the ability to recognize a specific tone.
Thus, a pure 2,000 Hz tone, if turned on for a period of
only 4 milliseconds (ms) , will not be heard as a specific
pitch, but rather as a click. Down in this area where short
tones are heard as clicks, a loud signal only 10 ms long
will seem just as long as a weaker signal that lasts, say,
35 ms. This seems to occur because the ear responds to
their equal total energy content.
As we investigate the subject we find that there are

SEPTEMBER 1969 71
 ]hlS:t1,t:.ff~
~
7
tH'T~ =~UIlf°H~
~~ff fr f1/IJ.~.1.uil®//7J/ irJi~J.J~i.;~gI l1r],111~lt:jj
f=330Hz
100 200400
FREQUENCY IN Hz
°F/ ,-81j I I [ tI
30
0
m
2
10
® ;-;,~,,, !· n;,,,u,.-,;,m
l'(lrlo11s instrum e111s
0 I I I I I 111,Jrll(,n, J t:rafJh . .\'01e 1ha1 1ho11.l(h ult fundumenlal frequencies full in 1he same : 1cac
I h c f r e,111en e1es
100 200 400 ◄k 2k 4k 10k strumc nt a churucleristic 1imbre: ( A ) open z:iulin siring; (B ) f/uie; ( C) ~
F"REQUENCY IN Hz organ 1>if}c: (D) clarinet; ( E ) trumpet; ( F) snfmmo 1:oice ; (C) guitar tr~e
many areas where the "obvious" relationship between the
objective sound waves and the subjective perception of
music does not exist. For example, Carl Seashore and
other acousticians have reduced the objective measurable
physical variables of sound to four : duration, amplitude
( or intensity) , frequency, and waveform. On the face of
it these should correspond to the subjective sensations of
time, loudness, pitch, and timbre. But here also our per-
ceptions have no linear or direct correspondence to the
objective sonic circumstance. This has important impli-
cations for hig h-fidelity reproduction. For example, even
the subjective perception of the pitch of a pure tone de-
pends not only on its frequency, but to some degree on
its loudness. Research has shown that for low-frequency
tones the pitch g oes down as the intensity increases; and
for high-frequency tones the pitch increases with in-
tensity. At moderate listening levels, two pure tones of
I 68 and 31 8 H z sound very discordant, but H arvey
Fletcher (best known for his research with Wilden A.
Munson) showed that if they are played loud enough,
the ear hears them as a pure octave : I SO and 300 Hz.
Fortunately, the kind of distuning that takes p lace
with pure tones does not so greatly affect our perception
of the complex waveforms produced by musical instru-
ments. As every audiophile knows, musical notes contain
not o nly the "fundamental" frequency, but many h ar-
monics or o vertones as well, and the overtone structure
establishes the timbre of the sound. A harmonic, some-
times called a "p artial, " is any whole-number multiple of
the fundamental frequency, though it is sometimes mis-
takenly identified with the overtones that occur at suc-
cessively higher octaves. Since an octave represents a 2 : 1
frequency ratio, the second harmonic is exactly one octave
higher than the fundamental, but_beyond this point ~he
harmonic and octave sequence diverge. If an organist,
72
2
1k 2k 4k ◄OkI ~00 200 400
1'
FREQUENCY IN
◄k 2k
4
~ 10k
""d
""'' ,.,,..,, , ,,,,.,,,,,., .,, "' " "'"" ,,.,,.,,Mb/ ,:,
are
suprun o 1·01re. fund" 111c111"ls ( f ) abov
,ti1·en h
. an d 1nte . . of I h c oi·er toT1es vary U'lt· 1ely. f{ir-ing each
. ns1/l.es cave
. '
1
s nng.
for example, played a very low C ( approximately 32 H )
an overtone could, in theory, at least, appear nine octa:,~
higher (16,384 Hz) , but this would be the 512th har-
monic! Practically speaking, of course, instruments are
not like~y to generate many overtones as high as tha~
but the importance of the number and relative strength
of differing instrumental harmonics can hardly be over-
stated. (See Figure 3). The highest fundamental tones
produced by a piano or a piccolo, for example, are less
than 5, 000 Hz, but switching in a scratch filter or turn-
ing down the treble control so that high-frequency re-
sponse is lowered by even 3 dB at 10,000 Hz distinctly
alters the perceived character of the instrument.
