POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER

THOMAS AQUINAS ● Every government can go the just or

On Kingship unjust way.
○ Just govt = common good 4 all
Sir Z Guide: ○ Unjust govt = private good
● 🌸 Man as a social and political ●
animal; the need to live in society
● ✨ Origin and purpose of earthly
Just
One

Kingdom
Few

Aristocracy
Many

power and authority.
🎒 Particular vs. common good
⛪
● Unjust
● The relationship between the
Church and the state; kingly authority
and priestly authority
----- PART 1 -----
Chapter 1: ​That People Living Together Must
Be Ruled Responsibly By Someone
● In all things which are ordered
towards an end,
○ some directive principle is
needed…
○ through which the due end may
be reached most directly.
● Man is intelligent, but due to diversity
of pursuits, must live in a community
for a directive force.
● Light of reason placed in every man to
guide his acts to end
○ 🌸 Thus, it is natural for man to
be a social and political animal
○ i.e. live in a group
● Man is not self-sufficient; cannot
arrive at knowledge by his own
individual reason
○ Thus, need for society and to
live in multitude…
○ to assist fellows and make
discoveries
● 🎒 What is proper and what is
common is not identical.
○ differ by what is proper to each,
○ united by what is common.
○ Particular vs common good
Chapter 2:​ Different Kinds of Rule
Polity
Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy
Chapter 3: ​Whether It Is More Expedient For
a City or Province to be Ruled by One Man or
by Many
● Aim of the ruler directed to ​securing
the welfare​ of the ruled.
○ Welfare and safety of multitude
relies in preservation of unity,
○ i.e. ​peace​.
● Form of government most efficacious
in keeping peace = BEST.
○ (Like Aristotle?)
○ And, one man can bring about
unity than several.
○ Best form of government:
MONARCHY.
● ✨ Whatever is in accord with nature
is best,
○ and every natural governance is
governance by one.
○ (implies nature of God and His
divine governance.)
○ Those ruled by more than one
torn with dissent = no peace.
Chapter 4: That the Dominion of a Tyrant is
the Worst
● United force more efficacious than
scattered force.
○ Thus, tyranny is worse than
oligarchy, which is worse than
democracy.
● Why?
○ Oppresses subjects corporeally
○ Hinders subjects’ spiritual good
● How?
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
○ Virtuous subjects prevented
from acquiring valour and spirit
○ Prevents friendly relations
between virtuous subjects
○ Inspires fear
Chapter 5: ​Why the Royal Dignity is
Rendered Hateful to the Subjects
● Best and worst govt latent in rule of
one man.
○ People hate royal dignity
because they hate tyrants.
○ Fallacy of Equivocation
Chapter 6: ​It is Lesser Evil When a Monarchy
Turns into Tyranny than When an Aristocracy
Becomes Corrupt
● Corrupt aristocracy: worse dissension,
which runs counter to peace, which is
PRINCIPLE SOCIAL GOOD.
○ Plus, greater chance rule of
many will abandon common
good.
● Tyranny: only obstructs private goods
Chapter 7: ​How Provision Might be Made that
the King may not Fall into Tyranny
● Ruler must be raised improbably for
tyranny.
● Once king is established, gov’t must
be arranged to remove opportunity for
tyranny.
● Finally, mild tyrant should be
tolerated. Why?
○ Revolution will cause dissension
○ Leader might turn into tyrant
■ Pattern: 2nd T >> 1st T
Chapter 8: ​Mundane Honor and Glory are not
an Adequate Reward for a King
● Difficult kingly tasks deserve great
rewards: honor and glory.
● Glory may lead to incongruous results.
○ 1) Perishable
○ 2) Takes away greatness of soul
● “Through his very contempt for glory,
a man is made glorious.”
● Dangerous evils come from glory
● Vice akin to glory is HYPOCRISY (Ari-!)
● It seeks approval of man
○ However, might turn out well if
approval is sought from GOOD
MEN.
Chapter 9: ​The King Should Look to God for
Adequate Reward
● Unearthly reward but everlasting one.
● Reward: ​HAPPINESS​.
○ aka perfect good as it comprises
all things desirable.
○ Desire of intellectual natures
the highest good!