The sounds we hear even in a live musical perform-
ance are not all produced by the instruments, for the ear
itself is a source of both harmonic and intermodulation
distortion. The latter occurs when two ( or more) tones
of different frequencies are sounded simultaneously and
totally new tones representing the sum and difference
frequencies are created. As early as the eighteenth cen-
tury the Italian violin ist Giuseppe Tartini (known today
primarily as the composer of the "Devil's Trill" Sonata)
noticed that when he p layed two notes together he could
distinctly hear a third tone, much lower than either. Thus,
if he simultaneously played a B of 480 Hz and a G of
384 Hz, he could detect another G (96 Hz) , two octaves
below. The phantom sounds produced by such differe~c~
frequencies have been known ever since as "Tart,~,
tones," though he was by no means the only one to d~s;
cover them. About the same time the German organis
W .A. Sorge found that if he played a musical fifth c~n-
sisting of a C ( 32 Hz) and a G ( 48 Hz), he co~ld_ in·
duce the ear to perceive a C at 16 Hz, and this pnnopl_e
. . b cause it
has been used by organ bmlders ever smce, e th
would take a rather costly 32-foot pipe to produce e
v1EW
STEREO RE
 C ( 16 Hz)_ in the bass register of the pipe organ. tween what we hear at a live performance and fro~ a
lu''°est_ 1 the difference frequency between two tones home music system may be just this loss of the beatmg
ous y, . h f
(ufl re aud ible than t e sum requency. But its together of the supra-audible harmonics which are pres-
ch mo
js 1nt1 . •istence can be proved by any audiophile who ent during the live experience but are lost through
. t1ve ex . .
5ubJec a pair of aud10 osollators and whose speak- deficiencies of the recording process.
borrow ' .
c:1n : de-range tweeters. Usmg a 1,000-Hz tone as
) 3\ ·e\\ l ·
ers ,. J)lug one generator mto each channel and
ference, A LONG this same line, it has been suggested by re-
a re ti for equal output from the speakers at normal
. t bO l searcher Charles J. Hirsch that the pleasurable richness
~c1,us _ level. T hen shift the frequency of one generator
· t 0111 " we associate with consonant sounds and the unpleasant
hse ,, 23 kHz and the other to about 24 kHz without
t0 about . Wh .I roughness we call dissonance is as much a subjective
' . the level settmgs. en e1t 1er generator is creation of the ear as it is an objective configuration of
ch~nging bv itself, nothing will be heard, for both
en t1ng , sound waves. Consider, for example, the following ex-
op ~encies are beyond the range of human hearing. periment. Feed into one stereo channel a tone of about
freq doo- may g et up and leave the room . in disgust,·
(your. ),,But when both generators a re workmg through
middle C (261 Hz) from an audio generator set to
hO""e' er. . provide a comfortable volume. Then adjust another
. pective speakers, assummg that your tweeters are
~ rm . . generator to provide a 330-Hz signal at about the same
goo,d enough and you are standmg at the nght spot, you volume through the other channel. With slight adjust-
hear a distinct 1,000-Hz tone. Larry Klein, the
~ 00 Id ' . ment of one of the generators this will produce a pleasing,
teeI1111
·ca( editor of thi s m agaz. me, has suggested .
that one if somewhat musically dull, consonant major third (C-E) .
0 f t I1e l ninor fac tors responsible for the differences be- If the speakers are now replaced by a pair of stereo ear-
phones, however, the harmonious blending of the sound
60
will be entirely lost, and one will hear the two tones
3 TRUJ:,1PET(,1 ) completely independently. Similarly, if one of the gen-
L i-- -
50
/
'' erators is adjusted to give a terrible d issonance (C-C#)
~ 40
~)/
' when heard through the speakers, the two tones will not

A I
'' sound at all dissonant when they are heard isolated from

---- -- - "
j
I i---
1- ~
j
~
30 I/ . ~ ,.,
-r-, 4 i...--' '
I-;--
each other by the separate earphones.
l i ..... ' \ k::::;. p--
_ ..:::::,
Hirsch carried his experiment even further by having
( 20 ~
,- a cellist record the same musical selection in two dif-
10
1.l.... .... ····-... ~ .... ·················· ······· ferent keys (kept in synchronism by a metronome) on
I~ ' ~ ······· .•·s· the two tracks of a stereo recorder . When mixed together
0
and played back through a stereo system the result was
a predictable cacophony. Reproduced through stereo
V IOLIN (o1 ) headphones, however, the two renditions were heard in
ld40f----f--+--r--,-----f--17"~t--+--+-r-~ isolation. " Listeners describe the effect as if there were a
0 wall in the middle of their heads that separates the two
j
I- 30,r--t--+--+-- t - - ;~ - 1 - - r - - t ;,,.,r-i--,
j sounds," Hirsch reported. He then concluded that " the
!20,~- t - - + -- + - - t- - lt - -t - -.t"--r--i----r- , ears have largely independent effects on the brain, and
(
that the brain does not combine tones, transmitted simul-
taneously but separately by the hvo ears, to produce
harmony. Harmony, which includes consonance and dis-
sonance . .. requires that the simultaneous component
SOr:-:--- - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - , - -7 tones be combined in one ear. .. ."'
8~ CLARINET (g1 -BLOWN LEGATO)

l&J 40
In the performance of music, however, even highly
0 trained listeners exhibit a degree of tolerance for slight
~ 30 differences in pitch or intonation that would be easily
J ;
..... ··· ··· ···~
Q.
I
detected under test conditions in a laboratory. If two
l 20
(
, I steady tones were sounded through our loudspeakers,
10 one at 297 Hz and the other at 293.665 Hz, we would
/ all hear the 3 to 4 Hz beat between them. Yet in listen-
;
0
0 10 80 90 100
ing to a violin and piano sonata we do not. The perfect
Figure 4
musical fifth to which the A and the D strings of the
1h01 •• In the first tenth of a second, transients occur violin are tuned represents a frequency ratio of 3 : 2, a
0
of 0 ,:". vide a snbstantial [)art of the characteristic ti mbre
and I1 ,nSlrume11t. R elative strengths of the fundam ental (I)
fact which has been known since the time of the Greek
""
110
nics (2, 3, 4, 5) are ploued against elapsed time. philosopher Pythagor~s in the sixth century B .C. But to

St.pr~••
" •••B ER 1969 73

construct a piano that could modulate from one key to
seconds, but it takes 200 to 300 milliseconds f llltlli.
another while maintaining a Pythagorean or " just intona-
tone of a flute to ach1eve a stationary character d e
tion" scale would require at least thirty separate intervals
states further that "the trumpet sound is especial! . e
within the octave, an obvious impossibility. Thus, the
octave on the piano is dividell into twelve '" equally tem-
pered" semitones. Thus, while the violin and piano are
in perfect unison at A ( 440 Hz) , the dynamic life of
the music itself disguises from our consciousness their
slight discord at the D in the same octave.
LE question of the slight indeterminacy of pitch
perception during a musical performance brings us back
to our Jiscussion of how we hear the sound waves within
that first I / 20 of a second ( 50 ms) that it takes for the
ear to respond fully. In audio terminology we are ac-
customeJ to speaking of very short bursts of sound as
'" transients," but we generally associate them only with
staccato passages or percussion instruments. This is an
error, however, for every note in music ( or every sound
in speech) has a dynamic life of its own from the time of
its onset to the time of its decay into inaudibility.
The importance of the onset transients of even the
most smoothly-spoken orators or of legato passages in
music can be dramatized very simply by playing a tape
recording backwards, thus causing the initial transient to
appear at the end of the sound. Owners of full or half-
track stereo recorders can perform such an experiment
very easily by turning a played tape over and threading
it up again. Even with the much more prevalent quarter-
track recorders one can achieve the same result, however,
by playing through a tape and twisting it between the
capstan and the take-up reel so that it is wound with the
oxide side facing outwards. Then turn it over and play
it through again, this time with the backing rather than
the oxide in contact with the recorder heads. There will
be some loss of volume and of the high frequencies, but
the startling effect of the transients will still be audible.