● When is a king happy?
○ When he is just and rules for
the end of eternal happiness.
Chapter 10: What Degree of Heavenly
Beatitude the King May Obtain
● Higher ​°​ of happiness = higher virtue
● King has higher virtue
● Greater virtue to rule self > household
> kingdom
○ Rule others well > act under
directions well
● Since maintaining virtues difficult, king
is more worthy of reward and
excusable to weakness.
Chapter 11: Advantages Which are Rendered
to Kings Lost by the Tyrant
● Royal honor of kings transferred to
glory in heaven
○ Tyrants deprived of reward for
failing to observe justice
● Friendship
○ Tyrants desire, but can’t obtain
○ Since no friendship and rule
fuelled by fear, it will collapse
● Wealth: kings > tyrants
○ Tyrants must hire guards
against his own subjects
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
○ King enjoys protection of ppl
Chapter 12: What Punishments are in Store
for a Tyrant
● Lose Beatitude
○ Held guilty b4 God for own sins
○ Held guilty for those whom they
gave sin
Chapter 13: On the Duties of a King
● God’s government = universal;
embraces all things
● Man’s government = particular;
microcosm
● “The king is to be in the kingdom what
the soul is in the body, and what God
is in the world.”
Chapter 14: What It is Incumbent Upon a
King to Do and How He Should Go about
Doing It
● Two works of God:
○ Creation
○ Government of things created
■ Pertains to kingly office
Chapter 15: The Office of Governing the
Kingdom should be Learned from the Divine
Government
● To govern = lead something to its
proper end
○ If one is lost, governor’s duty to
guide it back
Chapter 16: ⛪ That Regal Government
should be Ordained Principally to Eternal
Beatitude
● Since king is subject to divine govt
(church),
○ King presides all human offices
and regulate them by his
government (state).
● King’s office must promote the good
life to multitude to make is suitable for
attainment of heavenly happiness.
○ Principal concern: how
multitude may live well
■ 1: establish
■ 2: preserve
■ 3: promote until perfect
● To establish virtuous living, 3
necessary things:
○ 1: multitude established in
unity of peace
○ 2: United in the bond of peace
○ 3: Sufficient supply of things for
proper living from ruler’s efforts
● 3 prevention permanence public good:
○ 1: good of multitude should not
be established one time only
○ 2: perversity of wills (lazy)
○ 3: peace is destroyed
● How to Deal with the 3 Dangers:
○ 1: take care of appointment of
men to succeed/replace others
○ 2: restrain men from
wickedness and induce virtue
○ 3: keep multitude entrusted to
him safe from enemy
----- PART 2 -----
Chapters 1-4: ​On the Practice of a Monarch
(Summary)
● A temperate region must be chosen
● City must have wholesome air
● Suitable food for health preservation
○ Plus good water
● Other means of judging health of area
● Two ways of supplying abundance of
foodstuffs:
○ 1: fertile soil
○ 2: trade
● However, “the more dignified a thing
is, the more self-sufficient it is.”
○ Citizens open to trade = open
to vices
○ Unfavourable to military
● City must charm w/ beauty
○ Not too much or it will indulge
in pleasure
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
Discourses on First 10 Books of Titus Livius
Sir Z Guide:
● 🏢 Why cities are founded
● ✝ His views on religion; his views
about the Roman church and the Pope
----- BOOK 1 -----
● Motivation
○ Listen and adhere to the
ancients
○ Civil laws are just opinions
delivered by jury, made into a
system and used by them
○ But we should think that History
is not something that cannot be
imitated
Chapter 1: ​Of the Beginnings of Cities in
General, and in Particular of that of Rome
● 🏢 How is a city formed?
○ Done by natives or foreigners
■ NATIVES: must stick
together to stand against
enemies, i.e. Athens
■ FOREIGNERS: settlers
colonizing areas (i.e.
Alexandrian Rome)
● In case of independent mobile people,
the capacity of a city founder is known
in two ways:
○ 1: his choice of site
○ 2: laws which he frames (harks
back to Aquinas + Aristotle)
● Choice of site?