Even though the ear is not fully receptive to very
short transient sounds, we make significant interpreta-
tions on the basis of them. Consonants in speech, for
example, are very brief, 5 to I 5 milliseconds being typical
for such sounds as p, I , or k. Yet speakers of English
have no difficulty in distinguishing between the words
f fil'I, t,1rt, and cart although the actual phonetic differ-
ence between them is very small. As children we: learn
to perceive such very fine differences in our native lan-
guage because they distinguish the meaning of words.
The Japanese language does not use the phonetic differ-
ence between / and r to distinguish meani ng in the way
that English does (l'll11g, /1111g) , and consequently a
Japanese person has great difficulty in hearing the dif-
ference between these two speech sounds.
In this context, consider the onset times versus the
overtone structure of the instruments shown in Figure 4.
The German acoustician Fritz Winckel has observed
74
that the onset time of the trumpet is only about 20 .
. . or th
, an h
Y rich
in overtones, whereas
. t11e sound o f the flute 1·s not,,
Transient behavior, then, has much to do with the ·.
. b b h. 1 d. · mus,.
cal character of t1m re y w 1c 1 we 1scnminate betw
one instrument and another. And for anvone w110 . ehen
. • • .
1
w1s es
to experiment along these Imes, 1ud1oous tape edi .
. .. I . . ting
to remove the 1111tia transient m a musical tone sho
· k I'
confirm Wmc ·e s·resu ts: I "A . f
tunmg ork, for example,
was mistaken for a flute, a trumpet for a cornet an b
uld
. ' 0~
for a clarmet, a cello for a bassoon;. but even more con.
trasting tone colors could not be differentiated, such as
comet and violin, or French horn and flute."
More anomalies than these could be cited to sho
that tl'hat we hear is often radically affected by how ,;
hear. The subjectively perceived pitch, timbre, loudnes:
and duration just do not have a simple relationship t~
the objective frequency, waveform, sound pressure, and
time. How then does this bear on our opening question
about the falling tree? Does the woodsman hear the same
Suggested Further Reading
Some of the hooks that were of help in the prepa-
ration of this article-and that may be of interest to
readers-are listed below in order of increasing
difficulty:
Sound and Hearing, by S._S. St~,·ens, Fred Warshofsky,
and the Editors of LIFE ; Life Science Library, Time Inc.,
New York (1965) $3.95.
Explorin!!, Sound, by Alexander Efron ; John F. Rider
Publisher. Inc., New York ( 1969) $2.45. ·
/ I Guide lo Mu sical /l couslics, by H . Lowery ; D over
Publications, Inc., New York ( 1956 ) St.00.
The PhJsics of l\fosic,,l Sounds, by C. A. Taylor; Ameri-
can Elm·ier Publishing Company, Inc., New York (1 965)
$9.50. (Includes a 7-inch demonstration disc.) ·
Music. Sound, "nd Se11S<1Jio11, by Frilz Winckel ; Dover
Publications, Inc., New York ( 1967) S2.25.
Music. Physics, and E11xi11eering, by H arry F. Olson;
Do\'er Publications, Inc., New York ( 1967) $2.50.
sound from his tape recorder that he would have heard
had he been present ? That depends, in part, on the ac-
curacy of his tape recorder. It is the task of stereo high
fidelity to provide sonic information precise enough to
enable our ears to make their normal distortions and
(mis) interpretations of the musical waveforms. But
given the strange ways in which our ears actually oper-
ate, it is little wonder that we promptly run into contra-
dictions whtnever objective theory encounters subjective
practice and our ears deny what our measurements tell us.
Craig Stark, a contrilmting editor of STEREO REVI£11", is th e
author u/ our monthly ''Tape Hori:ons" colum n. llis article on
dynamic rnnge in a11111lifiers appeared in the June, 1968 issue.
STEREO REVIEW