○ Wise to choose a sterile district
so that people are focused on
industrializing, surviving, rather
than arguing over land
○ But to be strong and safe, avoid
too barren lands, for fertile soul
still enables people to defend
themselves
Chapter 2: ​Of the Various Kinds of
Government, and to which of Them the
Roman Commonwealth Belonged
● Different origins means different
laws and institutions
○ Happiness​ <- from wise
legislator with good laws where
city can live securely
○ Unhappiness​ <- never handled
by wise legislators, so city itself
recasts institutions
○ Greater unhappiness​ <-
republic diverged from good
constitution
● Three types of governments
○ Monarchy (principality)
○ Aristocracy
○ Democracy (popular govt)
● Origin of Justice
○ As men increased, necessity for
unity felt
■ Chose the strongest and
most courageous to lead
■ Distinguished good and
honest from bad and
vicious
● When looking for leaders, they choose
not bravest or strongest, but wisest
and most just.
● However, when leadership became
hereditary, children degenerated.
○ Princes became objects of
hatred. In fear, he developed as
a tyrant.
● Because of this, a group revolts…
● Reaffirms the cycle of Aristotle:
○ Monarchy to tyranny (after
hereditary leadership)
○ to aristocracy (after powerful
leaders’ revolt)
○ to oligarchy (after children
degenerated again)
○ to democracy (after popular
revolt)
○ to anarchy (due to conflicts of
private interest)
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
● Govts trapped in this circle
○ They seldom return to original
● Thus, all kinds of govts are defective:
○ Good ones are short-lived
○ Bad ones are inherently vicious
● So, legislators must combine features:
“choose one that should partake
all of them”
○ When prince, nobility and power
of people combined in a
constitution, powers will be kept
in watch
● Roman Republic
○ Mix of monarchy (senate),
○ Aristocracy (consuls), and
○ Democracy (tribunes)
● Though imperfect (the balance of
powers was still skewed to the king),
the combination of 3 made it a perfect
state.
Chapter 3: ​Of the Accidents which Led in
Rome to the Creation of Tribunes of the
People; whereby the Republic was Made
More Perfect
● “Whoever desires to found a state and
give it laws must assume that all men
are bad and ready to display their
vicious nature.”
○ e.g. Tarquin, who was feared,
was expelled and nobles were
good and gentle
○ But as soon as they died, they
became vicious
● So laws are required to tame men’s
nature
○ Poverty and hunger make men
industrious
○ Law makes men good
● (If fortune allows good to be done
without constraint, law may be
dispensed???)
Chapter 4: ​The Disunion of the Senate and
the People Renders the Republic of Rome
Powerful and Free
● Tumults between commons and nobles
are not indicators of disorder, since
they are not harmful to common good
● Rather, for these reasons, laws
favorable to freedom and beneficial to
the public liberty were established.
○ Republic is not disorderly when
many virtues shine.
● Masses are wise and not incapable of
being taught the truth…
○ There is a feedback mechanism
- civil society.
Chapter 5: ​Guardianship of Public Freedom is
Safer in Hands of the Commons or Nobles
● Guardianship of Liberty
● Nobles - ambition of class is satisfied if
weapon is at hand and authority is not
unstable multitude
● Commons - less desire to pervert it
● Partial resolution:​ better to put it in
hands that don’t seek to preserve
power
Chapter 6: ​End the Enmities Between the
Nobles and the People?
● In human affairs, you cannot avoid
one inconvenience without incurring
another so when deciding, consider
well what presents the least
inconveniences then choose the best.
Chapter 7: ​How Necessary the Faculty of
Accusation is in a Republic for the
Maintenance of Liberty
● Need a justice system - faculty of
accusing the citizens to the people for
attempts against public liberty
● Nothing renders a republic more firm
than organization where excitement of
ill-humors may have a law-prescribed
way to vent.
○ If there are no legal means,
people would resort to the
extra-legal.
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
● Whenever the aid of foreign powers is
called in by any party, it is to be
ascribed to defects in the constitution.
Chapter 8: ​Calumnies are Pernicious
● Effective way of preventing: laws
should be shaped to allow
impeachment without favor of those
who calumniated
✝ Chapter 11: ​On the Religion of Romans
Chapter 9: ​One man only should found a
new republic or reform entirely the old
institutions of an existing one
● A sagacious legislator, whose object is
to promote the public good and not his
private interests, should concentrate
all authority in himself.
○ When the act accuses him, the
result should excuse him
○ When the result is good, it will
always absolve him of blame
○ the end justifies the means
● Although one man alone should
organize govt, it will not endure if
power remains in single individual
○ Confide to charge of many to be
sustained by many
Chapter 10: ​As the Founders of a Republic or
Monarchy are Entitled to Praise, so Do the
Founders of Tyranny Deserve Execration
● ✝ Ranking of leaders to be eulogized
○ Authors and founders of religion
○ establishers of republics and
kingdoms
○ commanders of armies
○ literary men
○ All others – appropriate to their
exercise of arts/professions
● People doomed to infamy and
execration
○ Destroyer of religion
○ Overturners of republics and
kingdoms
○ Enemies of virtue, letter and
every useful, honorable arts
■ Impious, violent,
ignorant, vile, degraded
● Yet men are deceived by false food
and allow themselves to be drawn to
those worthy of blame
● Meritorious emperors need no
defenders because their reputation did
that for them
● Utility of religion to assure civic
obedience: regulating norms, morals
and values
● Numa Pompilius, successor of
Romulus, recoursed to religion as
necessary and assured support for any
civil society
○ Greatly facilitated all the
enterprises of senate and men
● Rome feared breaking oaths more
than men, esteemed power of gods
more than men
● Great degree religion served in
command of armies,
○ Uniting people and keeping
them well conducted
○ Covering wicked with shame
● For where religion exists, it is easy to
introduce armies and discipline,
○ but w/ armies but no religion,
no discipline
● Numa mistrusted his own authority
lest it is insufficient to help him
introduce new laws for Rome
○ So he relied on divine authority
● There was never any remarkable
lawgiver amongst any people who did
not resort to divine authority, as
otherwise his laws will not be accepted
by the people
○ Explaining is not enough to
persuade ppl, so divinity needed
● Religion → good laws → good fortune
→ happy success in enterprises
● Kingdom will perish as prince fails in
virtue
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
● Welfare does not consist in having a wholly one govt, ​but
prince who governs it well in his church of Rome held
lifetime, but in ​having laws that will dominion but not
maintain it beyond his death​. sufficient power for
sovereignty
✝ Chapter 12:​ Importance of Giving Religion ○ Church is reason why Italy has
a Prominent Influence in a State, and How never been able to unite under
Italy was Ruined because She Failed in this one head and remained under
Respect through the Conduct of Church of number of princes – causing
Rome many dissensions and weakness
● Princes, to be free from corruption,
will preserve the purity of religious Chapter 13: ​How the Romans Availed of
observances Religion to Preserve Order in their City, and
○ No greater indication of ruin to Carry Out their Enterprises and Suppress
than religion contemned Disturbances
● Duty of princes and heads to uphold
foundations of religion of countries for
then it is easy to keep their people
religious
○ Making them well conducted
and united
● Everything that tends to favor religion
(even if false) should be received and
availed of to strengthen it
○ i.e. miracles, though unproven,
will be believed
● But Church of Rome did not maintain
accdg to principles of foundation, thus
Christian states are less happy and
united
○ Nearer to Church (heads), less
religious they are
○ Foundation, principles and
application, practice are widely
different
● “Be wary of oracles shaping their
answers to suit the interest of the
powerful for when the multitude see
their impostures, men grow
incredulous ready to overturn every
sacred institution.”
● Arguments:
○ 1: evil court of Rome destroyed
religion in Italy
■ Country can only be
united when obeying
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
THOMAS HOBBES
Leviathan
Sir Z Guide:
● 👫 The nature and purpose of the
social contract
● 🔫 Reasons for the state of war in the
state of nature
● 👑 Rights and obligations of the
sovereign
● 📜 Difference between the law of
nature and civil law
----- PART 1: MAN -----
Chapter 13 - 16: My Report (see detailed
report notes)
🔫 Reasons for State of War
● Since (1) men are equal, (2) there are
finite resources, and (3) men
inherently distrust each other, there is
a perpetual state of conflict.
● Competition, Distrust, Glory
● Without a common power to mediate
men and distribute resources, the
state of nature is just a state of
constant war.
🔫 State of Nature: “war of all against all”
● Time of War: “men live w/o security
besides their own strength”
● Leads to a life that is “solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short”
● In war, there are no conceptions of
justice, injustice, good and wrong.
● “Where there is no common power,
there is no law; and where there is no
law, there is no injustice.”
🔫 Right of Nature: The use of full power and
freedom to preserve one’s life and means to
this end.
● It is the LIBERTY of each man to do
anything for self-preservation.
🔫 Laws of Nature: “terms of peace”
● a command or general rule,
discovered by reason, which forbids a
man
○ to do anything that is
destructive of his life or takes
away his means for preserving
his life, and
○ to omit anything by which he
thinks his life can best be
preserved.
● Paraphrased: “One cannot be
non-self-preserving.”
Social Contract: derived from 2nd law of
nature
● [1st: seek peace and allow it
● 2nd: he should be willing (when
others are too) to lay down his right to
everything]
👫 Purpose of social contract: mutual
self-preservation
● Outlines other laws of nature that will
help with self-preservation
● “Don’t do to someone else anything
that you wouldn’t want done to you.”
● Though men may fancy many evil
consequences from such unlimited
power, the consequences of not
having it—namely perpetual war of
every man against his neighbor—are
much worse.
👫 Nature of social contract: mutual
transferring of right.
● It is just because you lay down your
rights as others do, therefore does not
violate 1st right.
● You both agree not to attack each
other and transfer rights of
self-preservation to a common
authority.
● Contracts are expressed either
explicitly (said with mutual
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
understanding) or by inference (of
contractor’s will).
● There must be enforcer for it to be
effective.
👑 The Sovereign
● Commonwealth or Leviathan
● “A commonwealth is one person of
whose acts a great multitude of people
have made themselves the authors
(each of them an author), doing this
by mutual covenants with one
another, so that the commonwealth
may use the strength and means of
them all, as he shall think appropriate,
for their peace and common defence.”
● Essence, definition of commonwealth;
● said to have sovereign power over all
other subjects
● Artificial person (one whose actions
and words represents another’s), actor
of authors (represented)
👑 Rights of The Sovereign
● No subject can change the form of
government which has been
instituted.
○ the subjects cannot change the
sovereign without the
sovereign's permission
● No subject can withdraw sovereign
power, since they have no power over
him once declared.
○ the sovereign cannot ever
forfeit its own power.
○ Akin to suicide; subj will go
back to state of war
● No subject can protest or dissent from
the sovereign power, having been duly
declared.
○ protesting against the sovereign
is unjust
● No subject can justly accuse the
actions of the sovereign: for his
actions are of the subjects.
● No subject can punish the sovereign:
Sovereign is judge of what is
necessary for peace/defense.
👑 Obligations of The Sovereign
● Judge of what is necessary for peace,
and what doctrines may be published
● Sole legislator, supreme arbitrator of
controversies, and supreme judge of
the times and occasions for war and
peace
● Chooses magistrates, counsellors,
commanders, and all other officers
and ministers, and determines all
rewards and punishments, honors and
rankings
● Sovereign possesses full power over
the management and use of property.
● Sovereign possesses power of judging
controversies.
● Sovereign has right to make war and
peace with others.
● Sovereign chooses all ministers,
lieutenants, etc.
● Sovereign provides reward and
punishment.
● Sovereign upholds honor and order.
📜 Difference between the law of nature and
civil law
● The liberty of subjects is both limited
and sustained by civil laws (artificial
chains) and the commonwealth
(artificial man).
● Law of nature - universal law
discoverable by reason
○ We are bound to obey this
because we are men
○ Command or general rule,
discovered by reason, which
forbids man to do...
● Civil Laws
○ We are bound to obey this
because we are members of the
commonwealth (citizens)
 POLITICAL SCIENCE 145 FINAL EXAM REVIEWER
○ The rules that the
commonwealth has commanded
man (by word, writing, etc.) to
use to distinguish right from
wrong, this being equivalent to
distinguishing what is in
accordance with the rules from
what is contrary to them

JOHN LOCKE
Leviathan